THE ANIMAL BONES FROM THE
EXCAVATION OF THE HOSPITAL OF
ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE*
SHEILAGH M. WALL
INTRODUCTION
The excavations carried out by the Central Excavation Unit of the
Department of the Environment on the site of the hospital of St.
Mary of Ospringe, near Faversham, Kent, commonly called the
Maison Dieu, 1 yielded a number of animal bones. These were
studied a t the Ancient Monuments Laboratory, D.o.E., London,
using a semi-automatic computerised recording method. 2 The
archive report containing complete data on the animal bone is
available on microfiche. 3
The bone was in a relatively good state of preservation, and a
total of 11,856 bones was recovered, comprised of 11,195 mammal,
275 bird and 386 fish. 7,178 of the mammal bones could be
identified to species and anatomy. The mammalian bones came
from the following eleven species: cattle, sheep, goat, horse, dog,
cat, red deer, fallow deer, roe deer, hare and rabbit. Twelve species
of bird and ten of fish were recovered. 4
Some bone also came from the I mm. residue of bulk soil samples
taken for sieving in order to recover small organic remains. Many of
these were fish bones. Other bones recovered from the sieved
* This paper was published with the aid of a grant from the Department of the
Environment.
1 G.H. Smith, 'The Excavation of the Hospital of St. Mary of Ospringe, commonly
called Maison Dieu', Arch. Cant. xcv (1979), 81-184.
2 R.T. Jones, 'Osteometric methodology', Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report
Number 2333 (1979).
3 The archive is held at the Ancient Monuments Laboratory, as is a more detailed
bone report (Ancient Monuments laboratory Report Number 3185).
4 See p. 8 for list of bird species and p. 10 for list of fish species.
227
SHEILAGH M. WALL
samples included four amphibian bones (probably frog) and the
limb bones of small mammals, which could not be definitely
assigned to species.
The animal bone has been studied in the simplified chronological
groups established for the assessment of the finds in the excavation
report. 5 These are reproduced below:-
1. Foundation: A few layers sealed by floors or in the backfill of
construction trenches and dating to the time of the foundation.
2. Occupation: These are sealed contexts post-dating the foundation
but pre-dating the latest occupation.
3. Dissolution: These are floor and yard levels in use during the
latest occupation and the rubbish layers lying on them.
4. Demolition: Layers of rubble resulting from the sixteenthcentury
demolition.
5. Post-medieval: To the east of the stream was an orchard, and
a soil developed undisturbed over the demolition rubble. To the
west of the stream, cultivation took place and the soil which
resulted contained much residual material from the rubbish layers
below in a yard.
6. Recent: Topsoil and fill of all pits and post-holes relating to
standing or recently demolished buildings.
For certain analyses these groups have been further combined as
follows:- Foundation/Occupation (c. 1231470), Dissolution/
Demolition (1471550) and Post-medieval/Recent (c. 1550
onwards).
FRAGMENTATION AND BUTCHERY
The numbers of the different skeletal elements from the mammal
species found at the site are shown in Tables 1 to 5 for the whole
site, Foundation/Occupation, Dissolution/Demolition, Postmedieval
and Recent phases respectively. The major domestic food
species only are considered here. Sheep and goat are recorded
together in the tables as 'ovicaprid', but the majority of these would
have been sheep. For cattle and pig all the major limb bones are
represented as they are for sheep, but in the latter they far exceed
the proportions of other bones such as skull and mandible. All parts
of the body are represented for all species although in varying
quantities, which suggests that at least some of the meat consumed
came from whole carcasses which were slaughtered on the site
rather than separate joints brought in from a butcher's. However as
$ Smith, op. cit., in note 1.
228
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
TABLE I: The numbers of mammal bones from different species
and different parts of the skeleton for the whole site
l.
,
.., :g
0 j - ..)
·i
"
l < .Y e-
E
f .,, • ] !:::
8 6 .l! "' 0 8 !i.
., a: ,:: v "' 0:: :c :c a:
Skull 7) "" 1-IJ. ll<'
tt\1'tkn
M;.1.odiblc 7) !'I 91 ·' 5 I I 1.ll
l....o()se Teeth 1.1.l 07 J(:,(I 15 J77 Scapula "" 126 • 77
Hun1c,w..: 74 :!07 .,., 5 II .:<
RodiU$ :t3 2t,t, )J .1 417
Uln11 Jl (',II i, .I J too
Mct.tc.irpal "' 5S 1.a1
Fin.I Ph.nlam1 51, ::0 s 1.,.,
Seoond Phnt.,nx ,, 5h
Third PhalQnx .?!Ii 5 ·'"'
Ct.)xnc ., ,1 )9 .1 ' • !14
Femur 11'1 61! .,s ' 1: " 70
Pa1clla II
Tibiu ,,, 2JQ ,,:, ' II 17 .it F'ibulu ·' I
Catc:incu .17 47 ,, l:'11
Astrnp;ahts l2 I IS 7.1 NavH!\Jlar to 7 I :o
Ccnm.:iqu.irt;il 97 <,I I I IM
Mcrnpodiats .11 7 117 .1 12 17:1
Ri R:?.l ..,., 14:? U(7
Cosrnl C'artil:;a :o )4
All:1'.\ 'ICrlChrll JI 1.1 !'-I
Ax vcncbr.i 9 ,,
CcrvM:al vcr1cbm :?.\ -IN 15
Thor.loC'ic \•Crtchr:.1 l• JI 17 75
Lumbar vcrtdm1 61 55 ll 1:11\
Socrum I 1•
Cau .: :,: V °' °'
Skull 17 19 ISO 180
!Antler)
Mandihk: 12 8 2 49
Loose Tcclh 33 18 '° 99
Scapulu 8 24 17 53
Humcru:c. 13 •1 2, 81
Radius 18 61 1, 96
Ulna 13 1$ JO 51
Mc1acarpal 21) 15
37
Finl Ph:\lanx 15 19 41
Scoontl Phalanx. 8 20
Third Phat.1nx 8 JO
Os Coxac II 27 20 66
Femur 23 15 13 67
Patella 3 3
Tibi.- 11 41 19 80
Fibula
Cakancus II 24
Astragillus 14
Navicular
Mcta1arsal 21 16
41
M75
Fig. 1. Fragmentation of Cattle Bones. The individual fragments from each bone
element are divided into size categories, expressed as a percentage of the bone which
is present (see key). Pie diagrams illustrate the relative proportion of fragments from
these different size categories for each bone element. (A) Medieval (8)
Post-medieval and Recent.
235
75
50
25
SHEILAGH M. WALL
KEY
of complete
bOne present
>75
75
50
Q 25
B
Fig. 2. Fragmentation of Sheep Bones. The individual fragments from each bone
element are divided into size categories, expressed as a percentage of the bone which
is present (see key). Pie diagrams illustrate the relative proportion of fragments from
these different size categories for each bone element. (A) Medieval (B)
Post-medieval and Recent.
236
A
1HE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
KEY /o
• of complete
bone present
75
• 75
Q 50
v 25
8
Fig. 3. Fragmentation of Pig Bones. The individual fragments from each bone
element are divided into size categories, expressed as a percentage of the bone which
is present (see key). Pie diagrams illustrate the relative proponion of fragments from
these different size categories for each bone element. (A) Medieval (B)
Post-medieval and Recent.
237
KEY
C chopped
K• knife cut
chopped through
SHEILAGH M. WALL
Fig. 4 Cattle Butchery.- Diagrammatic summary of the butchery marks found on
cattle bones from the Dissolution and Demolition phases.
◄
KEY
C chopped
H hole
K knife cut
• chopped through
•
C ,
TT/.
Fig. 5. Sheep Butchery. Diagrammatic summary of the butchery marks found on
sheep bones from the Dissolution and Demolition phases.
238
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
Some metatarsals had knife cuts just below the proximal articulation
which may be from skinning the animal. Possible skinning marks
were also found on some first phalanges, suggesting that the skin
was not always removed from exactly the same point on the carcass.
Sheep skulls were split saggitally, as recorded from other
medieval sites presumably to remove the brain, and the horn cores
had been chopped off with part of the frontal bone attached: this
would have avoided damaging the base of the horn sheath. As at
Portchester, 7 the sheep had been butchered using choppers and
knives, but not to the same extent as the cattle bones, as is to be
expected with this smaller animal. In contrast to cattle no butchery
marks were evident on any metapodials or phalanges. Four humeri
from the Dissolution and Post-medieval phases had the middle of
their shafts encircled by knife cuts. Similar specimens have been
recorded from Nonsuch Palace8 and from the early Tudor levels at
Baynard's Castle, London.9 These may be the result of preliminary
bone working, rather than butchery, as suggested by Armitage. 10 A
few tibiae had holes through the distal part of the shaft, which may
be the result of butchery or some other cause. This has been
recorded from other sites, e.g. Roman Brancaster11 and
Magiovinium. 12
MEASUREMENTS
Measurements on archaeological bones can be used to (a) examine
the variations in animal size for a particular site, to aid the interpretation
of stock keeping practice by, for example, indicating
proportions of different sexes or 'breeds', (b) to estimate the size of
the beasts by calculating the withers' height, and (c) to facilitate
omparisons with other sites.
(a) Histograms and scatter diagrams were constructed from the
data. Measurements for cattle and sheep seem to fit a normal
distribution.
(b) Withers' height estimates for cattle and sheep are given in
7 A. Grant, 'The animal Bones', in B. Cunliffe, Excavations at PortchesterCastle,
vol. 3: Medieval, the outer bailey and its defences, Society of Antiquaries, London,
(1977), 213--239.
• A. Locker, 'The animal Bones from Nonsuch Palace', (in preparation).
•p_ Armitage, 'The mammalian Remains from the Tudor Site of Baynard's Castle,
London: a biometrical and historical Analysis', Ph.D. Thesis, London, ( 1977).
'
0
Ibid.
11 S.M. Wall, P. Langley and R.T. Jones, 'The animal Bones from Brancaster', (in
press).
12 A. Locker, 'The animal Bones from Magiovinium', (in preparation),
239
SHEILAGH M. WALL
TABLE 6: Withers height estimates* calculated from measurements
of the long bones of cattle and sheep.
a. Cattle
Phase Bone Withers Height Mean
No Range
Dissolution/
Demolition Metacarpal 2 113.8-130.4 122.1
Metatarsal 1 130.1
Post-medieval Metacarpal 1 124.3
Metatarsal 2 125.4-126.4 125.9
Recent Metacarpal 1 120
b. Sheep
Foundation/
Occupation Calcaneus 3 52 - 54.7 53.4
Dissolution/
Demolition Radius 22 56 - 66.8 62.0
Metatarsal 3 56.8- 62.7 59.5
Calcaneus 24 45.9- 59.8 55.5
Post-medieval Radius 3 55.2- 64.4 58.5
Metacarpal 6 55 - 63.4 58.5
Tibia 1 58 58.5
Calcaneus 2 53.4- 56.6 55
Metatarsal 3 56 - 6Ul 59.4
Recent Radius 2 56.8
Calcaneus 2 51.2- 57.3 54.3
* Factors used for withers' height estimates are those of Fock for cattle and Teichart
for sheep, given in van den Driesch and Boessneck (1974). See note 64.
240
TIIE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
TABLE 7: Selected measurements of cattle bones compared with
those from some other Medieval sites.
a. Distal width of tibia (mm.)
Site Range No
Maison Dieu (Dissolution/
Demolition) 54.6-66.1 4
Maison Dieu (Post-Medieval) 62 1
Portchester 44 -64 20 A
Northolt 71 1 A
Petergate 72 1 A
Exeter 46.8-62.7 83 A
Southampton 52 1 C
b. Distal width and length of metatarsal (mm.)
Site Range: No Range: No
Length distal width
Maison Dieu (Foundation/
Occupation 47.5-50.8 2
Maison Dieu (Dissolution/
Demolition) 240 1 47.8-58.4 6
Maison Dieu (Post-medieval) 230-232 2 47.8-55.7 2
Maison Dieu (Recent) 50 -58 2
Portchester 193-224 11 44 -59 21
Northolt 203-209 3 48 -56 2A
Petergate 47 -60 6A
Kirkestall 209 1 45 -70 118 A
Exeter 182-223 17 - B
Southampton 282 1 - C
A after Grant (1977) see note 7.
B after Maltby (1979) see note 14.
C after Noddle (1975) see note 36.
241
SHEILAGH M. WALL
TABLE 8: Selected measurements of sheep bones compared with
those from some other medieval sites.
Distal width of tibia
Site
Maison Dieu (Foundation/Occupation)
Maison Dieu (Dissolution/Demolition)
Maison Dieu (Post-medieval)
Maison Dieu (Recent)
Southampton
Southern England (8 sites)
A after Noddle (1975) see note 36.
B after Noddle (1975) see note 15.
Range (mm.)
23 -26.8
21.fr.29. l
24.1-28.6
24.5-27.8
24 -28
22 -29
No
11
79
78
5
4A
- B
Table 6. These do not show any trend of increase in size with
time. This might be due to the small sample size.
(c) Some comparisons of the cattle bones from Maison Dieu
with those from other medieval sites are given in Table 7. This
shows that cattle from Maison Dieu are within the range for cattle
in the medieval period throughout the country. Jewell 13 concluded
that there had been an increase in the size of cattle from Roman
to medieval times, but it now seems probable that this trend was
not simple and that it occurred at different times in different parts
of the country. At Exeter, 14 for example, there is little difference
in size between the Roman and medieval cattle, and an improvement
in stock size does not take place until the sixteenth century.
During the fourteenth century there would have been little
incentive for the production of good beasts, because of the single
legal market-price for cattle at that time. 15 However, in south-east
England, improvement was probably taking place from the midfourteenth
century onwards at least on the more progressive
estates of this region. 16
"P.A. Jewell, 'Changes in Size and Type of Cattle from prehistoric to medieval
Times in Britain.' Zeitschrift fiir Tie,zuchtung und Suchtungsbiologie, Band 77 Heft
2, (1962), 159-167.
14 1.M. Maltby, Fauna/ Studies in urban Archaeology: the animal Bones from
Exeter, 1971-1975 (1979), Sheffield University Press, Sheffield.
158.A. Noddle, 'A Comparison of the animal Bones from 8 medieval Sites in
southern Britain', in Archaeozoological Studies, ed. A.T. Clason (1975), North
Holland/ American Elsevier.
••r. Armitage, 'A prel.iminary Description of British Cattle from the late twelfth to
the early sixteenth Century', (forthcoming, in Ark).
242
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
Sheep measurements are compared with those from other
medieval sites in Table 8, and fit the fairly uniform size range of that
period. A summary of the major measurements taken is given in the
appendix.
AGEING DATA
Information for the ageing of archaeological animal remains is
derived from two sources: the epiphyseal fusion of the long bones
and the eruption and wear of the teeth. Although modern age
equivalents are used throughout, the maturation stages of ancient
stock may well have taken place over a longer time period, but this
need not greatly affect interpretation, as the optimum age for killing
off beasts kept for different purposes will be directly affected by the
age at which the animal reaches certain developmental stages.
Table 9 gives the number of bones which are fused and unfused in
the different age classes. Tables 10-12 give data on ages from
teeth. 17
Considering first the cattle, in the later phases, Dissolution/
Demolition onwards, there is a slight peak at 3-4 years or sub-adult
animals. This may correspond to the optimum slaughter age for
animals kept primarily for beef production, though the older
animals ( 4 +) may represent the contribution to the diet of some
slaughtered animals after their typical span of working life. Leonard
Mascall, writing in 1587, says that oxen should be broken to labour
at 3 years and not later than 5, worked till 10 and then fattened for
slaughter, and in 1770 Rye says that oxen should be worked till 5 or
6 then fattened. 18
The majority of sheep died at 2½-3½ years suggesting that the
animals were primarily kept for wool or milk. Deaths in the pig
population are largely of young animals, which would have been
killed for meat at 1-2 years.
PATHOLOGY
Several bones exhibited skeletal abnormalities, the examination of
which was aided by radiography.
"Data used for estimating ages is that for modem stock given in I.A. Silver, 'The
ageing of domestic Animals', in Science and archaeology, ed. D. Brothwell and
Higgs, (1969, Thames and Hudson, London.
18G.E. Fussell, 'Four Centuries of farming Systems in Sussex, 1500-1900', Sussex
Arc. Coll., xc (1951-2), 60-101.
243
TABLE 9: Ageing data from epiphyseal fusion of limb cases
Foundation/Occupation Dissolution/Demolition Post-medieval Recent
Age (years) No. fused No. unfused No. fused No. unfused No. fused No. unfused No. fused No. unfused
A/ Cattle
I -1½ 2 1 51 4 18 I 6 I
2 -3 4 3 39 28 13 12 7 2
3 -3½ 1 9 32 4 9 4 3 (/}
3½ -4 2 4 24 51 7 13 2 3
r
B/ Sheep
►
N Q
.i,. 10 months 4 I 223 2 26 4 19
1½ -2 13 0 98 10 33 2 7 4
2½ -3 10 3 96 39 12 JO 12 2
3 -3½ 2 8 31 25 10 4 4 4 r
r
C/ Pig
1 2 30 8 9 22 5 2
2 -2½ 0 12 12 70 5 29 0 14
3 -3½ 0 7 1 41 0 67 1 s
N
.i,.
Vl
DP2
Phase ABC
EM/MM
LM/D
PM
R
Key
0
A
4 7 1
1 2 1
- - -
not erupted
not worn
TABLE IO: Ageing data from tooth eruption in mandibles of cattle
Wear stages of individual teeth
DP3
ABC
- 8 7
- 1 2
- - -
DP4
ABC
1 5 11
- l 2
- - -
PMl
OABC
1 1 1 2
1
- - - -
PM2
OABC
- - - -
1 1 1 -
- 1 - 1
1 - - -
PM3
ABC
1 1 -
1 - 2
PM4
OABC
- - - -
4 3
1 1 - 2
Ml
OABC
2 5
2
- - - -
B enamel only worn
C in wear
M2
ABC
1
2 - 4
4
- - -
M3
ABC
2
- - -
>-l
ttl
Cl)
03::
0
0
Cl)
.,,
;
Cl
m
Phase
Foundation
Occupation
Demolition
Dissolution
Post-medieval
Recent
Key
0 not erupted
A not worn
TABLE 11: Ageing data from tooth eruption in mandibles of sheep
Wear stages of individual teeth
DP2 DP3 DP4 PMl PM2 PM3 PM4 Ml M2 M3
ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC OABC ABC ABC
___ ______ ___ --1 --2 --2 ---3 --3 --3 m
F0► - 1 - - 1 3 - -7 --- 1 -3 1 1 5 1 1 6 4 1 1 12 -1 13 1 -12 ::t
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3
--- -- 1 1 --- - - 1 1 1 ---- --- ---
B enamel only worn
C in wear
TABLE 12: Ageing data from tooth eruption in mandibles of pig
Wear stages of individual teeth
DP2 DP3 DP4 PMl PM2 PM3 PM4
Phase OABC OABC ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC
Foundation ---1 - --1 - - 1 -1 1
Occupation
Ml
OABC
-·--3
M2
OABC
---2
M3
OABC
- - - -
Dissolution -- -1--11 112 --- 21.2 -33 -54 -----2496352
Demolition
Postmedieval
Recent
Key
2 - -
0 not erupted
A not worn
B enamel only worn
C in wear
2- - - 2- - 1112 -14 4-2-24
1 1 2 --- --- --- -21 -113 1-212 1
SHEILAGH M. WALL
Considering first examples of trauma and injury, two bones had
healed fractures. A sheep-sized rib had healed neatly, with a small
amount of callus formation. This broken rib would probably not
have seriously affected the animal. A fowl tarsometatarsus,
probably a female as no spur was present, had been fractured in the
mid-shaft region, and this had subsequently healed at an angle of
about 18 degrees. This injury would have caused lameness in the
affected leg. A cattle horn core had a small bony growth at its base
which may have been the result of an earlier injury.
The most common manifestations of disease were conditions
comparable to arthritis. These were found on the proximal joint
surfaces of a cattle second phalanx, a sheep metacarpal, two sheep
metatarsals, a dog metatarsal and a fowl coracoid. These were not
severe, except in the case of the sheep metatarsals where the
animals would probably have been lame in the hind legs affected.
Two fowl tarsometatarsi, both from male birds, had ossified
tendons which had become attached to the bone with a considerable
amount of exostosis in the affected area (Plates IA and IB). This
condition has previously been recorded in archaeological specimens,
e.g. Artillery Lane, London, 19 Nonsuch Palace, 20 and Bristol Castle,
where Noddle suggests that 'these massive osteophytic outgrowths
may possibly have been caused by a chronic trauma to the back of
the leg which might occur if the animal had been semi-paralysed for
a long time, shuffling around on its hocks'. 21 All examples of this
kind so far recorded are from males, which might suggest either that
it is related to a condition with a sex-linked genetic factor, or that it
is perhaps an age-related condition only appearing in males because
they are kept to a greater age than the females. 22
Other diseased specimens included a 'cattle-sized' vertebra (Plate
IIA) in which there were a number of smooth pits and indentations
in the caudal joint surface of the centrum, similar to present-day
symptoms of tuberculosis. 23 A sheep tibia (Plate IIB) had abnormally
thick walls to its shaft, where the cortical bone had increased
inwards to almost obliterate the marrow cavity, although there was
also slight thickening of the outer surface. The cause of this is not
known, but modern parallels suggest that it might be connected with
19 A. Locker, pers. comm.
20Locker, op. cit., in note 8.
21 B.A. Noddle, 'The animal Bones from Bristol Castle', (in press). She suggests
(pers. comm) that the bone reaction was due to being tethered by the leg, followed
up by infection.
22 See p. 9 and note 41.
2JP.R. Greenough, F.J. MacCullum and A.D. Weaver, Lameness in Cattle, Oliver
and Boyd, Edinburgh.
248
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
PLATE IA
1111111111111 J LU 11 J JI I I I I I I l l I I l I Ill l I I I l I I I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 11
Maison Dieu. Ospringe. A fowl tarsometatarsus (male) with ossified tendons and
exostosis along the shaft. The tip of the spur has been sawn off.
PLATE 18
Maison Dieu, Ospringe. A fowl 1arsome1a1arsus (male) with ossified tendons and
exostosis along the shaft. The spur has been pared down probably with a knife. This
might have been prior to fitting a metal spur for cock-fighting.
249
SHEILAGH M. WALL
PLATE IIA
0 50
Maison Dieu, Ospringe. The caudal joint surface of a cattle-sized vertebra showing a
number of pits and indentations which resemble symptoms of tuberculosis.
PLATE 118
0 50mm
Maison Dieu, Ospringe. A sheep tibia in which the cortical bone of the shaft is
abnormally thickened. almost completely obliterating the marrow cavity.
250
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
PLATE Ill
m.m.
•-· t
Maison Dieu. Ospringe. A sheep humerus with a slight amount of cxostosis on the
medial edge of the distal joint surface.
251
SHEILAGH M. WALL
a mineral or vitamin deficiency. Similar symptoms have been
recorded in dogs deficient in vitamin A. 24
A cattle metatarsal had a splayed distal end, a condition found
quite frequently in archaeological specimens and thought to be
caused by excess pressure on the joint, from using the beast as a
draught animal. A sheep humerus had a bony outgrowth on the
medial side of the distal articulation (Plate III). Similar examples
have been recorded from other archaeological sites, e.g. medieval
Bristol25 and Saxon Ipswich, 26 and a comparable condition in
modern sheep is thought to be caused by undue pressure on the
front limbs, perhaps resulting indirectly from a large rib cage. 27
Finally, two sheep horn cores had surface depressions which may be
due to the effects of malnutrition on the especially thin walls, which
seem to be an attribute of the castrated animal. 28
BIRDS
275 bird bones (2.4 per cent of the total animal bone) were recovered
from the site. Twelve species were represented, three of which
were domesticated. These were: domestic fowl (Gallus sp.), domestic
goose (Anser sp.), domestic duck/mallard (Anas sp./Anas
platyrhynchos), grey heron (Ardea cinerea), teal (Anas crecca),
woodcock ( Scolopax rusticola), snipe ( Gallinago gallinago), stock
dove (Columba oenas), rock dove/feral pigeon (Columba livia),
tawny owl (Strix aluco), magpie (Pica pica) and rook (Corvus
fr ugilegus).
224 or 81.5 per cent of the bird bones were identifiable to species
and anatomy and of these 204 (74 per cent) were from domestic
species. Table 13 shows the number of bones from the different
parts of the skeleton from each species for the different archaeological
phases.
24 N.A. Barnicot and S.P. Datta, 'Vitamin A and Bone', in The Biochemistry and
Physiology of Bone. Vol. 2: Physiology and Pathology. Ed. G.H. Bourne, (1972),
Academic Press, new York and London, 197-229.
25'8.M. Wall, 'Analysis of animal Bones from a medieval Site in Bristol', Undergraduate
dissertation, University of Bristol, (1977).
26 R.T. Jones, 'The animal Bones from Ipswich', (in preparation).
"M.H. Lamont, pers. comm. 'A study of an abattoir survey in Edinburgh revealed
that a significant proportion of the sheep killed showed some degree of cubitalosteoarthritis.
The aeteology of this arthritis remains uncertain, but probably arises
following an acquired malformation of the lower limb: perhaps severe outgrowth of
one of the claws of the hoof.'
2• T. Hatting, 'The Influence of Castration on Sheep Homs', Archaeozoologica/
Studies', ed. A.T. Clason, (1975), North Holland/American Elsevier.
252
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
TABLE 13: The bird species and anatomies from the different
phases at the site
f
0 0 u
f
i • f - .¥ t 8 L 0 0 "' St L
ll· ! 0 8
,.,
ig
0 "
•j ·n lf 8 -0 ! ,l • ,! - f "g f. ]] l
sJ ] ,
& 0 0: & :,: :J Ji ::. 0: ,;; .: 0 l
Skull I -
Mandible - I -
Coraroid - - I 9 I -
Furtula - - - - - I -
Scapula 4 -
f-{wt'ICnJS 6 I I - - I - 26 - - I I I l I I
Radius • 4 I - I
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SHEILAGH M. WALL
The most numerous bird was domestic fowl followed by goose.
Other species were represented by single bones or a few bones at
most. Considering first the poultry: though fowl has been found to
be the most popular species of poultry on Roman sites in Britain, 1•
by medieval times it may have been rivalled in importance by the
goose. Noddle's 30 comparison of several medieval sites showed that
goose invariably contributed a higher percentage (by number of
fragments) to the diet than did fowl. This is not, however, the case
at Maison Dieu and also at some other medieval sites, e.g. ExeterH
and Portchester. 3 2 Maltby33 suggests that these variations may be due
to the development of regional variations in poultry keeping at this
time.
Throughout the occupation of the site the overall contribution of
fowl to the bird bone is 66.7 per cent and that of goose is 16.7 per
cent, and these did not vary much between the different phases. The
percentage of immature fowl bones was 13.5 for the whole site
which is somewhere between the values for Roman and medieval
phases at Exeter. 34
Where measurements could be taken these showed that there was
a large size range among the domestic fowl which might indicate
that selective breeding had taken or was taking place, as was the
case at Exeter. 35
At Southampton;16 however, the fowl were of the
small size common to the Roman period in Britain. The geese at
Maison Dieu were large, comparable in size to modern birds, as
were those from Southampton37 and Exeter,-18 but this was not
invariably the case on medieval sites as those from Portchester
Castle.1• were rather small and nearer in size to the wild bean goose
than to the grey-lag from which the domestic goose has been derived.
Butchery marks were infrequent on bird bones, probably because
the carcass of a bird does not require much butchery because of its
small size. Knife cuts were found on a fowl tibiotarsus. It is quite
29 R.W. Davies, 'The Roman military Diet', (1971) Britannia, ii, 122-142.
30 Noddle, op. cit., in note 15.
3
' Maltby, op. cit., in note 14.
,, A. Eastham, 'Bird Bone', in B. Cunliffe, Excavations at Porchester Castle, vol.
3: Medieval, the outer Bailey and its Defences, Society of Antiquaries, London,
(1977), 233-239.
)J Maltby, op. cit., in note 14.
,. Ibid.,
"Ibid.,
·"'D. Bramwell, 'The Bird Bones', in C. Platt, Excavations in medieval Southampton
1953-69, vol. l: The Excavation report, (1975), 340-1, Leicester University Press.
"Ibid.,
n Maltby, op. cit., in note 14.
30 Eastham, op. cit., in note 32.
254
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRJNGE
common for the distal end of the tibiotarsus to have knife cuts as
this is the position of removal of the lower meatless part of the leg
from the rest of the carcass.
Two male tarsometatarsi had the tips of the spur cut off. The
reason for this is not clear, but it is unlikely that it is butchery, as
there is no meat on this bone. Bramwell"'0 has suggested that this is
caused by the attachment of metal spurs in fighting cocks. If this
were the case one might expect some signs of healing and, as none
are present, it seems more likely that these marks were made after
the death of the animal. It is interesting that these two bones
showed pathological symptoms, and there may be some connection."'1
The single duck bone found was similar in size to a mallard.
Pigeon and stock dove may have been domestic or semi-wild. There
was a dovecote on the site and so these birds were presumably kept
as food and for their eggs. Of the remaining species teal, woodcock,
snipe and heron were probably caught to eat. Teal frequents fresh
water and woodcock and snipe are primarily inland birds of moist
woodland marsh and river bank. Grey herons are common near any
area of open water either fresh or salt and may have been caught on
fishing trips: fish-ponds were a common amenity on medieval lay
and monastic estates and fish was a much more important item of
food in the Middle Ages and later than it is today. In the Journal of
Prior William More"'2 an entry for a fishing catch for Lady Day 1522
includes 13 herons among the list of fish. Herons and the other
waterfowl might also have been caught with hawks. "'·1
The remaining birds, tawny owl, rook and magpie are unlikely to
have been eaten, but are often found near human habitation.
FISH
The fish bones from the excavation contained representatives of ten
species which are listed in Table 14 under their respective habitats.
They were recovered by two methods: handpicked, and from the
1 mm. residue of sieved bulk soil samples. In Table 14, the number
recovered by each method is shown. It can be seen that evidence for
'0 D. Bramwell, 'The Bird Bones from Baynard's Castle', The London Naturalisr,
54 (1975), 15-20.
41 Although other records occur of the pared spurs and pathological condition of the
fowl tarsometatarsus, this seems to be the only case where these are present on the
same specimen, which suggests that the disease may be connected with injuries
sustained in cock-fighting.
42 C.F. Hickling, 'Prior More's Fishponds', Med. Arch., xv-xvi ( 1971-2). 118.
"G.E. Freeman and F.H. Salvin, Falconry. Its Claims, History, and Practice,
( 1859), Reprinted 1972, Mine!, chicheley.
255
TABLE 14: The species of fish from the different phases of the site
Phase
FOU occ DIS DEM PM R Total
Species HP s HP s HP s HP s HP s HP s HP s TOTAL
Fresh warert Esn,arine
Eel ;: J 5 5
Salmonid I
Grey Mullet
/ndetenniru11e
Plaice/Flounder 3 3 4 4 7 9 In
,\1arine
tT1
Roker l l
N
Herring 6 49 53 53 C)
Vt Conger Eel 3 4 4
Cod 10 14 7 6 38 38 3::
Haddock 1 2 Turbot 4 5 5
lndetenninate species - 54 .I() 44 16 103 !05 159 260
TOTAL 0 72 51 65 19 12 159 7 0 0 158 228 386
Key: HP - hand-picked
S - sieved
FOU - Foundation
ace - Occupation
DIS - Dissolution
DEM • Demolition
PM - Post-medieval
R - Recent
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
four of the species (roker, eel, herring, and mullet) came entirely
from sieving, and a fifth (plaice/flounder) was represented equally
by both methods. The table also shows the excavation phase from
which the bones came.
The total number of fish bones was 386, of which 126 (32 per
cent) were indifiable to species. However, most of the indeterminate
fragments were fin-rays, which have no species - specific features.
If one excludes fin-rays from the total, 74 per cent of the bones are
identifiable. Considering hand-picked and sieved bones separately,
the percentages of identified bones are 86 per cent and 66 per cent
respectively. Cod bones are the most frequent from the hand-picked
sample, and herring from the sieved sample.
The species recorded are listed below. Brief notes on their
present distribution and economic importance are given44 as this
helps the interpretation of the archaeological sample.
Roker or Thornback ray (Raja clavata). The only distinctive parts
of this cartilaginous fish, which are calcified and therefore normally
survive on archaeological sites, are the 'bucklers', well-developed
dermal denticles with button-like bases. One was recovered from a
sieved sample of the Dissolution phase. This is the commonest ray
in shallow water, usually found between depths of 10 and 60 m. It is
the principal constituent of the 'skate' landed by inshore fishing
vessels, the great majority taken in bottom trawls, but some on lines.
Eel (Anguilla anguilla). Vertebrae from this species were
recovered from the Occupation and Demolition phases. The eel
lives both in the sea and in fresh water and could have been caught
in an estuary or in the shallows of the sea. It is a valuable food fish
throughout Europe. It is particularly vulnerable to riverine traps
and is also caught on lines.
Coger eel ( Conger conger). Head bones were recovered from
the Occupation and Demolition phases. This large marine eel is
common on rocks and offshore. Today, it is not much esteemed as a
food fish. Knife cuts were noted on a quadrate.
Herring (Clupea harengus). Numerous vertebrae were recovered
by sieving from the Occupation and Demolition phases. Though it
has declined in numbers since the beginning of this century, the
herring is still one of the most important food fishes of northern
Europe, and has been since the twelfth century, when most herrings
were landed through the Baltic ports. 45
•• A. Wheeler, Key to the Fishes of nothem Europe, ( 1978), Frederick Warne,
London.
•15 J .T. Jenkins, The Herring and the Herring Fisheries, (1927), King and Son,
London.
257
SHEILAGH M. WALL
Salmonid (Salmo sp.). A single vertebra was recovered from the
Dissolution phase. Members of the salmon family are fresh-water
fish which migrate to the sea. The fish could have been caught on a
line in a river or the sea, or if migrating, in a riverine or estuarine
trap.
Cod ( Gadus morhua. Head bones and were recovered from all
phases of the site. A temporal bone from the Dissolution phase
possessed knife cuts - probably incurred in cutting off the head. It
was possible to measure on premaxilla from the Post-medieval
phase, and from this to estimate the length, weight and age of the
fish from a graph:
Premaxilla measurement46 = 17.5 mm.
Estimated length = 110 cm.
Estimated gutted weight = 12.5 kg.
Estimated age = 10 yrs.
This size is near the average for cod caught today (average weight
11.3 kg. and length 120 cm.). 47
Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus). This species lives close to
the sea-bed in depths of 40-300 m. and is today an important
commercial fish throughout the north Atlantic fishing grounds. Two
cleithra were recovered from the Dissolution phase. These were
both swollen; a condition that has been described as probably a case
of hyperosteosis, which could be taken as the norm, as it appears so
frequently in large haddock ( over 45 cm.). 48
Thick-lipped grey mullet (Che/on labrosus). This fish inhabits
coastal and estuarine waters and is a food fish. One vertebra was
recovered from the Dissolution phase.
Turbot (Scopthalmus maximus). This large flatfish inhabits
shallow inshore waters, from just below the shore line to a depth of
about 80 m. It is caught in trawls, seines and by lines. Bones were
recovered from the Occupation and Dissolution phases.
Plaice/Flounder (Pleuronectes platessa/Platichthys ftesus). It is
difficult to distinguish the archaeological remains of these two
similarly sized and closely related flatfish. The plaice is a bottom
living fish, which can be caught in trawls and seines, but can also be
captured on lines. The flounder is estuarine. Bones from either or
46Measurement Pon the premaxilla is specified in A. Wheeler and A. Jones, 'Fish
Bone', in A. Rogerson, Excavations at Fuller's Hill, Great Yarmouth, (1976), East
Anglian Arch. Report, 2, Norfolk Arch. Unit.
47 Wheeler, op. cit., in note 44.
•8 A. Wheeler, 'Fish Bones', in H. Clarke and A. Carter, 'Excavations in King's
Lynn, 1963-1970. monograph Servies No. 7, Society for Medieval Archaeology.
258
THE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
both these fish were retrieved from the Occupation, and Dissolution
and Demolition phases.
The fish fauna represented comprises two main elements, marine
species and euryhaline species which could be captured in the sea, in
estuarine water, or in rivers. Of the marine species the herring were
most probably captured by floating nets similar to the traditional
East Anglian drift net although shore seines could have been used in
their capture. Conger eel, cod, haddock, and turbot, however, were
most probably captured by hook-and-line fishing, which was possibly
the earliest fishing method employed. The presence of these
three species suggests that they may have been captured some
distance offshore, for the haddock is today rarely found close
inshore and the cod comes inshore only during winter in the south
of England. Roker are also caught on lines but could also be taken
in permanent shore-line traps (kiddies). The presence of grey
mullet, flounder/plaice, and to a lesser extent eel and salmonid
strongly indicates the use of a kiddie net, which is constructed of
wood, extends between tidemarks and catches fishes which exploit
the food resources of the tidal flats (flatfishes and grey mullet) or
migrate along the coast (grey mullet, eel, salmonids, and possibly
turbot and roker). These kiddies are of great antiquity and widely
used in the Thames mouth, for example, where vertical tidal movement
is considerable. 49 On the Kent coast the antiquity of the use of
kiddies and other fishing-techniques is corroborated by various
allusions to fishing methods practised, for example, in an early
(1461) plaint of debt at New Romney by John Wardeyne against
John Mome, the latter was distrained by 7 herring nets, 2 sport
nets, 1 shrimp net and 2 kiddie nets. so
The salmonids and the eels could have been captured in streams
locally. Ospringe is near the coast, on the Swale, and there are
streams close by. Six of the species found at Maison Dieu (eel,
salmon, herring, conger, 'codling' and haddock) are included in a
list of the various kinds caught on the Kentish coast in the fourteenth
century recorded in the Journal of Daniel Rowe, a fishmonger
and Common Clerk of New Romney. The list also includes
sprats, porpoise, lampreys, whiting, tench and 'stikes of
pimpernelle', which are eels strung 25 to a stick. s,
49 A. Wheeler, The Tidal Thames, (1979), Routledge and Kegan Paul, London,
80-81.
><>v.C.H. Kent, (1932), iii, 428.
"V.C.H. Kent, (1932), iii, 427.
259
SHEILAGH M. WALL
DISCUSSION
Probably the earliest account of the area in which the Maison Dieu
was built, is that of the Domesday Survey52 which describes the
holding of Ospringe in the Hundred of Faversham as having land for
20 ploughs, a mill, a fishery, a salt pan, a meadow of 13 acres and
woodland to render 80 swine. The hospital was founded around
1232 and was used as such until 1516 when it was dissolved as an
institution. During its later years it suffered poor fortune and
management and its buildings probably fell into considerable
neglect. Most of the animal bones came from the Dissolution period
of the last declining years of the hospital from c. 1483-1516 and
from 1516 onwards until c. 1550 during which time the buildings
were rented off privately and so changed in function. 53
Occasional references to purchases of gifts have survived, for
example in 1235 'the king also caused fifty hogs to be sent to the
hospital from his park at Havering or elsewhere if more
convenient', 54 perhaps for the establishment of a herd. Records of
the yearly purchase of large quantities of herrings have survived, 55
and in 1485 the hospital was bequeathed 60 ewes by Stephen
Randolph. 56
The Maison Dieu served the dual purpose of providing accommodation
for pilgrims and for the king himself while travelling or on
business in the area, and of housing the infirm. The king during his
visits would have been fed in a suitable style, and the staff of the
hospital as well as the royal corrodians would have been fed quite
sumptuously, while the diet of the permanent almspeople would
have been less grand. In the survey of 1571 the lands of the Maison
Dieu in the possession of St. John's College amounted to 64 acres of
which 36.3 were arable and 27.7 pasture. These lands were then
valued at £8 16s. 8d.; in c. 1510, however, the hospital land had
been valued at £70 13s. 4d. Assuming that both refer to rental value
and that value per acre had not changed and that proportion of
arable to pasture was similar (their rental value may have been
different) this suggests an acreage in 1510 of c. 512 acres. However,
the original total would have been considerably higher as they had
included the manor of Headcorn; also, during the fifteenth century
"V.C.H. Kent, ( 1932), iii, 235.
"Smith, op. cit., in note I.
s•:c.H. Drake, 'The Hospital of St. Mary of Ospringe, commonly called Maison
Dieu', Arch. Cant., xxx (1914), 35-78.
55jSee p. 18.
56iC.H. Drake, 'The Hospital of St. Mary of Ospringe, commonly called Maison
Dieu', Arch. Cam., xxxviii (1926), 113-121.
260
11-lE ANIMAL BONES FROM ST. MARY OF OSPRINGE
royal enquiries showed that various lands had been unlawfully sold
or disposed of to pay off or in lieu of debts incurred by misuse of
funds and bad management. 57
It is possible that these lands enabled the hospital to be at least
partly self-sufficient for much of its existence, feeding its inhabitants
on meat raised on the hospital grounds and perhaps making some
profit from the sale of wool. It also received considerable gifts of
land and money and in addition received rents in kind, particularly
as barley. Throughout most of its history they were exempt from the
usual taxes, being under the king's protection.
There was a Maison Dieu at Dover of a contemporary foundation
date, for which an inventory has survived from the time of its
dissolution, which itemises the livestock kept. 58 This lists totals of
1600 sheep, 119 cattle and 29 horses. Details from this are referred
to below, where the individual species are discussed, as it is assumed
that the Maison Dieu at Ospringe would have had not dissimilar
stock.
TABLE 15: Comparison of percentage species composition for the different phases
within the site.
"O
65.2-18 (2)
PM n-81.7 (2) 36.HS (2)
McwcarpaJ FoolOc< 67.7 (I) lS (I)
O1\YDe:m IM6-21J. "' S0.7-()4,J (22) 28.9-41.J 121) 51.9-72,7 (9)
PM :m (I) 54--62.1 (4) 32.4-40 (JI ·- <•l
• 1% (I) "'6<,.4 (2) 34-11.8 (2) SS (I)
Femur PM S2 (II 66,1 (II
Tibia D,,:/DcQl $4.<>-"6.1 (41 J9.)-.46,8 <•>
PM 6l (II
Cukancu) Dlss/O 19.6-27. C1) 11.&-20.) {1) n.l-31 (1)
R 21.6-24.ti (3) u,.s-1,., tl)
Femu, O\/Ocm
34-tJ.K {$) 41.7-46 IS)
rM 34,9-.39 14) -10.1>47,I (3)
Til>i" Fo<,/0« 2;..u.s (11) 17.6-20.1 (11)
o.. /0(111 .l7.8-lHI 1•1 .\K. . .Jl.3 (0) ?.l.l--29.1 ('79) 17.2-!1.4 (76)
PM ,,,., 111 3'/-14.S 3$-Jl.3 2.a.1-28.6 (181 18.t-24 • .& 06)
R 2.a.S-27.8 () 19.6-27.7 (S)
(;llct•m:u) FoU/0« $(1.lli),5 1.,1
Oks./Dtm -56 m
Mct:u:.MJ ODcm 126-139 Ill 18.S..21.S (10) l&.22.6 (IOI 22-24.6 (7)
PM OJ-.1)7 m 19.6-22.4 (8) 19.:Z-l.1.8 (8) 22.S-27 {J)
R 19.0,.21.7 (2) l'U-20 m
P1i:, Humcnr.. DiwOcm '.16.7--.a.S.6 {9) 36 ...... (S)
PM 37, -4--41.7 (2) 3&3-10.9 m
RMh r-o\l,c)r;c "' (\) 2\.6 Ill
Ob.'1/0
