The Roman Villa at Minster in Thanet. Part 2: Iron-Age, Roman and post-Roman Coinage

The Roman Villa at Minster-in-Thanet.

Part 2: the Iron-Age, Roman and

Later Coinage

david j. holman and keith parfitt

The excavations undertaken jointly by the Kent Archaeological Society, the Thanet Archaeological Society and the Trust for Thanet Archaeology at the important Roman villa complex at Abbey Farm, Minster-in-Thanet were completed in 2004 after eight seasons of work (Perkins 1996; 1999; 2004; Perkins and Parfitt 2004). The villa site lies on a hilltop, over-looking the modern village of Minster and the former Wantsum Channel (NGR TR 3135 6463). The investigations have succeeded in locating and excavating seven separate Roman buildings, set in and around a large rectangular walled enclosure (Buildings 1-7; Perkins 2004, fig. 4; see Pout 2004 for a note on the newly discovered Building 7). The heavily plough-damaged remains of the main house (Building 1) consist of a classic ‘winged-corridor’ villa.

Study of the large collection of finds recovered from the 1996-2004 investigations is progressing and a series of reports on the results of the work are in preparation. It is proposed to publish details of the excavated remains and artefacts by instalment, in order to allow texts of a manageable size to appear within the pages of Archaeologia Cantiana. The first site report, describing the villa’s location and the detached bath-house (Building 3), appeared in Vol. cxxiv (Perkins 2004). Our second report describes the Iron-Age, Roman and post-Roman coinage recovered during the course of the investigations. Due to the heavily ploughed nature of the site (Perkins 2004, 25), the bulk of the coins were recovered by metal-detector from the plough-soil sealing the remains, with less than twenty specimens from stratified deposits within the excavated villa complex (Tables 1 and 2). Despite the general lack of stratified material, the coins from Abbey Farm provide significant evidence for the overall dating of the site and details of the assemblage are set out below.

Coins from excavations and metal-detecting, 1996-2004

Between 1996 and 2001 only 24 coins were recovered from the investigations but 2002 saw the first of three seasons of controlled metal detector survey undertaken across the villa complex. These surveys were largely res-ponsible for the recovery of a further 121 coins. An overall total of 145 coins is thus recorded from the work conducted between 1996 and 2004 (Table 1). This significant assemblage provides a much more complete and accurate picture of site activity and history than would have been the case if metal detectors had not been employed.

For the purpose of recording detector finds from the plough-soil, find-spots were marked with flags, labelled and subsequently plotted by EDM, allowing the general distribution of coins (and other artefacts) to be recorded. From this, it is clear that most coins came from the immediate area of the villa complex itself and from the southern (downhill) end of the field. Very few coins were found to the north of the villa, although much less searching was conducted in that area. Despite conditions being rather more conducive to metal detecting in 2004 than in the two previous seasons, the number of coins found in each year was fairly constant, varying between 35 and 45 per season. Many of these plough-soil finds are poorly preserved and stand in contrast to the smaller number of coins recovered from stratified deposits (Tables 1 and 2) which are generally in rather better condition, suggesting that farming activities and climate are principal factors in the deterioration of metal objects in the soil.

Iron-Age Coinage

The earliest coins recovered during the investigations were three late Iron-Age issues. These are all of bronze, one dating to the later first century bc and the others to the early first century ad. Of these, a coin of Eppillus (c.ad 1-15) discovered in a Roman well shaft adjacent to Building 6 must be residual. The two other Iron-Age coins were unstratified plough-soil finds, one from the northern part of the field some distance away from the main villa complex. Together with another, previously discovered on the site (see below), these three Celtic coins suggest pre-Roman activity in the area. A number of early features located in the excavations also appear to be connected with late Iron-Age occupation on the site. Celtic coins are not uncommon finds around Minster and a major site is known at Ebbsfleet some 2km to the south-east (Perkins 2001, 56; Holman forthcoming).

Roman Coinage

Roman coins account for 131 of the total coin finds recovered between 1996 and 2004, of which 124 can be identified to period. Fig. 1 provides a graphical representation of the chronological distribution of these, showing the number of coins from each coin period as a percentage of the total number of Roman examples from the site.

Generally, coins of the early Roman period, i.e. those minted before ad 260, are conspicuous by their relative scarcity on occupation sites and among casual finds; Minster is no exception. There are just 24 Roman coins dating to before ad 260 (18 per cent of the Roman total), most of them being second-century issues. A number of these came from stratified contexts within the villa complex (Table 2). An as of Antoninus Pius dated ad 140-144 was discovered in Room 17 at the north-west corner of the main villa building (Building 1); the very good condition of this coin suggests little circulation and a date of deposition before 150 must be considered likely. By contrast, the very worn condition of an as or dupondius of Faustina II (145-161) from a drainage channel of the bath-house (Building 3; Perkins 2004, 46) suggests that it was deposited quite some time later. Coins of Hadrian (128-138) and Faustina I (141-145) came from late deposits associated with Building 6, both in reasonable condition although with some degree of wear. Another early stratified coin was a sestertius of Antoninus Pius (159-160), again in slightly worn condition, found in a pit close to Building 2 at the north-western corner of the villa complex. Moving into the early third century, a plated, hybrid copy of a denarius of Septimius Severus with a reverse of Geta, probably dating to the first decade of the century was found within a metalled surface adjacent to the main (southern) entrance to the villa enclosure, suggesting that this feature was at least repaired, if not constructed, during the early third century (Perkins 2004, 30). Recovered from the plough-soil in 2004 was a false dupondius with an obverse of Antoninus Pius (138-161) and a reverse apparently of Severus Alexander (222-235). This is presumably a mid-third century copy.

The continued circulation of early Roman coins into the third century is a well-known phenomenon on Romano-British sites and accounts for the frequently very worn condition of such coins. Several finds from Minster are likely to fall within this category. Accordingly it is not possible to determine from the coin evidence precisely when Roman occupation of the site commenced. A date towards the end of the first century would seem most likely and would be in accord with the pottery dating evidence. However, the Celtic coins imply at least some activity on the site before this (see above).

Although consistently low coin losses prior to 260 make direct comparisons between sites difficult, perhaps the closest match for the early Roman coin losses at Minster among the twenty-one villa sites listed by Reece (1991) is the well-known site at Gadebridge Park in Hertfordshire. Interestingly, the principal building on that site consisted of a winged-corridor villa whose second- and third-century layout was closely similar to that at Abbey Farm (Neal 1974, periods 3 and 4).

A particularly noteworthy feature of the later Roman (260-402) coinage from Minster is the general scarcity of late third-century issues. Coins of the period 260-296, particularly the first half of that period, are very common on most Romano-British occupation sites and as casual finds, but only ten coins at Minster date from this lengthy period. Of these, just two are radiate copies (‘barbarous radiates’), a lower proportion than is often seen. The incidence of radiates on east Kent sites varies but most sites exhibit a much higher percentage than Abbey Farm, although sites at Ringwould (site list compiled by DJH) and Each End, Ash (Anderson 1998) are similar. Of the 140 sites listed by Reece (1991), only eleven have a lower proportion of radiates than Minster during the period 260-275 and only eight a lower proportion during the period 275-296. The ratio of coins dating from before 260 to those dated 260-296 is exceeded by only seven of those sites. The ratio of radiates to fourth-century issues at Minster is also very low. The overall impression gained from this is that activity at the Abbey Farm site during the later third century was minimal, which suggests that the villa complex had by then been abandoned (see below).

Of the 124 identifiable Roman coins found at Minster, just over three-quarters (94, 75.8 per cent) are fourth-century issues. Fourth-century coins are extremely common finds on most sites in Britain and such coins are found in large quantities across east Kent even in localities where no actual occupation site is evident. At Minster, only three coins date from before 330. Coins of both the early and late Constantinian periods (330-348 and 348-364) are prevalent (30 and 24, respectively); indeed, only eleven of the sites listed by Reece (1991) have a higher proportion than Abbey Farm during the period 348-364. Included among the Minster coins of the latter period are two silver siliquae.

Copies frequently account for a significant proportion of site finds during these periods and again Minster is no exception; indeed, the high proportion of copies here is notable. Between c.341 and 347, because of an apparent cessation of minting at the western Empire mints, huge numbers of copies were produced of those coin types which were minted between 330 and 340. At Abbey Farm, such copies account for almost two-thirds (64 per cent) of the coins dated 330-347. The prevalence of copies becomes even more evident in the period c.355-364. Of the 16 Fel Temp Reparatio ‘falling horseman’ coins from Minster, thirteen (81.3 per cent) are copies, which is in keeping with the high proportion of copies of this type found on other sites in east Kent (Anderson 1998).

The highest number of coins from any one period at Minster is the thirty-three which can be assigned to the House of Valentinian (364-378). These include a group of six stratified coins from deposits associated with Building 7, a barn-like timber structure excavated in 2004 within the villa courtyard. The proportion of coins of this period at Minster is very high; only five sites listed by Reece (1991) exceed it and Each End, Ash is the only local site to display a similar level (Anderson 1998).

The coin evidence on numerous sites in east Kent suggests that many had been abandoned by around 380. At Minster, only four coins minted after 378 have been found, the latest of these dating to around 390, suggesting a final decline in activity here towards the end of the century.

Post-Roman Coinage

The investigations between 1996 and 2004 produced few post-Roman coins (Table 3). Amongst those which were recovered is an Anglo-Saxon sceatta dated to the later seventh century, i.e. only a few years after the foundation of Minster Abbey in 669. However, no structural evidence for Anglo-Saxon activity on the villa site has yet been discovered. An extremely worn and pierced early third-century denarius may be an example of post-Roman re-use of a coin as a personal ornament, as may a similarly treated early fourth-century follis. No medieval coins were found during the site investigations, although the writers have been shown a half-groat of Edward III dating to 1369-1377, found within the grounds of present-day Minster Abbey.

Early post-medieval finds include coins of Elizabeth I and the Commonwealth and a Nuremburg jetton. A few low value coins from Charles II through to Victoria have also been recorded. Overall, there appears to have been little activity on the villa site during the medieval and post-medieval periods, although a small number of contemporary artefacts – buckles, etc. – have been found.

Coins from excavations and metal-detecting, 1990-1992

A further 119 coins had been recovered from the villa site prior to the main period of excavation (Table 4). Between 1990-1992 members of the Thanet & Wantsum Relic Association (TWRA) retrieved 76 Roman coins from the plough-soil. Three more Roman coins were found by the Thanet Archaeological Society during the initial evaluation of the site in 1991 (Corti 1994; Perkins 2004, 25). Including these earlier discoveries, the total number of Roman coins now known from Abbey Farm stands at 210.

From TWRA records it is apparent that at least seventeen of the 1990-1992 Roman coin finds were first- and second-century issues. Another Iron-Age coin (see above), of unknown type, was also recovered. A high proportion of the identified Roman coins are denarii, probably because these silver coins generally survive in better condition than do bronze coins. Notable among these is a scarce coin of Galba (68-69), the earliest Roman coin from the site. The majority of the bronze coins, however, were not identified because of their poor condition.

Among the 1990-1992 finds, particular problems arise with the identification of third- and fourth-century coins. On the evidence of the 1996-2004 assemblage, it seems likely that many of these were in a worn condition. No specialist was available to provide close identifications at the time and little can now be said about these coins which no longer survive as a readily identifiable group. Since the 1996-2004 coin finds show a preponderance of fourth-century issues over those of the third century (see above), it seems likely that the majority listed by the TWRA as being of third-century date were actually fourth-century. Certainly, most of the 1991 coin finds were fourth-century; of the fifteen examined by Dave Perkins, all were of this period, including the three excavation finds (Perkins 1991), and his suggested date range of c.330-378 would be very consistent with the more recent discoveries. There are also coins dating as early as 320 and as late as 390 but this is not unexpected. Only two of the many other fourth-century coins recovered by the TWRA were identified to type, one a Constantinopolis type and one of Magnentius. Coins of Constantius II and Valentinian I were also noted. The 1990-1992 finds, however, certainly also included some third-century coins as TWRA records show one antoninianus and three radiates.

In view of the somewhat limited information available, it has been decided best not to include any of the 1990-1992 coin finds within the site profile because the few identified coins would artificially skew the profile towards an earlier date, at the expense of the fourth-century coins. Nevertheless, it would appear that the overall date range and profile of the 1990-1992 coin assemblage is not dissimilar to that of 1996-2004, although with a slightly earlier emphasis.

Post-Roman coins among the 1990-1992 finds include two more sceattas (c.675-740), bringing the site total to three (see above) and perhaps providing further evidence of activity connected with the early Anglo-Saxon abbey site. A sixth/seventh-century Kentish disc brooch also provides further evidence for early Anglo-Saxon activity around the villa.

The major difference between the 1990-1992 and the 1996-2004 coin assemblages lies in the number of medieval and early post-medieval coins and jettons recovered (Tables 3 and 4). There are thirty-one coins dated between c.1200 and c.1650 among the 1990-1992 finds. Medieval coins are notable by their absence in the 1996-2004 assemblage (see above). The principal explanation for this appears to be that many of these coins were found towards the northern edge of the field (information from TWRA) where very little detecting was done between 1996 and 2004; it may be that they are connected with an earlier trackway running to the south of present-day Foxborough Lane.

discussion

It is evident from the above that the bulk of the Roman coins on the villa site were to be found in the overlying plough-soil, rather than being contained within the surviving stratified villa deposits. This is clearly a reflection of the heavily ploughed nature of the site, where virtually all of the associated occupation levels have been previously destroyed. In such circumstances, controlled metal-detector searches, rather than excavation, proved to be by far the best means of recovering coins and other artefacts – a point which should be borne in mind by other excavators working on heavily plough-damaged sites.

All the presently available excavation evidence indicates that the villa complex at Abbey Farm had been largely abandoned by the middle of the third century. The excavations have produced well in excess of 12,000 sherds of pottery, the great bulk of which dates from between the later first and early third century. There are very few Roman pieces which need be dated to later than 250 and what sherds there are come mainly from wall robber trenches and other late contexts (Lyne 2001). The few well stratified coins recovered fall within a similarly early date range (Table 2). The abandonment of the villa complex appears to be clearly reflected in the coinage where there are notably few examples of the normally common later third-century issues.

Increased numbers of fourth-century coins, however, indicate renewed activity. Some sort of re-occupation of the villa following a fairly well-defined break during the second half of the third century seems to be clearly implied. Apart from a possible re-use of Room 17 in Building 1, the only excavated building which could be connected with this late phase of occupation is Building 7, excavated in 2004 (Pout 2004). This is distinguished by being the only all-timber building discovered on the site. It was situated in the middle of the villa’s walled enclosure and consisted of a large post-built structure, aligned roughly east-west but set at a slight angle to all the other buildings. Located at its eastern end was a large elaborate double flued ‘corn-drier’ or malting kiln. Burnt daub associated with the outer post-holes suggests that this building was eventually destroyed by fire. Dating evidence is fairly limited but the discovery of six fourth-century coins in the upper filling of the pit containing the corn-drier suggests that it belongs to the late Roman period. Certainly, the structure would have blocked the view from (and indeed direct access to) the main villa house, with its fine south-facing prospect across the Wantsum Channel to mainland Kent. In all probability, therefore, the main villa complex had ceased to be occupied, at least by individuals of any social standing, by the time Building 7 was erected and a fourth-century date for it may be tentatively suggested. That some elements of the villa and its estate must have continued well into the fourth century would also appear to be suggested by the establishment of Minster Abbey as an Anglo-Saxon religious centre here before the end of the seventh century.

acknowledgements

The Abbey Farm Villa excavation team wish to express their gratitude to the Kent Archaeological Society and its Fieldwork Committee for funding and administering the training excavations; and to Mr Jack Clifton for arranging access to the site. Thanks are also due to Minster Parish Council and the staff of Minster Agricultural Museum for their kind cooperation.

The supervising archaeologists wish to acknowledge the hard work of all the excavators who have worked on the site. Also, to those members of the Thanet & Wantsum Relic Association, the White Cliffs Metal Detecting Club and the Royal Phoenix Metal Detecting Club, latterly working under the auspices of the Kent Archaeological Metal-Detecting Support Unit, who searched tirelessly over many long, hot summer days.

bibliography

Anderson, I., 1998, ‘The Coins’, in (ed.) A.J. Hicks, ‘Excavations at Each End, Ash 1992’, Archaeologia Cantiana, cxviii, 161-163.

Corti, G., 1994, ‘A probable Roman villa at Minster in Thanet’, KAR, 115, 104-111.

Holman, D., forthcoming, Iron Age Coinage and Settlement in East Kent.

Lyne, M., 2001, ‘The Pottery from the Abbey Farm, Minster, Roman Villa’, (unpublished archive report).

Neal, D.S., 1974, The Excavation of the Roman Villa at Gadebridge Park, Hemel Hempstead, 1963-8, Soc. of Ants Res. Rep. No. XXXI.

Perkins, D.R.J., 1991, ‘A Romano-British building at Abbey Farm, Minster, Isle of Thanet’ (evaluation report by the Trust for Thanet Archaeology).

Perkins, D.R.J., 1996, ‘The Abbey Farm Villa Training Excavation’, Archaeologia Cantiana, cxvi, 325-9.

Perkins, D.R.J., 1999, ‘Roman Villa Site (Abbey Farm): Minster in Thanet, Arch- aeologia Cantiana, cxix, 393.

Perkins, D.R.J., 2001, ‘The Roman Archaeology of the Isle of Thanet’, Arch-aeologia Cantiana, cxxi, 43-60.

Perkins, D.R.J., 2004, ‘The Roman Villa at Minster-in-Thanet. Part 1: Introduction and Report on the Bath-House, Archaeologia Cantiana, cxxiv, 25-49.

Perkins, D.R.J. and Parfitt, K., 2004, ‘The Minster Roman Villa’, Current Archaeology, 193, 38-41.

Pout, C., 2004, ‘Final Excavation at Abbey Farm’, KAS Newsletter, 62, 1-2.

Reece, R., 1991, ‘Roman Coins from 140 Sites in Britain’ (Cotswold Studies, Vol. IV).

Fig. 1 Minster Roman Villa – Roman Coins recovered and identified 1996-2004 (totalling 124).

table 1

Pd	Emperor etc	Description	Mint	Type	Date	Catalogue ref.	Cond.	Wt (gm)	Con.	Site ref.
Iron Age
	Kentish Uninscri.	Head right / Lion left	Kent	AE	c.40-25 BC	VA -	VW/W	1.8	P	2004/34
	Eppillus	Bull / eagle EPPI(L) CO F	E. Kent	AE	c.1-15 AD	VA 451	W	2.3	S	2003/25
	Cunobelin	Victory / horseman (CVN)	E. Kent	AE	c.15-25 AD	VA 1981	VW	2.6	P	2003/20
Roman
4	Vespasian	Eagle on globe (SC)	Rome	As	71-73	As RIC 528	EW	8.4	P	2002/8
4	Domitian, Caesar	Type illegible	Rome	Dup	72-81	-	EW	8.0	P	2002/15
4	Domitian	Altar SALVTI AVGVS(TI) SC	Rome	As	86	RIC 338	NF/W	10.9	P	2004/6
4	Domitian	Fortuna stg. l. FORTVNAE AVG(VST)I SC	Rome	As	95-96	RIC 422	GF(C)/F	11.3	US	2001/1
5	Nerva	Fortuna stg. l. FORTVNA AVGVST SC	Rome	As	96-97	RIC 60 or 83	W	9.3	S	2003/1
5	Trajan	Felicitas stg. l. PM TR P COS VI PP SPQR	Rome	Den	114-117	RIC 345	VF	3.3	S	2002/28
5	Trajan	Type illegible	Rome	Ses	98-117	-	EW	16.5	P	1996/1
6	Hadrian	Fides stg. r. CO(S III) SC	Rome	As	125-128	RIC 668	VW(C)	10.0	P	2002/17
6	Hadrian	Fortuna std. l. FORT RED COS III SC	Rome	Dup	128-138	RIC 973	W	10.9	S	2003/34
7	Antoninus Pius	Annona stg. r. ANNONA AVG SC	Rome	As	140-144	RIC 675	VF	11.1	S	1997/1
7	Faustina I, deified	Ceres stg. l. AVGVSTA SC	Rome	As	141-145	RIC 1171a (A.P.)	W	12.2	S	2003/29
7	Antoninus Pius	Pietas stg. l. PIETATI AVG COS IIII SC	Rome	Ses	159-160	RIC 1031	GF/F	23.1	S	2001/2
7	Antoninus Pius	Pietas stg. l. (PIETATI AVG COS IIII S)	Rome	Ses	160-161	RIC 1045	EW	19.1	P	2003/13
7	Antoninus Pius	Figure std. l. (details illegible)	Rome	Ses	138-161	-	EW	28.8	US	2002/34
7	Faustina II	Felicitas stg. l. FELICITAS SC	Rome	As or Dup	145-161	RIC 1395 (A.P.)	VW	10.5	S	1998/1
8	Commodus	Minerva stg. l.	Rome	Ses	179	RIC 1599 or 1607 (M.A.)	VW	17.0	US	2002/4
9	Commodus	The Three Monetae (PM TRP XII IMP VIII COS V PP MON AVG SC)	Rome	Ses	186-187	RIC 500	EW/VW	27.6	P	1997/2
10	Septimius Severus	Providentia stg. l. PROVID DEORVM Hybrid type with a reverse of Geta. Reverse as RSC 588d.	Rome	Den (plated)	200-209	Uncatalogued	F	2.8	S	2002/26
12	Valerian II	Infant Jupiter on goat walking r. (IOVI CRESCENTI) (chipped)	Rome or Lyons	Ant	253-255	RIC 13-17 (R) or 3(L)	VW	2.0	US	2003/44
12	Salonina	Venus stg. l., leaning on column. VENUS VI(CT)RIX	Lyons	Ant	257-258	RIC 8 (J)	F	1.9	P	2002/29
13	Postumus	Hercules stg. r. (HERC DEVS)ONIENSI	Lyons	Ant	259-269	RIC 64 or 65	W/VW	2.3	P	2004/19
13	Gallienus	Sol walking l., holding whip ORIENS (AVG) (chipped)	Rome	Ant	260-269	RIC 249	W	2.4	P	2003/17
13	Tetricus I	Laetitia (LAE)TIT(IA AVG)	-	Ant	271-274	RIC 86 etc	VW/EW	2.2	P	2004/1
13	Tetricus I	Pax (PAX AVG)	-	Ant	271-274	RIC 100 etc	VW	1.1	P	2003/33
13	Tetricus I	Pax (PAX AVG)	-	Ant	271-274	RIC 100	VW	2.4	US	2003/45
13	Tetricus I ?	Reverse illegible	-	Ant	271-274	-	EW	1.4	US	2003/12
14	-	Copy of Tetricus I, rev. Laetitia	-	Barb Rad	c.270-290	Copy RIC 87	VW	1.5	P	2003/21
14	-	Copy of Claudius II deified, rev. eagle	-	Barb Rad	c.270-290	Copy RIC 266	VW	1.9	P	2003/37
14	Allectus	Pax stg. l. PAX A(VG) S/A/ML	London	Ant	293-296	RIC 28	W	3.8	P	2004/35
14	-	Emperor uncertain / reverse illegible	-	Ant	c.275-296	-	EW	2.7	P	2003/27
15	Constantine I	SOLI INVICTO COMITI TF/PTR	Trier	Follis	310-313	RIC VI, Trier 870	F	3.5	P	2002/9
15	Constantine I	Reverse design obliterated and coin pierced at top. Possibly post-Roman adaptation?	-	Follis	c.310-313	-	W/EW	3.1	P	2002/1
15	Constantine I	SOLI INVIC(TO COMIT)I AS/PLG	Lyons	Follis	316	RIC VII, Lyons 53	W	2.1	P	1997/3
17	Constantine I	GLORIA EXERCITVS (2) PCONST	Arles	AE3	330-331	RIC VII, Arles 345	VW/W	2.2	P	2002/31
17	Constantine I	(GLORIA EX)ER(CITVS) (2) TRP	Trier	AE3	332-333	RIC VII, Trier 537	W(C)	2.0	P	2002/24
17	Constantine II, Caesar	(GLORIA EXERCITVS) (2) TRS	Trier	AE3	330-334	RIC VII, Trier 520?	VW	1.8	P	1996/2
17	H. of Constantine	(GLORIA EXERCITVS) (2)	-	AE3	330-335	-	EW	2.4	P	2002/23
17	H. of Constantine	GLORI(A E)XE(RCITVS) (1) TRP (chipped)	Trier	AE4	335-340	-	F	1.1	P	2002/25
17	Helena	(PA)X P(VBLICA) (chipped)	-	AE4	337-340	-	VW	0.9	P	2004/2
17	Helena	(PAX) PVBL(ICA)	-	AE4	337-340	-	EW/VW	1.3	P	2004/9
17	Theodora	(PIETA)S (ROMAN)A	-	AE4	337-340	-	VW	1.6	P	1996/3
17	Theodora	PIETAS ROMANA +/TR( )	Trier	AE3/4	337-340	RIC VIII, Trier 43	GF	1.2	S	2002/5
17	H. of Constantine	CONSTAN(TINOPOLIS) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	W/VW	2.0	P	1996/4
17	H. of Constantine	CONSTAN(TINOPOLIS) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	F/W	1.3	P	1996/5
17	H. of Constantine	CONST(ANTINOPOLIS) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	W	1.0	P	2003/6
17	H. of Constantine	(CON)STANTINOPOLIS (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	W	2.2	P	2003/22
17	H. of Constantine	CONSTANTINOP(OLIS) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	W	1.6	P	2004/7
17	H. of Constantine	VRBS (ROMA) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	VW	0.9	P	1998/3
17	H. of Constantine	VRB(S) ROMA (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	VW/EW	1.2	P	2004/23
17	H. of Constantine	VRB(S) ROMA / CONSTANTINOPOLIS ‘mule’ (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	W	1.6	P	2004/25
17	H. of Constantine	(GLOR)IA EX(ERCITVS) (2) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	VW	1.0	P	2002/32
17	H. of Constantine	(GLOR)IA EXERC(ITVS) (2) (copy) (chipped)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	VW	1.3	S	2003/30
17	H. of Constantine	(GLORIA EXERCI)TVS (1) TRP (copy). Offcentre.	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	Copy RIC VII, Trier 590	W	1.3	P	1997/4
17	H. of Constantine	(GLORIA EXERCITVS) (1) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	VW	0.8	P	1998/5
17	H. of Constantine	GLORI(A EXERCITVS) (1) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	EW/VW	1.1	P	2002/13
17	H. of Constantine	(GLORIA) EXER(CITVS) (1) TRP (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	NF	1.5	P	2004/5
17	H. of Constantine	(GLORIA EXERCITVS) (1) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	EW	1.4	P	2004/14
17	H. of Constantine	(VRBS ROMA) or (CONSTANTINOPOLIS) / (GLORIA) EX(ERCITVS) (2) (hybrid copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.335-345	-	EW/VW	1.0	P	1998/4
17	Constans	(VICTORIAE) DD AVGG Q NN M/TRP	Trier	AE4	347-348	RIC VIII, Trier 182	F	1.4	P	2002/3
17	Constans	(VICTORIAE) DD AVGG Q NN M/(TRP)	Trier	AE3/4	347-348	RIC VIII, Trier 182	W	1.1	P	2003/28
17	Constans	(VICTO)RIAE DD A(VGG QNN)	-	AE3/4	347-348	-	W/VW	1.6	P	2002/21
17	H. of Constantine	(VICTORIAE DD AVGG Q NN) (?copy)	-	AE4	347-348	-	VW/EW	1.0	P	2004/4
17	H. of Constantine	(VICTORIAE DD AVGG Q NN) MA/(PARL)	Arles	AE4	347-348	As RIC VIII, Arles 78	EW	1.4	P	2004/18
18	Constantius II	(FEL (TEMP REPAR)ATIO TRP (phoenix on globe)	Trier	AE3	348-350	As RIC VIII, Trier 231	VW	1.9	P	2003/14
18	Constans	FEL TEMP REPARATIO TRS (emperor in galley)	Trier	AE2	348-350	RIC VIII, Trier 219	F	4.0	P	2002/12
18	Magnentius	VICTORIAE DD N(N AVG ET CAE)	-	AE2	351-353	-	W	3.8	P	2004/10
18	H. of Magnentius	(VICTORIAE DD NN AVG ET CAE)	-	AE3 (copy)	c.351-353	-	VW	2.7	P	2004/16
18	H. of Constantine	Constantius Gallus/Magnentius (VICTORIAE DD NN AVG ET CAE) (hybrid copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.353-365	-	W/F	1.8	P	1998/6
18	Constantius II	FE(L TEMP REP)ARATIO (falling horseman) (chipped)	-	AE3	353-361	-	W	2.5	P	2002/7
18	Constantius II	(FEL TEMP REPARATIO) (falling horseman)	-	AE3	353-361	-	VW	1.8	P	2003/42
18	Constantius Gallus	(FEL T)EMP (REPARATIO) TC(ON) (falling horseman)	Arles	AE3	353-354	RIC VIII, Arles 217	EW/VW	2.4	P	2004/11
18	H. of Constantine	(F)EL TEMP (REPARATIO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE3 (copy)	c.355-365	-	F	1.3	P	2002/35
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP REPARATIO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	VW/W	0.6	P	1996/6
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP REPARATIO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	EW	0.7	P	2002/2
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP REPARATIO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	EW	1.1	P	2003/3
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP REPARATIO) PLG (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	F/GF	0.7	P	2003/4
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP) REPARAT(IO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	W/VW	1.4	P	2003/7
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP REPAR)ATIO (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	F	1.0	S	2003/10
18	H. of Constantine	FEL TEM(P RE)PARATI(O) PLG (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	GF	1.0	S	2003/23
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP REPARATIO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	VW	0.8	P	2004/3
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP REPARATIO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	VW	0.9	P	2004/8
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP REPARATIO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	W	1.3	P	2004/12
18	H. of Constantine	(F)EL TEMP (REPARATIO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	VW	0.9	P	2004/17
18	H. of Constantine	(FEL TEMP REPARATIO) (falling horseman) (copy)	-	AE4 (copy)	c.355-365	-	EW/VW	0.5	P	2004/31
18	Constantius II	(SPES REIPVBLICE)	-	AE4	355-361	-	W/VW	1.3	P	2004/29
18	Constantius II	Wreath VOTIS XXX MVLTIS XXXX SCON (slightly chipped)	Arles	Siliqua	357-361	RIC VIII, Arles 261	F	1.9	P	2003/8
18	Julian II, Caesar	Wreath VOTIS V MVLTIS X TCON (slightly clipped)	Arles	Siliqua	357-360	RIC VIII, Arles 264	F	1.8	P	1998/2
19	Valentinian I	GL(ORIA R)OMANORVM LVGS (chipped)	Lyons	AE3	367-375	-	F	1.6	P	1996/7
19	Valentinian I	GLOR(IA ROMANORVM) OF/I/LVG( )	Lyons	AE3	364-375	-	VW	2.0	S	2003/32
19	Valentinian I	(GLORIA ROMANORVM) (chipped)	-	AE3	364-375	-	EW	1.4	P	2003/31
19	Valens	(GLORIA ROMA)NORVM B/SMAQP	Aquileia	AE3	364-367	LRBC 2, 970	VW	2.3	P	2002/30
19	Valens	GLORIA RO(MANOR)VM ( )CON	Arles	AE3	364-378	-	VW	1.9	P	1998/7
19	Valens	(GLORI)A RO(MANORVM)	-	AE3	364-375	-	W/VW	2.3	P	2003/18
19	Valens	GLORIA RO(MANORVM)	-	AE3	364-378	-	EW	2.1	P	2004/30
19	Gratian	GLORIA (ROM)ANORVM V/A/PCON	Arles	AE3	375-378	LRBC 2, 540	W	2.1	P	2004/37
19	H. of Valentinian	(GLORIA ROMANORVM)	-	AE3	364-378	-	EW	1.5	P	2002/16
19	Valentinian I	SEC(VRITAS) REIPVBLICAE +/(S)MAQP	Aquileia	AE3	364-367	LRBC 2, 986	W/VW	2.4	P	2003/38
19	Valentinian I	(SECVRITAS R)EI(PVBLICAE) OF/I/CON	Arles	AE3	367-375	LRBC 2, 514	W/VW	2.3	P	2003/2
19	Valentinian I	(SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE)	-	AE3	364-375	-	VW/EW	2.0	P	2002/11
19	Valens	(SE)CVRIT(AS) REIPV(BLICAE) SMAQ( ) (chipped)	Aquileia	AE3	364-378	-	VW	2.0	P	2002/14
19	Valens	SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE SCON	Arles	AE3	367-378	LRBC 2, 528 or 532	W	2.2	S	2003/43
19	Valens	SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE QK/Q/ASISCR	Siscia	AE3	367-375	LRBC 2, 1373	F	2.1	P	2003/15
19	Valens	(SE)CVRITAS (REIPVBLICAE)	-	AE3	364-378	-	W(C)	2.5	P	2001/3
19	Valens	(SECVRITAS R)EIPVBLICAE ( )CON (chipped)	Arles	AE3	364-378	-	VW	1.4	P	2004/13
19	Valens	(SECV)RITAS REIP(VBLICAE)	-	AE3	364-378	-	VW	2.1	P	2004/22
19	Valens	SECV(RITAS R)EIPV(BLICAE) OF/I/Branch/LVG(P)	Lyons	AE3	367-375	LRBC 2, 328	VW	2.2	P	2004/24
19	Valens	(SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE)	-	AE3	364-378	-	VW/EW	1.9	P	2004/27
19	Valens	SECVRI(TAS REIPVB)LICAE OF/I/LVGPD	Lyons	AE3	367-375	LRBC 2, 309	W	1.7	P	2004/33
19	Gratian	(SECVRITAS) REIP(VBLICAE)	Lyons	AE3	367-375	LRBC 2, 326	W	2.3	P	2002/6
19	Gratian	SECVRITAS REIPV(BLICAE) OFI/SR/(LVGP)	Lyons	AE3	367-375	LRBC 2, 353	W	2.1	S	2003/26
19	H. of Valentinian	SECVRI(TAS REIPVBLICAE) PCON (incomplete)	Arles	AE3	364-378	-	W(C)	1.4	P	2002/27
19	H. of Valentinian	(SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE) A/ /( )SI( )	Siscia	AE3	367-375	-	VW	1.4	P	2003/16
19	H. of Valentinian	(SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE)	-	AE3	364-378	-	EW	1.6	P	2002/18
19	H. of Valentinian	(SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE)	-	AE3	364-378	-	EW	1.9	P	2002/22
19	H. of Valentinian	(SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE) (chipped)	-	AE3	364-378	-	EW	2.4	P	2004/20
19	Gratian	GLO(RIA NOVI SAEC)VLI SCON	Arles	AE3	367-375	LRBC 2, 529	W	2.4	S	2003/24
19	Gratian	GLORIA NOVI (SAE)CVLI ( )CON	Arles	AE3	367-375	As LRBC 2, 529	W	2.9	P	2003/19
19	Gratian	(GLORIA NOVI SAECVLI)	Arles	AE3	367-375	-	VW	1.7	P	2003/40
19	Gratian	(GLORIA NOVI SAECVLI)	Arles	AE3	367-375	-	EW	1.6	P	2004/21
19	Gratian	(GL)ORIA N(OVI) SAECV(LI) TCON	Arles	AE3	367-376	-	VW	1.9	P	2004/26
20	Gratian	Wreath VOT XV MVLT XX	-	AE4	378-383	-	EW/VW	1.6	P	1998/8
20	Valentinian II	CONCOR(DIA AVGGG) LVGS	Lyons	AE3	378-383	LRBC 2, 369	W/F	2.0	P	2004/32
21	Valentinian II	(SAL)VS (REIPVBLICAE)	-	AE4	388-392	-	VW/W	1.3	P	2003/9
21	Theodosius I	(VICTOR)IA AVGGG (L)VG(P)	Lyons	AE4	388-392	LRBC 2, 391	W	1.2	P	2003/35
	-	Details illegible	Rome	As	C1-C2	-	EW	6.0	P	2003/36
	-	Figure stg. l, sacrificing over altar	Rome	As	C2	-	EW/VW (C)	9.2	P	2004/36
	-	Uncertain emperor. Reverse illegible. (Pierced)	Rome	Den	Early C3	-	EW	2.0	P	2003/41
	‘Antoninus Pius’	Emperor stg. l. RESTITVTOR MO(N) SC . The reverse legend is only recorded for Severus Alexander (222-235) (RIC 601) and this is probably a late, lightweight forgery.	-	Dup	Mid C3?	Un-catalogued	VW/W	2.3	P	2004/28
	-	Details illegible (chipped)	-	AE3	c.260-378	-	EW	1.0	P	2003/39
	Illegible	Illegible copy	-	AE4	c.270-365	-	EW	0.5	P	2002/20
	Illegible	Illegible copy	-	AE4	c.270-365	-	EW	0.7	P	2002/33

Pd. – Period; Ref. – Reference; Cond. – Condition; Con. – Context; P. – Ploughsoil; S. – Stratified; US – Unstratified. Dup. – Dupondius;

Den. – Denarius; Ses – Sestertius; Ant – Antoninianus; Barb Rad – Barbarous radiate; H. – House. V. – very; W. – worn; F. – fine; G. – good;

E. – extremely; N. – near; (C) – corroded, encrusted.

LRBC – Late Roman Bronze Coinage, (eds) Carson R.A.G., Hill, P.V. and Kent, J.P.C. (Spink and Son, 1978).

RIC – Roman Imperial Coinage (10 volumes). VA – Van Arsdell, R.D., Celtic Coinage of Britain (Spink and Son, 1989).

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

Pd

Emperor etc

Description

Mint

Type

Date

Catalogue ref.

Cond.

Wt (gm)

Con.

Site ref.

TABLE 2: DETAILS OF STRATIFIED COINS FROM MINSTER ROMAN VILLA (1996-2004)

Period	Emperor etc.	Date	Context	Site ref.
IA 8.1	Eppillus	c.1-15 AD	Well shaft adj Building 6, AFM-03-7157	2003/25
5	Nerva	96-97	Soil over Building 6, AFM-03-7102	2003/1
5	Trajan	114-117	Subsoil, NE of Building 1, AFM-02-822	2002/28
6	Hadrian	128-138	Building 6, upper fill of Room 43, AFM-03-7206	2003/34
7	Antoninus Pius	140-144	Building 1, fill of Room 17, AFM-97-1007	1997/1
7	Faustina I, deified	141-145	Pit cutting Building 6, AFM-03-7164	2003/29
7	Antoninus Pius	159-160	Pit near Building 2, AFM-01-306	2001/2
7	Faustina II	145-161	Building 3, drain channel, AFM-98-3121 (SF 533)	1998/1
10	Septimius Severus	200-209	Metalling by south entrance, AFM-02-7206	2002/26
17	Theodora	337-340	Subsoil, NE of Building 1, AFM-02-822	2002/5
17	House of Constantine	c.335-345	Building 7, upper filling of pit for corn drier, AFM-03-7009	2003/30
18	House of Constantine	c.355-365	Building 7, upper filling of pit for corn drier, AFM-03-7009	2003/10
18	House of Constantine	c.355-365	Building 7, upper filling of pit for corn drier, AFM-03-7009	2003/23
19	Valentinian I	364-375	Building 7, upper filling of pit for corn drier, AFM-03-7009	2003/32
19	Valens	367-378	Subsoil adj. Building 7, AFM-03-7002	2003/43
19	Gratian	367-375	Building 7, upper filling of pit for corn drier, AFM-03-7009	2003/26
19	Gratian	367-375	Building 7, filling of pit for corn drier, AFM-03-7017	2003/24
-	Not certainly a coin - Illegible	-	Well shaft adjacent to Building 6, AFM-03-7104	2003/11

Table 3: Details of post-Roman coins from Minster Roman Villa site (1996-2004)

King etc.	Description	Type	Date	Mint	Site ref.
Hlothere?	Radiate bust right / standard Series A3 (imitation)	Sceatta	c.675-685	Kent	2004/15
Elizabeth I	- (bent and chipped)	Sixpence	15?5	London	2002/10
Hans Krauwinckel II	-	Jetton	1586-1635	Nuremburg	1996/8
Commonwealth	-	Penny	1649-1660	London	2003/5
Charles II	-	Farthing	1672-1679	London	2004/-
William & Mary	-	Halfpenny	1694	London	2002/19
William & Mary	-	Halfpenny	1694	London	2004/-
William III	-	Halfpenny	1699-1701	London	2004/-
George III	-	Farthing	1773	London	2004/-
George III	-	Halfpenny	1799	Birmingham	1999/-
Victoria	-	Farthing	1838-1860	London	2004/-

table 4: coins from minster Roman villa site

(1990-1992)

Period	Emperor etc.	Coin	Date	Number
Iron Age
IA	-	AE	C1BC/C1AD	1
Roman
3	Galba	Denarius	68-69	1
4	Domitian	Dupondius	81-96	1
5	Trajan	Denarius	98-117	2
5	Trajan	Sestertius	98-117	1
7 or 8	Faustina II	Denarius	145-175	1
17	House of Constantine (CONSTANTINOPOLIS)	AE3 (or copy)	330-345	1
18	Magnentius	AE2	350-353	1
-	-	Sestertius	C1-C2	6
-	-	Dupondius	C1-C2	2
-	-	AE	C1	2
-	-	AE	C2	1
-	-	AE	C2-C3	6
-	-	Antoninianus	C3	1
-	-	Antoninianus	260-296	3
-	-	Follis	C3-C4	2
-	-	AE3	C3-C4	43
-	-	AE3	C4	4
-	-	AE	C1-C4	1
Post-Roman
	Saxon	Sceatta	c.675-740	2
	John	Penny	1199-1216	1
	Henry III	Penny	1216-1272	1
	Henry III	Cut halfpenny	1216-1272	2
	Edward I	Penny	1279-1307	5
	Edward III	Penny	1327-1377	1
	Edward I-III	Penny	1279-1377	2
	-	Jetton	C13	1
	Richard II	1/4 noble	1377-1399	1
	Henry VII	Penny	1485-1509	1
	Henry VIII	Halfgroat	1509-1547	1
	Mary	Groat	1553-1554	1
	Elizabeth I	Groat	1559-1561	1
	Elizabeth I	Sixpence	1559-1602	1
	Elizabeth I	Halfgroat	1559-1602	2
	James I	Shilling	1603-1625	1
	James I	Sixpence	1603-1625	1
	James I	Penny	1603-1625	1
	Charles I	Penny	1625-1642	2
	-	Jetton	C17	4
	-	Jetton	unknown	2
	-	Token ?	1648-1672	1
	Charles II	Farthing	1672-1679	1
	William & Mary	Halfpenny	1694	1
	William III	Farthing	1694-1702	1
	George I	Halfpenny	1717-1724	1
	George III	Halfpenny	1770-1807	1
	Victoria	Sixpence	1838-1901	1
	Victoria	Penny	1838-1901	1

Period

Emperor etc.

Coin

Date

Number