DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND
ANTIQUITIES*
By JOHN E. L. CAIGER
DARENTH WOOD is situated on the south side of the A2 road (Watling
Street) to Rochester, some 2 miles east of Dartford. The geological
formations vary considerably throughout the wood. The centre portion,
which attains an elevation of 280 ft. A.O.D. is on Plateau Gravel. This
gravel formation is surrounded in turn by Woolwich Beds, with Thanet
Sand and ChaUc beds lying to the north and south ends of the wood.
Although it seems certain that this land formed part of the manorial
holdings from very early times the earhest reference it has been possible
to trace which associates the ownership of the wood with the Manor of
Darenth is a fifteenth century document, setting out articles of agreement
between the Prior of St. Andrew, Rochester, and John Crepehege,
their tenant of the property.1
Archbishop Lanfrane held the Manor of Darenth when the Domesday
survey was taken; he kept the manor for himself and his successors
and it continued in the See of Canterbury until A.D. 1195.2 In this
year Archbishop Hubert Walter exchanged it with the Prior of St.
Andrew, Rochester for the Manor of Lambeth,3 and it continued in
their keeping until the dissolution.
King Edward I in his 23rd year (1294) granted the Prior and Convent
free warren in the desmesne of Darenth,4 and Darenth Wood must have
formed part of this grant.
A short time after the dissolution of the monastery, the manor and
its lands was confirmed to the newly-constituted Dean and Chapter of
Rochester and from 1538 onward documents show that the property
was let out by them on lease to a succession of tenants. An early
document5 states:
* The Ministry of Public Building and Works contributed to the cost of
printing this paper.
1 J. Thorpe. Reg. Roff., 275.
2 J. Thorpe, Custumal Roff., 91.
3 Arch. Cant., xxxiii, 136.
4 De Warrenatae Reg. Roff., 110.
5 Archives Office, Maidstone, T60/23.
77
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
Darentwood 1537-1538
'Prior of Rochester to Henry Birde (Gent.) to the sum of 20 marks
(down payment) all their woodland and underwood in Derrent Wood
for 22 years yielding and paying for the premises 40 shillings per
annum.'
The series of documents6 dating from this time continue until the
nineteenth century.
In 1640 the manor was leased to the daughter of William, Lord
Harvey, and it was then kept in the family for over one hundred years
until George, Earl of Bristol, sold his interest in it to Wilham Farrant.
In 1649, a survey of the manor, including Darenth Wood, was made by
order of the State and it was valued at £169 13s. 6d. per annum.7
In 1788 a Mr. Christopher Chapman became the lessee and the
property remained in his family until the latter part of the nineteenth
century. The Rochester land and property, including the manor and
wood was finally vested in the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in 1865.
When the Tithe Award map was prepared (1841), no less than five
parcels of land in this wood had been sold to private persons, including
the parcel known as Badger's Mount. This piece must have been one of
the earliest sold (about 1680).
At the present time all of Darenth Woods is under private ownership,
the Ecclesiastical Commissioners having recently sold their
remaining parcel of land to the Darenth Parish Council.
The large scale O.S. maps and plans of this area show an irregular
earthwork within the wood which has an enclosure or annexe at its
south-west end. These details were first recorded on the 6 in. O.S. map
(1907 revision).
Hasted8 makes reference to the earthworks and he states: 'There is
a fortification thrown up in the wood . . . where it is probable the Saxons
lay.' He also states:9 'The remains of a camp and fortifications thrown
up in ancient times, but now so overgrown with wood and rubbish as
to be impenetrable.'
The Victoria County History of Kent mentions the presence of 'some
sort of defensive work' but adds that the remains are 'obscure'.10
F. C. J. SpurreU11 describes camps and enclosures as being present in the
wood in three distinct places.
Apart from these brief and rather vague descriptions little else has
been recorded about the earthworks and in the past no excavations have
been undertaken to determine their true age and purpose. Towards
0 Archives Office, Maidstone, T60/23.
7 Hasted, History of Kent, ed. 1778, Vol. 1, 246.
8 Hasted, History of Kent, ed. 1797, Vol. 2, 369.
o Ibid., 384.
!<> Vol. 1, 394.
n Arch. Cant., xviii, 306.
78
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eechin Wood
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DARENTH WOOD.
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LEGEND
Banks. *wrtWMM«wttw
Ditches, VAV^^^^V
Parish Boundary
Deneholes.
2000
Denehole depressions & pits. -«• «*
Surveyed & Drawn- J. E, l . CAIGER., 1962 SCALE FEET h^::$$$hm$$$m
FIG. 1.
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
the close of 1960 the Ministry of Transport put forward certain plans
and proposals for a new diversion bye-pass at Dartford, the route of this
proposed road to cross Darenth Wood from west to east. Across the
course of this road lay an interesting junction of the earthworks with
the annexe enclosure mentioned earlier, which would be destroyed when
work on the roadway was commenced. An inspection of the road plans12
show a proposed cutting at this position some 30 ft. in depth.
The Ministry of Transport notified the Ministry of Public Building
and Works13 of the impending destruction of the earthwork and the
latter Ministry suggested that the writer should examine this area
before the road construction began.
Accordingly, before starting any archseological excavations, a new
instrumental survey of the entire wood was undertaken to a scale of
1/2,500. This task was essential, in order to discover any other topographical
features that might be associated with the earthwork. On
completion, this new survey was more than justified, as many interesting
additional features were revealed, which are not depicted on the
current 1/2,500 scale O.S. plans.
The survey showed that the large earthwork was not open on its
eastern side as represented on the O.S. plans but was in fact, a totally
enclosed area bounded on this side too, with a bank and ditch. Furthermore,
outside the perimeter of the earthwork many smaller banks and
ditches were discovered over a wide area, a particularly large field bank
complex being located on Badger's Mount, the highest position in the
wood.
Many denehole shafts and depressions were also noted, some of them
in association with the banks. These latter features resemble strikingly
those described and illustrated by A. H. A. Hogg14 in his paper on
Joyden's Wood, Bexley.
It was observed that these small and probably medieval field banks
all lie outside the main earthwork.
Fig. 1, the plan of the wood, was prepared showing all these features
and for the sake of convenience they have been classified as follows:
I. The large earthwork.
II. Small enclosures and field banks.
III. The deneholes.
IV. The seventeenth century brickworks, minor pits and other
remains.
It is proposed to describe them in the order in which they appear to
have been originally constructed.
12 K.O.C. Surveyor's Office.
13 Publication grant kindly given, for this paper.
M Arch. Cant., liv, 10.
79
DAARENTH WOOD; ITS ExARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
THE LARGE EARTHWORK
The earthwork occupies the north end of the wood and is shown on
the plan (Fig. 1). I t is irregular in shape, with a bank and its ditch on
the outside and apart from portions on its west side it is well preserved.
The total area enclosed is approximately 88 acres, 8 acres of this being
the annexe at the south west extremity. Vestiges of another annexe,
rectangular in shape, which formerly existed at the extreme north end
facing the old Watling Street, may still be seen in a fragmentary length
of bank at the north west corner. A portion of its outer ditch is exposed
in the roadway cutting by Beechin Wood cottages.15 Part of this small
annexe of about 3 acres, was destroyed when the present A2 roadway
was constructed in 1921. The total length around the perimeter of the
entire enclosure is two miles and it still retains in places a hint of its
former strength.
After a close inspection of the earthwork, the evidence weighs
heavily against it being of a defensive nature for no attempt has been
made in its construction to take advantage of the natural topographical
features usuaUy associated with this class of earthwork. Plate IA shows a
typical portion of the bank and ditch close to Section C—C on the plan
(Fig. 1). The original entrance leading into the enclosure was doubtless
by an opening formed in the rectangular annexe lying alongside the
Watling Street, to which reference has been made. A secondary entrance
was at the north-east corner close to the Watling Street. Other small
breaks in the banks, except for those marked S are of fairly recent date.
The latter breaks must have been included in the original design for
they occur on either side of what was almost certainly a stream. This
small watercourse is now dried up, except at times of exceptional rainfall.
From the Watling Street entrance the banlc and ditch run nearly
due south and this portion of the earthwork has been utilized to define
the parish boundaries of Darenth and Stone. After half a mile, the bank
makes a sharp bend westwards and runs uphill until the roadway
through the wood is reached. A denehole, now choked up with rubbish,
can be seen close by the ditch at this bend.
Across the roadway the bank and ditch continue west until the
junction by Section C—C is met. At this position the earthwork
branches to form the 8 acre annexe mentioned before. This small enclosure
lies across a steep valley containing the watercourse previously
noted. The return bank back to the Watling Street is in a poor state of
preservation in one part, due to its siting on high ground falhng steeply
to the west.
Hasted's comments on the wood being 'overgrown and impenetrable'
are still true at the present day and in parts of the wood, much
15 O.S. 26 in. to 1 mile, plan, 1909.
80
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
patience and hard work was necessary in order to obtain an accurate
survey.
THE EXCAVATIONS
It was decided to cut a section through both bank and ditch at the
position marked C—C on the plan, Fig. 1, as this part of the earthwork
was scheduled for destruction when the proposed roadway cutting
began.
A section 3 ft. wide was set out at right angles to the bank and ditch
to determine details of its construction. Plate IB shows this excavation
in its early stage.
The subsoil here is Plateau Gravel overlying Thanet Sand. Gravel
from the ditch digging had been thrown up to form the banlc on top of
the old turf line. Apparently no berm had been left between ditch and
bank and in consequence of this omission, soil forming the bank had
soon slipped downwards into the ditch. At the tail end of the banlc a
large scree of gravel had accumulated naturally, as further soil was
heaped up to form the banlc. Two small flint blades were discovered in
the bank make up. The ditch was found to have been 3 ft. 7 in. deep
originally.
From the lower portion of the ditch filling several unusually large
stones were recovered. As stones of this size are not normally found in
Plateau Gravel some support is lent to the theory that they may have
served as packing stones for a wooden pale or palisade set on top of the
bank.
To test this supposition, large areas on top of the banlc were carefully
scraped in an attempt to locate the remains of former post holes. Some
places were traced where they may have existed, but no positive evidence
to this effect could be found, but it was realized that natural
attrition of the soil from the crest of the bank would almost certainly
have eroded all but the deepest set of such posts.
Apart from the two flint flakes, no objects which might serve as
dating evidence were found in this section.
Section D—D was cut to ascertain whether the annexe was part of
the original earthwork or an addition constructed at a later date. In
order to make this test a section was set out directly behind the annexe
outer bank to include part of this and also what may have been the
earlier ditch of the larger enclosure. After excavation it was found in
fact that the large enclosure and its annexe were almost contemporary,
the annexe being added at a slightly later date.
Fig. 2 shows details of the section and it will be observed that only
a small amount of primary silting had formed in the original ditch
before a dehberate filling of sandy gravel was tipped into it to bridge
the gap and join the more recently made banlc with the older one. Tip
6A
81
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
lines of each successive load of filling were clearly defined in the section
face. The heavier gravel elements from the tipped material had formed
a trail along the bottom of the older ditch.
A test pit 4 ft. square was sunk in the outside ditch directly opposite
Section D—D and it revealed near its base many more large stones, the
largest of which measured 8 i n . x5 in. (see Plate IIA). Once again the
presence of such heavy stones suggests that some wooden structure was
originally raised on top of the banlc, requiring consolidation with
packing material.
Sections B—B
Two sections were set out at the position marked B—B on the plan,
Fig. 1. One was cut paraUel to the axis of the banlc and the second
transverse to the banlc and ditch. At this position, the banlc diminishes
somewhat in size as it follows the downward slope to the secondary
entrance marked 'Trackway'. At a depth of 1 ft. 10 in. in the parallel
section, the remains of a fire and charcoal fragments were encountered.
These were seen to be resting on the old ground level, this surface being
visible as a faint turf line. Amongst the large pieces of charcoal three
sherds of a dish, originally measuring 17 in. in diameter were found.
Mr. J. G. Hurst has kindly examined these fragments and states they
can be assigned to the first half of the thirteenth century. An illustration
of this dish is shown in Fig. 3, 1.
The discovery of this cooking fire and dish fragments was both
fortunate and significant, as they had been completely sealed by the
heaped up bank material. Their presence here strongly suggests a cooked
meal taken by the working party before starting work on this particular
length of the banlc and ditch.
7 .*•-*
- ,
^ T ^ g j i
EIG. 3. Sc. 1/4.
82
0' I' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8' 9' 10' ]J' J^ 13' 14' 15' 16' 17' 18' IP' 10' 21' 22' 23' 24' 25' 26'
.136'AOtD.
LOAM
CHALK NODULES
OF EXCAVATION I LIGHT CLAY
W///////////////////////SA
HALK
GRAVEL
LOAM 262AO.D.
SECTION SANDY UPCAST
SECTION C-C PLATEAU GRAVEL, PARTLY
UPCAST FROM DITCH CUTTING.
GRAVEL THANET SAND
258AO.D.
LOAM
TIP LINES Darenth Wood Earthwork
Sections
m—PRIMARY SILT
I 1
i
J. E.L. Caiger, 1963.
SECTION D-D.
EIG. 2.
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
The transverse section through the banlc and ditch B—B is shown in
Fig. 2 and as was anticipated, this section of the ditch penetrated the
underlying chaUc and was found to be 3 ft. 8 in. deep. .After passing
through a layer of leafy humus and light clay marl the chalk was
reached. The ditch had silted up with rain-washed soil from the bank
and contained some gravel in the filling. A small piece of lava stone,
possibly part of a whetstone, was recovered from the lower portion of
the ditch fill, while at a higher level still a heavy horseshoe was found.
Upcast chalk from the ditch, together with a sandy soil, comprised the
banlc make up, and small nodules of chalk remained at the tail end of
the banlc. No further significant finds were made from this section.
Section A—A (not illustrated)
This section was cut across the old road into the wood, marked
'Trackway' on the Plan, Fig. 1. The object was to examine the construction
of the trackway and also to check if any vestiges of a gateway
into the main enclosure remained. The section was set out immediately
in front of the break in the earthwork. Test holes had previously been
sunk at the extreme ends of the ditches to test if the break formed part
of the original plan. This was found to have been so, for no trace of the
ditch was found at either end of the break; the banks, too, tailed off in
height at this position.
Three distinct and separate tracks were found in this section,
(1) The latest road had been metalled with broken chalk flints and
was found to be 10 ft. wide, lying about 3 in. below the present surface.10
(2) Below this flint surface, at a depth of 1 ft. 4 in. was another
layer of flints and two deep cart ruts which had beun repaired with dark
brown gravel. Small fragments of brick and a clay pipe found in this
repair filling suggest that the gravel was obtained from Badger's Mount,
where large deposits of it still exist; a brickworks was established there
in the seventeenth century.
(3) At a depth of 2 ft. yet another track was discovered. Further
test holes within the enclosure showed that this track did not follow the
route of the more recent trackways but passed centrally through the
break into the enclosure. Its surface had been paved with large, unbroken
chalk flints and bore two ruts in its surface 6 ft. apart. The
paving was 8 ft. 6 in. wide and set into the Thanet Sand bed-rock. This
track appears to be contemporary with the earthwork and was doubtless
the original route into the enclosure from the adjacent Old Watling
Street. Nothing was found to suggest post-holes at the bank extremities
or a possible gateway at this break, though some sort of wooden
barrier must have been in use originally.
16 This road was in use until 1921.
83
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
CONCLUSIONS
No trace of any building was found within the enclosure though a
very thorough search was made over the whole area.
As has been previously stated, the large earth banlc, though
probably bearing a palisade on the crest was certainly not of a defensive
nature, its course being too often sited on adverse type of terrain. There
is ample evidence to show that field cultivation was carried on right up
to the boundary ditch of the enclosure, whilst within its banks was
woodland. Humus formation was much deeper within the enclosure than
outside its perimeter.
In view of the evidence of pottery fragments, circa A.D. 1250,
obtained during excavation, and when considered in association with
its ecclesiastical ownership, the writer was of the opinion that the
Darenth Wood earthwork might have enclosed a piece of land sometime
during the first part of the thirteenth century as a private park for
game or livestock.
With this assumption in mind, two experts on Dorset and Staffordshire
deer-parks were consulted, Mr. L. Cantor, of Keele University,
and his colleague, Mr. J. D. Wilson. The latter kindly consented to
examine the enclosure and state his opinion, which he has done in the
following report.
'In the course of a survey in which we hope to plot the position of
every medieval park in Dorset, Mr. L. M. Cantor and myself have so far
examined completely or in part 23 parks in that county. In addition,
Mr. Cantor has visited some hah dozen in Staffordshire. I was therefore
very interested to visit the Darenth Wood earthworks with Mr. Caiger
to see how they compared with those of our Dorset parks. In Dorset the
remains of park banks exhibit such a variety of forms that it is impossible
to generalize. We have seen gently rounded banks 20 ft. or
25 ft. wide and 2 ft. or 3 ft. high, massive steep-sided banks with broad
flat tops 20 ft. wide and 5 ft. or 6 ft. high, and flat platforms 15 ft. or
20 ft. wide and only a foot or two high, with numerous variations on
these themes. Within these categories we have found individual
examples having a family resemblance to one another, but certainly
have seen nothing which we could call simply 'a typical park banlc'.
We have seen banks which closely resemble those in Darenth Wood,
notably at Harbin's Park in Cranborne Chase.
We have also observed certain recurrent characteristics in the siting
of park perimeters, though here again no real generalizations can be
made. For instance, 16 out of the 23 Dorset parks we have so far visited
have a parish boundary following their banks for some distance. The
only reasonable explanation for this which suggests itself so far is that
the parks were placed in a corner or at the edge of the manor—"manor"
being equated with "parish" for the sake of this argument—to avoid
84
0' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8' 9' 10' II' 12 13' 14' 15' 16' 17' 18' 19'
220AO.D 1
CHALK FLINTS
LOAM
CHALK SPREAD 1 LIMIT OF EXCAVATION
FRAGMENT OF MEDIEVAL
ROOF TILE I SANDY CLAY 1 PRIMARY
SILTING
SECTION E-E.
EARTHWORK
* k u ~ *
'DITCH
Plan showing position of
section E-E relative to denehole •'' ~
and earthwork. v \ ***^"~*», '*.. ,
IsacXTION/'^Tl
B A N K - ^ r : .^ - X
DENEHOLE
SHAFT N94. m
J.E.L. CAIGER, 1963.
10 0
Li I 11111111;;-
10 20 30
Scale in Feet.
Fio. 4.
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
as far as possible interfering with agricultural activities. The Darenth
Wood earthworks follow a parish boundary at their north-eastern side
and the area is, moreover, on the poorest land in the parish. The general
position is, therefore, very much what one would expect of a deer-park.
We have also frequently noticed that wherever possible the makers
of a park placed the banks on a slope where the ground fell away inside,
obviously to increase the effective height of the obstacle. At Darenth
Wood the banlc is so placed only occasionally, for instance on the southwest,
whilst elsewhere, notably along most of the western side it is
actually on a reverse slope, which has obvious disadvantages. However,
too much need not be made of this, since the ideal doubtless had to give
way to the practicable, in terms of adjacent land usage and as Mr. Caiger
has shown, medieval cultivation evidently came close up to the bank at
Darenth.
In the light of our Dorset experience I would not put too much
emphasis on the fact that so far no documentary evidence for a park
here has come to light. What is more surprising is that, with one
exception, there are no "park" place or field names in the vicinity. The
exception is Darenth Park Hospital a short distance west of the Wood.
There seems to have been no earlier building on this site and why this
Victorian hospital should have been so named is not known. But it may
well indicate a surviving local tradition of the existence of a park here.
I would in that event have expected an older-established place name,
or field or copse names on the Tithe Apportionment, but none are to be
found. As I have said, we can make no firm generalizations about the
shape, size, or siting of park banks. But one thing which all the parks we
have so far seen have in common is that there is a ditch inside the bank.
We have yet to see an exception to this rule. Some have a ditch outside
the banlc, more have not, but all have a ditch inside. Indeed it seems the
obvious way of further increasing the obstacle presented by the bank
and pale. There is the further point that if the land adjoining the park
did not belong to the owner of the park, he did not have to disturb his
neighbour's land when excavating the ditch to throw up his banlc. I t is
principally the fact that at Darenth Wood the ditch is outside the banlc
all the way, with no trace of a ditch inside which leads me to have some
doubts as to whether this enclosure was a deer-park. 0. G. S. Crawford
mentions two parks where the ditch is on the outside only (Archeology in
the Field, Chap. 18) but I have seen neither of them. All one's instincts
suggest that an outside ditch indicates an earthwork designed to keep
deer, or other depredators, out of the area enclosed, rather than in it.'
SIMALL ENCLOSURES .AND FIELD BANKS
In considering these features they may in many respects be compared
with those in Joyden's Wood, Bexley, described by A. H. A. Hogg
85
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
in his paper on Joyden's Wood. Most of the enclosed fields have a low
banlc 1 ft. 2 in. high and a ditch, but in some instances the ditch is
missing or silted up so that it can no longer be detected. From the
plan it will be seen that small banlcs and enclosures lie along each side
of the road through the wood. During the survey several more were
noted but were considered to be too insignificant to be included on the
plan.
SpurreU,17 in his paper on Darenth records the finding of a 'small
camp' on Badger's Mount about 200 ft. in diameter with an 8 ft. deep
ditch. No trace of this supposed camp was found at the time of the
survey, but the interesting and rather complex field system was discovered
and has been shown on the plan.
No excavation across these small banlcs and ditches was made as it
was thought improbable that any dating evidence would be found to
justify the labour involved. They may be safely assigned to a period
earlier than the seventeenth-century brickworks which were once
established on Badger's Mount. The date of these brickworks has been
fixed with certainty and in some instances the deep pits left by the
removal of the brickearth have destroyed parts of the earlier banlcs.
The long 'dog-leg' bank marked ZXX on the plan has been used to
define the Dean and Chapter of Rochester's boundary at the time when
the Badger's Mount parcel of land was sold for brick making. There
was enough evidence to suggest that this slightly larger earthwork
and the smaller field banks attached to it were of the same build and
period.
At the north-east extremity where these small banks fade out the
ground slopes away to form a deep valley. From the tip of the small
earthwork marked 0, and overlooking another face of this same valley
there are the remains of an artificially made terrace which eventually
joins the annexe attached to the large enclosure.
On the eastern side of the wood there is a lynchet, marked M, which
appears to have four deneholes, now collapsed, associated with it. As the
present outline of the wood tends to follow the same contour, it may
represent a former boundary. A second lynchet, marked N, also has two
deneholes near its course, numbered 1 and 2. Other banlcs probably
existed here but all trace of them has been destroyed by ploughing.
Yet a third lynchet may be seen close to the denehole numbered 3,
with another filled up shaft further along its course.
Although outside the scope of the present survey, it may be stated
that there are many more small banlcs and enclosures in Lord's Wood,
close to its boundary with Ladies Wood. These remains, and those in
Darenth Wood must be the small fields which lay just outside the great
enclosure and were cultivated during the medieval manorial system.
17 Arch. Cant., xviii, 306.
86
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
THE DENEHOLES
Darenth Wood and Ladies Wood contain many deneholes, some of
which have been sited in close proximity to the main earthwork, whilst
others are sunlc near the small field banlcs and lynchets contained
within these woods. This distinct association has already been noted as a
common linked feature elsewhere in Kent.18 Although many of the
shafts in Darenth Wood are now almost blocked with soil and rubble,
significant surface depressions indicated their exact location. The survey
of the woods has revealed at least thirteen probable shafts. Beyond the
eastern perimeter of the wood are two deneholes (numbered 1 and 2)
in the large field attached to Bean Farm. Reference to Andrews, Dury
and Herbert's map, however, shows that in 1769 this field did not exist;
the woods at that time extended almost to the farm. By 1799 the
Ordnance Surveyors noted on their map that much of this woodland
had been grubbed up and converted into arable but significantly, two narrow
tongues of woodland remained which contained the denehole shafts.
Later, by 1869, the eastern edge of the wood had attained its present outline,
and the two shafts were left isolated, as they are today in the field.
The shaft numbered 3 on the plan has the customary six chambers
and is 50 ft. deep. Nearby this shaft is another one, choked up with soil
and rubbish and set close to the ditch of the main earthwork. Other
shafts and depressions exist about the wood outside the main enclosure;
three on the western side near the large ditch 'and in the small ditches in
Ladies Wood. In view of the dating evidence obtained for the main
large earthwork enclosure (c. A.D. 1250) it was realized that an excellent
opportunity was available in Darenth Wood to resolve finally the longstanding
controversy concerning the age and purpose of construction of
six-chambered deneholes. Excavations previously carried out in Joyden's
Wood, Bexley,19 have demonstrated that this type of denehole
was originally made some time prior to A.D. 1280.
During 1954-55 an excavation of the debris cone of the denehole20
numbered 4 on the plan, Fig. 1 was undertaken in an attempt to date
its construction. Sections were also cut in each of its six chambers.
Plate IIB shows the section as cut in chamber No. 5. These sections
revealed numerous dog skeletons, chiefly of the whippet breed, also
polecat, squirrels and other small rodents. These animals had fallen
down the open shaft, died, and subsequently been buried under a slowly
forming cone of debris, comprised of sand and chalk nodules. The dog
skeletons were submitted to Mr. T. Grahame, F.R.C.V.S., Reader in
Veterinary .Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh, who identified
the species of dog and stated that in his opinion the bones were probably
18 Arch. Journal, xxxviii (F. C. J. Spurrell on ' Deneholes').
1° Arch. Cant., lxxiv, 89. 20 Arch. Cant., lxvi, 148 (for detailed description of denehole).
87
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
about 300 years old. The other animal bones were identified by the
Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
From chamber No. 5 some pieces of a cooking bowl were found
which Dr. B. Hope-Taylor has assigned to A.D. 1220-60.21
This denehole, No. 4 on the plan, was once again selected for the
proposed dating check as it was ideally sited on rising ground above the
ditch of the large enclosure, yet close enough to the ditch for any spilled
chaUc or artefacts to tumble downwards and become lodged in it.
It had been assumed that a great deal of chaUc spillage must have
occurred when hoisting and loading operations were in progress at the
denehole shaft, and consequently, if the ditch was in existence during
this period, some chaUc and flints should have tumbled into it. The
natural declivity between denehole shaft and ditch would assist this
rolling action. Therefore, Section E—E was set out with this assumption
in view. The illustration, Fig. 4, shows the position of Section E—E
relative to both ditch and denehole shaft.
Approximately 10 in. below the present ground level a large band of
chaUc nodules was encountered which increased in cross-sectional area
as it approached the denehole shaft end of the cutting. Towards the
ditch end of the cutting, large chaUc flints were uncovered in a tumbled
line down the incline, then finally piled up in the ditch. The positions
taken up by these chalk flints is clearly indicated in the Section E—E,
Fig. 4. Plate IIIA shows these flints in position near the base of the ditch
whilst Plate IIIB shows the ditch at a later stage of excavation. Some of
the flints recovered from the bottom of the ditch still had traces of
decomposed chaUc adhering to them. Samples of this decomposed chaUc,
together with specimens of fresh chalk cut from one of the chamber
walls of the denehole were submitted to Mr. J. N. Carreck, F.G.S., F.Z.S.,
for laboratory tests and found to be similar in composition.
Samples were also taken of the primary silt. Mr. Carreck's detailed
analyses of these specimens, together with those of a seed and some
charcoal found in the silting are given at the end of this report.
The angle of repose of the flints demonstrates that they had piled up
in the then open ditch, building higher as chalk extraction at the denehole
shaft proceeded. From the small amount of silting found in the
ditch beneath the flint mass, it is certain that the banlc and ditch had
only just been constructed when this denehole was sunk and chaUc
mining operations commenced.
The chalk rubble had piled up in the ditch to the height of 2 ft. 10 in.
There is reason to believe that negligence on the part of the denehole
miners to remove this chaUc rubble from the ditch contributed to the
roof fall in one of the denehole chambers.22 The natural drainage
21 Now in the Dartford Museum.
22 Arch. Cant., lxvi, 148.
88
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DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
flowing along the ditch, which has on this high ground a considerable
gradient, would be impeded by the rubble: water would collect and
then seep through into the roof of the underground chamber beneath
the ditch, finally causing the collapse.
THE FINDS
A piece of medieval roofing tile was found near the base of the chalk
spread. It is similar in fabric to those from Joyden's Wood, Bexley.23
From the lower part of the ditch a small fragment of pottery, similar to
Patchgrove type fabric was recovered. Although this find is probably of
Roman date, its presence in the ditch filling is not significant. It was
most certainly disturbed when the ditch was cut and fell into the ditch
from the newly upcast bank. The writer has in the past found Roman
tegula fragments across the vaUey, less than 100 yards distant.
CONCLUSIONS, DATING AND PURPOSE
The corroborative evidence obtained from the Section E—E now
places the dating of these six-chambered deneholes with a fair degree of
certainty to the first half of the thirteenth century. The established
facts may be summed up as follows:
I. The main earthwork was constructed A.D. 1200-50 and it has
now been demonstrated that denehole No. 4 was sunlc very shortly after
its completion.
II. Cooking-pot fragments dated A.D. 1220-60 found in the section
cut in 1955 in No. 5 chamber of this same denehole.
III. Medieval roofing tile found near the base of the chaUc spread,
shown in Section E—E.
IV. Deneholes of identical construction at Joyden's Wood, Bexley,
were proved to have been made before A.D. 1280. I t is historically known
that between A.D. 1200-1340 the cultivation of crops such as barley,
peas and more especially wheat was a most profitable undertaking. At
this period the best and more fertile soils of the valleys had long since
been in use and only the poorer and impoverished soils supporting
woodland and forest remained uncultivated. This was the time when
assarts by bands of villagers,24 often acting collectively, eagerly sought
additional strips of land. During these assarts, areas of woodland and
waste would be cut down, roots grubbed up and burnt and additional
fields claimed for cultivation. However, much of this newly won land
was acid and badly leached, as is always the case where Thanet Sand
beds occur.
Modern farmers today describe this impoverished soil as 'hungry'
23 Arch. Cant., lxxii, 27.
24 M. Beresford, History on the Ground, 77.
89
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
for due to its extreme porosity, organic matter is rapidly washed
downwards from the surface. Thus in a rather vain endeavour to get
this poor lime-free and exhausted soil into a more fertile condition it was
dressed with liberal quantities of mined chalk from deneholes sunk
conveniently just within the field boundaries. The positions chosen for
the shafts were selected carefully; at the corners of fields and near
boundary ditches where their presence on the land would not constitute
a danger nor interfere with the work of ploughing.
In the late eighteenth century woodland was again being grubbed
up by Kentish farmers and the land cultivated for root crops. By this
time the practice of sinlcing deneholes had been forgotten and the art of
marling the land with deep mined chaUc had to be revived again.
Somewhat similar excavations to deneholes were sunlc and are known
as chaUcwells25 or draw-wells. These provided the chalk for dressing the
new fields.
THE POTTEBY (FIG. 3)
1. Dish. 17 in. diameter. Fine sandy ware with brown coloured
fabric, containing small grits. Fire blacking marks on the outside and
patches of a black substance on the inside. Possibly food stains. First
half of the thirteenth century. From Section B—B.
2. Cooking bowl. Rim 13 in. diameter. Buff coloured ware with
much shell filling in its fabric. Early thirteenth century. From denehole
debris excavation.
SPECIMENS FROM DITCH FILLING
(Report by Mr. J. N. Carreck, F.G.S., F.Z.S.)
Charcoal. Identified by Mr. D. F. Cutler (Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew) as willow (Salix sp.). N.B. Willows still flourish in the wood.
Seed. Nut of hornbeam (Carpinus betulus, Linn6). A species indigenous
to Southern England and plentiful in Darenth Wood at the
present time.
SANDY LO.AJM DITCH FILLING
Material seen to be rich in dark detrital mineral grains and on
wetting, to have a marked clay fraction.
After sieving with water, the coarsest grade of the resulting separation
(Sieve B.S.M. 30 aperture 0-0197 in.) showed a few small subangular
pieces of flint, the rest consisted of small pieces of ferruginous
sandrock containing dark detrital grains and quartz grains in smaller
proportion.
36 Arch. Cant., lxxiv, 81,
90
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
A finer grade sieve, aperture 0-0041 in., contained only fine ochreous
sand rich in dark detrital grains. No trace of microfossils was seen in
either fraction of this separation. This loam is most probably redeposited
material derived from the Lower London Tertiaries which
form part of Darenth Wood. Presumably the infilling of the ditch from
this source took place by the agency of normal subaerial erosion,
especially rain.
CHALK SAMPLE cut from the chamber of denehole
The powdered sample was found to contain many Foraminifera
identified by Mr. J. Renouf (Queen Mary College, Department of
Geology), as Lagenids and Rotaliids and some sponge spicules. The
foraminiferal assemblage indicates the upper part of the Micraster
coranguinum Zone of the Upper ChaUc. The chalk of Darenth Wood is
known to belong to the M. coranguinum Zone.
IMPURE DECOMPOSED CHALK. Found adhering to a flint in the
primary silting of the ditch, Section E—E. This was a soft, chaUcy
material (discoloured whitish marl) the discolouration being due to dark
inclusions, which were seen to be patches of humic, clayey soil. Some of
the particles of the sample had a pellety appearance to some extent,
possibly due to being washed downward by rain into the cavities of the
flint. .After treatment, washing and drying, the residue was found to
contain quartz grains, mineral grains, shell debris, sponge spicules and
Foraminifera. Shell fragments were abundant, sponge spicules very
common, the Foraminifera fairly common. The Foraminifera were
recognized by Mr. Renouf as also Lagenids and Rotaliids, which together
with the sponge spicules, he considers very similar to those in the chalk
sample cut from the denehole. Therefore, the decomposed chalk was
evidently derived originally from the Upper Chalk in the vicinity, which
also yielded the flint on which the sample was found.
The remarkable abundance of microfossils in the decomposed chalk
sample, apparently a concentrate, is consistent with the large quantities
of weathered out chalk flints found at the base of the ditch.
THE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY BRICKWORKS
The part of the wood known as Badger's Mount is situated on a high
sandy plateau some 280 ft. above Ordnance Datum. Its boundaries are
defined by the banlc and ditch lettered Z on the plan, Fig. 1, and along
the banlc X. At the end of the banlc X the boundary has been defaced
by clay digging. However, the Tithe Award map establishes that the
boundary ran to the pond marked Y on the plan (as shown by the
dotted line). The boundary finaUy rejoined the roadway again via the
mutilated banlc W. Two distinct geological formations cover the site.
91
DAARENTH WOOD; ITS EAARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
To the north-east there is a spread of Plateau Gravel, whilst the southwest
portion of the site is of Woolwich Beds derivation. Andrews, Dury
and Herbert's map of Kent (1769) shows three oblong buildings at the
south end of the site and these are marked: 'Brick Kilns'. They are also
shown on Hasted's map of the Hundred of Axtane. When the Ordnance
surveyors visited the site sometime in the 1790's these buildings had
disappeared and are not shown on the map.26 The brickworks had
evidently ceased to exist.
The entire ground over this area is deeply scarred with pits, mounds
and scarping, indicating intense digging and industrial activity during
the period of productivity. The square mound shown on the plan is
probably the remains of the clamp kiln and the two pits marked U and
V are sand pits.
Several interesting features associated with this industry are worthy
of note. A section indicated as F—F, was made across the overgrown
pit. This was found to be a worked-out clay pit that had ultimately been
used as a tipping dump for kiln wasters of spoilt bricks and tiles. From
this section several good specimens of roofing tile were recovered. These
bore an impress around the square peg holes. It may be that there are
still a few of these particular branded tiles to be found roofing some of
the old houses in and around the district. I t is seldom that roofing tiles
of this date can be positively identified. Sample pieces of these tiles
were submitted to Messrs. Langley, London, Ltd., for expert comment,
as this firm maintains the only Tile Museum in the country. Their
historical adviser, Mr. G. C. Dobson, author of Historical Notes on the
Langley Museum kindly consented to examine the tiles. He states that
it has always been quite common in the past for small tile works, or even
individual makers, to place identification marks or 'brands' on tiles.
The mark was impressed into the un-fired clay tile with a circular tool
which combined an incised W in its face, together with a tapered square
peg hole at its centre. This combination tool thus pierced the peg hole
and left its distinctive 'brand' in the tile in one operation on the part of
the tile maker. Mr. Dobson has made a modern replica of the tool, and
this, together with specimens of the Darenth Wood tiles are in the
keeping of the Langley Museum. The brand on the pieces is not one that
is readily identified. Fig. 5 illustrates one of the tiles.
In the summer of 1962 quarrying operations were commenced on
the eastern portion of the site, the gravels and sand formations being
commerciaUy exploited. During these operations, the brick footings,
and also the cellar of a building approximately 80 ft. by 40 ft. were
quarried away by the mechanical excavator. Several broken wine
bottles, a large number of clay tobacco-pipes and fragments of pottery
were recovered, which indicate a late seventeenth century date for the
20 O.S. Kent, 3 in. to 1 mile, map of 1799,
92
DARENTH WOOD; ITS EARTHWORKS AND ANTIQUITIES
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