But they by manly industry and pains
Their station’s duty had enacted quite;
Though little were their knowledge and their gains
In worldly wisdom, here they glisten’d bright,
For they with willing hearts all that they knew
Had done to honour God, like servants good and true.

"And yet this city fair and beautiful
Was but a type of a more beauteous place;
And those sun-rays, wherewith these stones were full,
At best a figure of a Saviour’s grace
For ever resting on His chosen few,
Who followed Him on earth, and bore His cross
From day to day, with loyal hearts and true,
Counting earth’s hopes for His dear sake but loss;
Who e’en on earth as stars were made to shine,
And by their light declar’d their origin divine."

The ‘Musings of a Spirit,’ by George Marsland, are very just and true generally in sentiment, but somewhat heavy and unimaginative. It is only in the hands of a few master-spirits that moral reflections in verse convey pleasure as well as instruction. The following is a very favourable specimen of Mr. Marsland's musings:—

"Tho’ all things seem to move by natural law,
They are but shadows of the spiritual,
And he who can interpret their portent,
Attains the highest place to man assigned.
How few there are who can in truth allege
A single aim and purpose in their life;
That they an object set before them first,
And ever kept in view, regarding all
Inferior things as merely episodes,
The tributary streams to their design!
Such in all ages have been greatest men,
For they alone accomplish a great end.
A mind heroic, firm, and undismayed,
With discipline so greatly exercised,
That neither pain nor pleasure—fame—disgrace—
Will move the mind reliant’s firm resolve;
All circumstance—time—place—attend his march,
And bind his passions captive to the wheels;
To such a will all nature will bow down,
And own the conquering spirit of a man."

An Irish minstrel comes next, Mr. Elrington, whose lyre is tuned to the tones of Tom Moore's melodies, but there is little either of the firmness or the tenderness of touch with which that great lyricist charmed the world. Mr. Elrington tells his readers that his effusions are far more those of the heart than of the head, and that, not writing for fame...

...has bestowed little literary labour on his compositions. This confession is more honest than judicious. An author ought to use his head to correct and improve even those writings which are most directly the utterances of the heart, and it will be found that the poets whose works have the appearance of being the most artless and natural, have spent the most time and labour in finishing their poems. Most of Mr. Elrington's pieces have appeared in periodical literature, and a few of them are familiarly known from being set to the music of popular melodies; but as his poems are now collected in one volume, published "at the solicitation of friends" belonging to the 'Goldsmith Club,' we give what we consider an average specimen of the style and spirit of the poetry:

"THE BROKEN VASE."
"Tho' the blossom of beauty, by man's cruel hand,
Was crushed when expanding to gladden the eye,
And dishonoured it sunk on the withering land,
Its spirit ascended to brighten the sky;
And thus, tho' the vase may a ruin be made,
Its odours ascend on the Zephyr's sweet breath,
Still floating above where its roses are laid,
Like lingering smiles on the features of death!

"Beautiful relic, thy flowers are all crushed,
Like the soul-breathing hopes of a fond lover's mind,
And the voice of the bee round thy blossoms is hushed,
For their sweets have been wafted away on the wind.
No more will the butterfly pillow its wing
On their bosoms when faint in the blaze of the day,
No more will the bird round them joyfully sing,
Or fan their warm leaves with the breath of his lay.

"The world is a vase that contains many flowers,
Alternately blooming and fading away,
Unrefreshed, unrevived, by the sun's genial showers,
When the buds of the meadow and garden look gay.
And the world, like the vase, will be broken beneath
The chariot of God when his thunders arise,
And our souls like the perfume of roses will breathe
More purely when borne from the earth to the skies."

The most ambitious, and perhaps most successful, of Mr. Elrington's works is his ‘Ode to Shakspeare,’ which was honoured by a special prize from the Dublin Oratorical and Literary Society. The allusions to many of the poet’s scenes and characters are happily introduced. The ode closes with these lines:

“Hail! bright, imperishable, glorious name,
Wreathed with fresh laurels each succeeding year;
Synonymous with nature, life, and fame,
Which this and distant ages must revere;
The tongue of nature; the interpreter
Of all her passions, principles, and ways,
Which, mute, still speaks, like truth that cannot err,
The organ of all manners, times, and days;
The intellectual, deathless evergreen;
The immortality of life and time;
Voiceless, yet heard, invisible, yet seen,
Impassioned, thrilling, eloquent, sublime,
The rainbow of the universal mind,
Beheld, and praised by each admiring eye;
Obscured, it may be, but again we find
That sacred arch expanding o’er the sky,
With brighter, deeper hues, to testify
That till the world shall fail it cannot die.”

The author of ‘Cwm Dhu’ has not done wisely in making his first public appearance with a title to his work which must be caviare to the multitude. The scanning of the first word may be guessed from its use in the first stanza of canto i., which, with another, we quote to show the metre of the poem. It is a dolefully tragic tale, though it opens with almost burlesque simplicity:

“Whoe’er through Tanat’s vale has strayed,
Has marked, perchance, the sombre hue
Of Nature’s garb in Cwm Dhu;
Or tempted by its grateful shade,
Has sought at noon some darker glade
Within that deep and lonely dell,
Whereon the sun’s bright beams ne’er fell,
Or straggling fitfully in mazes played.

“There lived, nor yet remote the day,
The yeoman Jones; his honest name,
Though dear to Wales, unknown to fame,
Nor suited to the poet’s lay;
Yet would the Muse her tribute pay
To sterling worth wherever found,
Nor leave a gentle spirit bound,
To dumb forgetfulness permitted prey.”

There is much quiet humour throughout the whole volume, and the light playful pieces please us more than the formal poems of larger pretensions.

The fables, such as that of ‘The Church and the Windmill,’ and the domestic and pastoral eclogues, are very ably written. Of the sonnets we give one specimen:

“To David Wilkie.”
"How truly to the life dost thou portray,
Thou matchless limner, each domestic scene!
Whether by cleikum’s ruddy fire at e’en
The Village Politicians close the day;
Or the Blind Fiddler scrape his drowsy lay;
Or Chelsea Pensioners with glee peruse
Of hard-fought Waterloo the stirring news;
Or honest farmers meet, their Rent to pay;
Or frolickers at Blindman’s Buff to play;
Or anxious Legatees the will to read;
Or his Cut Finger whittling urchin rue;
Or hind his Rabbit on the wall display;
To thee will genuine taste award the meed
Of cultivated art to nature true.”

The writer need not be ashamed to publish his name with any future poems. Let him choose good subjects, and take more pains in finishing his pieces, omitting whatever to himself appears doubtful or weak, and his writings will be worthy of attention.

The Australian Pastorals are happily conceived; and as to the language used by the speakers, it is explained by the author that men of good birth and education are often found as shepherds in the bush and on the plains of Australia. Tityrus and Corydon at the antipodes hold dialogue in strains like these:

“Tityrus. ‘Twas poverty that drove me from my home,
My frugal state unable to maintain:
No willing exile, but compelled to roam,
And seek my fortune o’er the restless main.
Free trade and taxes, Corydon, make England poor;
To these my weary banishment I owe;
These brought the ravening wolf within my door,
And from my mortgaged homestead bade me go.”

Then follow sweet reminiscences of home and of old England, to which Corydon replies by praising the land of their adoption, and thus encourages his companion:

“Corydon. Another world demands another mind;
A dauntless spirit suits an exile’s state;
Nor should the olden ties of country bind
The banished victim of relentless fate.
Shake off that longing for thy native soil,
Her children’s love unworthy to retain;
Where purse-proud wealth but mocks at patient toil,
And nought is fostered save commercial gain:
More dear to me the freedom of the bush,
Its calm repose, and peaceful solitude,
Than fairer lands, where honesty must blush
For woman’s broken faith, and man’s ingratitude.”

The poem entitled ‘A Broken Echo’ is by an admirer and imitator of the ‘Childe Harold’ of Byron. In description the author does not so much excel as in his reflective strains, which are superior, and his verse rich and smooth, as may be seen in the following stanzas on some Druidical remains:

“I love beneath the pale moonlight to climb
To where those monumental records stand,
Piled by the skill of dark primeval time,
When superstition scowled along the land,
And all religion was a deed of crime;
While human blood ran red ’neath human hand,
To gods before whose shrine the Briton rude
Bent low his head—in this wild solitude!

“The heavens are clear, and o’er the circle thrown
The mellowing radiance; o’er the gentle mound,
In ghostly form, each gray mysterious stone
Casts its weird shadow on the sacred ground;
The spot long reverenced, now is still and lone,
And by the wasted circle’s magic round
The night winds mock and whistle idly by,
Its aspect of most desert majesty.

“Ye cold gray brethren,—seated ’mid the waste
Where ye have sat in silence whilst the seal
Of pregnant ages, on your aspect traced,
Hath pressed and left you grandly based,
Immutable to all this world can feel
Of change, of bliss, of woe,—strong types are ye,
Of contemplation wrapt in Deity!

“The awful pomp, the muttered Runic chant,
The gory rite to Woden or to Thor,
The human victims’ agonizing pant,
The words of Hell that shuddering breezes bore,
Are whispered in tradition’s dubious grant;
While ye who saw these pagan deeds of yore
Gaze calmly on, as obdurate land from hence,
With the intense and mute eloquence.”

We have still several volumes of recent poetry to notice, and will give audience shortly to another company of lyrists.

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suddenly a new kind of writing—a popular style introduced into physical science. One of the most successful imitators of Humboldt's style was Professor Schleiden; and much as his colleagues have reason to complain of the coarse and unrefined manner in which he has criticized their labours and ridiculed their opinions, he deserves the thanks of all botanists for the great ability and zeal he has shown in advocating their cause. ‘The Plant: a Biography,’ a work which has been translated into several languages, and of which a second edition has just appeared in this country, may be looked upon as an able protest against the subordinate rank which has unhappily too generally, and perhaps not quite undeservedly, been assigned to botany.

"My chief aim," says Professor Schleiden, "was, in fact, the satisfaction of what may be called a class-vanity. A large proportion of the uninitiated, even among the educated classes, are still in the habit of regarding the botanist as a dealer in barbarous Latin names, a man who plucks flowers, names them, dries and wraps them up in paper, and whose whole wisdom is expended in the determination and classification of these ingeniously collected hay. This portrait of the botanist was, alas! once true, but it pains me to observe, that now, when it bears a resemblance so few, it is still held fast by very many persons; and I have sought, therefore, in the present discourse, to bring within the sphere of general comprehension the more important problems of the real science of botany, to point out how closely it is connected with almost all the most abstruse branches of philosophy and natural science, and to show how, in most every instance, the study of plants tends, as well in botany as in every other branch of human activity, to suggest the most earnest and important questions, and to carry mankind forward beyond the possession of sense to the anticipations of the spirit. If, through my efforts, the reader of these sketches shall hereafter hold a worthier opinion of botany, and the physiologist shall form a more accurate conception of the compass and objects of our science, I shall be content."

Both the works placed at the head of this notice originated in the lecture-room, and consist of a series of popular addresses. Schleiden's book has already been noticed by us on its first appearance in its English dress, and we cannot content ourselves with remarking that this second edition has been translated from the third German one, and has been augmented by several illustrations and two additional lectures—one on ‘The Water and its Movements,’ and one on ‘The Sea and its Inhabitants.’ As a specimen of the former we select the following passage:

"We speak of the ocean as a surface, and to the first passing glance it appears like a motionless, calm expanse. But an attentive ear detects the soft murmur of the waves rolling in to the foot of the cliffs, and an observant eye at length discovers that the whole infinite surface rises and sinks as if with a gentle respiration. The sailors call this a ‘ground swell.’

“It is but apparent calm that here deceives us; it is no lifeless, motionless mass, but ever moving, restlessly changing, living water, which, like oceans of air, winds its embracing arms around the solid land. It is true the degree of the movement and its phenomena varies in storm and calm, but no peace is granted to the fluid, insatiable element. Not to speak of the weight with which the moving atmosphere presses on the surface of the ocean and disturbs its equilibrium, there are three regular movements of the water, produced by the invisible and imperceptible, but, for all that, irresistible power of the sun and moon, going on almost silently in their appointed course, and yet infinitely grander and more mighty than the most fearful tumult of the stirred elements in the West Indian tornado or in the Chinese typhoon."

"The sun which sparkles so pleasantly on the crystal surface is constantly driving the evaporating water upwards by its heat; this ascends as an invisible gas, to fall to earth again as rain and snow. The heaviest rain-drops scarcely make a visible impression on the softest ground where they fall. The falling water exerts a force scarcely worth naming in the mere act of falling. But it then collects into springs, brooks, and streams; and as it again glides gradually down the inclined plains of the land into its mother’s bosom, it arches vessels, drives mills, and performs other services in the artificial contrivances of man. The total amount of flowing water in Europe has a power equal to 300,000,000 horses, according to the ordinary mode of calculating for steam engines. This does indeed seem a great force, but we readily reconcile the idea to our minds if we think of the bubbling of springs, the rustling of brooks, the roar of large rivers, and the thunder of falls like those of the Rhine or the Trollhätta. The human mind only too easily falls into the error of regarding that as mighty which makes a powerful impression upon the senses, and readily yields itself to the mistake of imagining that to be unimportant which works noiselessly, unobserved and unceasingly—but unceasingly. Thus it is here also. The ocean, assumed to have an average depth of 1000 feet, would contain some twenty-nine millions of cubic miles of water, and if it were emptied, it would require all the streams of the earth to pour their waters in for 40,000 years before the empty basin was filled up again. The whole force of the flowing waters of the earth is not so much as that of the force which raises its water to the clouds in the form of vapour. The heat used in this to evaporate this water amounts to a full third part of all the heat which is imparted by the sun to our earth. This amount of heat, during only one year, would suffice to melt a crust of ice thirty-two feet thick enveloping the whole earth, while all the fuel consumed in Europe in one year would not be capable of freeing the planet from a crust of ice one-eighth of an inch thick. According to the technical reckoning, that amount of heat which annually raises the sea-water in the form of vapour corresponds to the enormous force of 1000 million horses. Consequently, over one-third of this horse-power acts upon every acre of land, while in the most active of the manufacturing counties of England, Lancashire, the average power employed is only one-fifth of a horse-power per acre, or 1/150th part of this force."

The work of Schouw, ‘Earth, Plants, and Man,’ was originally written in Danish, but translated into German under the auspices of the author; and it is from that version that the present translation has been made. It opens with a history of plants, from the earliest appearance of vegetation upon the surface of our planet until the present time,—certainly the best part of the book; which is followed by different unconnected papers—‘The Mistletoe,’ ‘The Tea and Coffee Shrubs,’ ‘The Cotton Plant,’ &c.,—all written in a clean and lucid style.

The creation has always been a favourite theme as well as a fruitful source of controversy; and it is really refreshing to find an author like Schouw discussing it without making angry remarks or dealing out blows to those who may differ from him in opinion, or have arrived at conclusions opposed to his. He treats the origin of the existing vegetation with a remarkable degree of skill, and is inclined to believe that every species of plant had several progenitors; that no new species originate at present; that the appearance of the existing vegetation of the earth took place by degrees; and that the Alpine Flora is, in comparison with the rest of the vegetable kingdom, of inferior age, or created last.

We will quote a passage to show how the author treats these subjects. He says—

"A third fundamental question, which presses itself upon us, is, whether the appearance of the existing vegetation of the earth took place at once, or by degrees? It appears to me that much speaks in favour of the latter alternative. The surface of the earth only became gradually fitted, through various elevations, for the growth of plants upon it, and the characters of the soil and climate were different in different quarters of the globe; therefore there is the greatest probability in the assumption that such vegetation originally made its appearance in that, or in those places where the conditions were most favourable. Moreover, plants exist in conditions of whose existence depend upon other plants, and the appearance of the latter must, therefore, have preceded those of the former. Parasitical plants, as well the higher as the lower, could not exist before those plants upon which they grew were in existence. Plants flourishing in the shade—for example, the woods and the forest plants of the present time—could not have made their appearance before trees existed; nor bog-plants before the mosses and conifers which form peat-bogs. The appearance of manure plants was equally impossible, so long as no manure existed. The growth of vegetation upon naked cliffs commenced with lichens and mosses, which threw out a little mould and accumulated the humus in which the seeds of other plants could germinate, and plants of greater dimensions, bushes and trees, gradually made their appearance. It is therefore altogether improbable that in the first appearance of vegetation, the majority of plants would have presented themselves before the conditions in which they live had come into existence. I must, consequently, assume a gradual creation as in the highest degree probable."

This conclusion also applies to the Animal Kingdom, from which it besides receives an additional proof. Every one knows that there are a great many parasitical animals, but no one will venture to assert that they could have existed before those animals upon which they now live and from which they were created; nor can anyone for a moment believe that those creatures which grow upon animals, as, for instance, the Sphæria Robertsi, upon the caterpillar of a New Zealand moth, could live while they were to be attached have ceased to exist. Schouw also gives a pleasing account of a plant to which many of our readers of both sexes may occasionally have reason to be grateful,—we mean the Mistletoe, which plays a prominent part in northern mythology, particularly in the Balder Myths, and which from time immemorial seems to have been looked upon with peculiar veneration:

"It is not a matter of surprise," says the author, "that a plant of such peculiar aspect, and which occurs in so remarkable position, as the mistletoe, should have awakened the attention of various races, and exerted influence over their religious ideas. It played an especially important part among the Gauls. The oak was sacred with them, their priests abode in oak forests. Oak boughs and oak-leaves were used in every religious ceremony, and their sacrifices were made beneath an oak-tree; but the mistletoe, when it grew upon the tree, was peculiarly sacred, and regarded as a divine gift. It was gathered, with great ceremony, on the sixth day after the first new moon of the year; two white oxen, which were then for the first time placed in yoke, were brought beneath the tree, the sacrificing priest, the Druid, clothed in white garments, ascended it, and cut off the mistletoe with a golden sickle; it was caught in a white cloth held beneath, and then distributed among the bystanders. The oxen were sacrificed with prayers for the happy effects of the mistletoe. A beverage was prepared from this, and used as a remedy for all poisons and diseases, and which was supposed to favour fertility. A remnant of this custom exists still in France, for the peasant boys

[Clipping:]

use the expression, 'Au gui l’an neuf,' as a New Year’s greeting. It is also a custom in England to hang the mistletoe to the ceiling on Christmas Eve, the men lead the women under it, and wish them a happy new year. Perhaps the mistletoe was taken as a symbol of the new year, on account of its leaves giving the bare tree the appearance of having regained its foliage."

Folio 5. Clipping [TBD]

Folio 6

minds us of the consul in the days of Catiline, and denounced him with a violence which shows that he took small thought of his own safety. Approaching to this final crisis his intellectual activity was never greater than in the last two years of his life, and his chief consolation was the study of philosophy, and devotion to what we may call the belles lettres. It was then he wrote De Natura Deorum, De Divinatione, De Gloria, De Fato, De Amicitia, and De Senectute, and occupied himself in giving the last touches to a history of his own times which is now entirely lost. It has been computed that we possess little more than a tenth part of what he wrote; and this Mr. Forsyth thinks is certainly true if we include his lost speeches, most of which were carefully prepared and written out beforehand. We cannot, he says, but admire the industry and genius which enabled him, when his mind was depressed by sorrow, and he saw the institutions of his country crumbling to ruin, and her liberties the prize of the most successful adventurer, to distract his thoughts from the chaos of politics, and employ them on such lofty themes. Yet, in a public sense, at no period of his career was he so truly great as in the closing scenes of his life. He had been overawed by the genius of Cæsar, and had been attached to Pompey by personal regard and an exaggerated feeling of gratitude, but without faith in him as a statesman or a general, and so he had hesitated and oscillated in a pitiable manner throughout the civil war; but now his course was clear and his duty manifest. And the Romans, on their side, exhibited an enthusiastic attachment towards him, and a consciousness of his sincere desire to save the State, which invested him with a force and dignity to which he never attained so fully as when his struggle was about to close.

Mr. Forsyth says of his second Philippic, which was published, though never spoken, that as a specimen of invective it is unsurpassed. He might say unrivalled, if he did not recollect the speech of Demosthenes against Midias, and that it is also of...

...of these men, subject to regular discipline, under a competent commander. By admitting no one to the Corps who did not bring a good character; by enforcing on all who joined the strict observance of such regulations as would ensure satisfactory service to the public; and by rigidly dismissing every man who, either from moral or other faults, proved himself unfit to be trusted, he hoped to make the fact of a man belonging to the Corps of Commissionaires a guarantee that he could be safely employed in the work we have indicated, and that thus all the good men among the pensioners of our two services would find honest and sufficient employment, while the public would be supplied with a valuable addition to the labour-market.

How completely these anticipations have been justified appears by the statement we publish this morning. The Corps started rather more than five years ago with seven men. It now numbers 250. The Commissionaires have become one of the regular institutions of London, and, indeed, of the United Kingdom, for they have branch divisions in Dublin, Edinburgh, and other great cities. Their uniform is almost as familiar to us as that of the ubiquitous but too invisible policeman. A Commissionaire is almost an invariable adjunct to our greatest houses of business. The clubs, the great hotels, the principal tradesmen have adopted them; they were of invaluable service in the Exhibition of 1862; they are becoming more and more employed every day in public buildings like the Agricultural Hall, in the capacity of ticket-takers and money-receivers; they are ready in nearly all our great thoroughfares to perform for the public in general, at a very moderate remuneration, all the work of messengers and light porters. In short, they have dropped at once into a vacant place in the economy of city life; they have supplied a great and growing necessity, and in consequence they have been eagerly sought for, and the demand is every day increasing. The result to the men themselves has been as satisfactory as to the public. These 250 men are all earning on an average not less than 3s. a day, and many of them earn a good deal more.

They earn this by a service far less laborious than the unskilled work which is generally required in London to earn that sum, and they are frequently in positions comparatively pleasant. For these advantages they have only to submit to a very moderate direct and indirect taxation for supporting the necessary expenses of the organization of the Corps, and to conform to a set of regulations which, though stringent, imply no hardship, for they are in fact but the tools with which the men work. It is the knowledge that they are subject to these regulations which induces the public to trust them. They have many other direct advantages. The single men are provided with good barracks and good food, of course at their own expense. It is one of the regulations of the service that they shall lay by money regularly in the savings-bank, and a sick fund has been established, to which all contribute, upon principles which are subject to the approbation and continual revision of the Registrar of Friendly Societies and professional accountants. It would, in short, be hard to find a better instance of the way in which employer and employed, master and servant, the public and those who supply it, always find their interests identical and co-extensive.

But there is one feature of anxiety in this otherwise satisfactory picture. It will have been understood at once that the whole efficiency of the organization, the possibility of these men being qualified for the service they undertake, depends upon the maintenance of the discipline of the Corps; and that alone, gives them the character which obtains the confidence of the public. Now, the maintenance of this discipline entirely depends upon their having a competent commanding officer at their head. Without some one to enforce the regulations and look after the general administration of the affairs of the Corps, the organization would...

Folio 7

Lanercost[?]
[?]
[?]
8th[?] Nov 1852
Sir,
As I find from the Maidstone Journal that you are soliciting contributions with a view of publishing a new edition of Hasted’s "History of Kent," perhaps it may be acceptable to examine the enclosed plan of the Roman remains found in the grounds at Springhead when [?] belonging to alterations Sir R. Price. They were in the possession of the Rev. Dr. Barkleigh Rector of Southfleet and were I think submitted by him to the British Museum, the drawings were given to me by my late highly respected father-in-law Thos. Harman Esq of [?] Hall who was also present at the discovery of this Roman cemetery. There was a Roman town near at Spring Head called Vogniensis, where a great variety of

Folio 8

remains were dug up by the late Mr. Hinton[?], they consisted of Sepia[?], Rings, Brooches, Fibulae, Mill stones, &c &c. This town must have been of considerable extent - The streets of right angles, are now discernible in my dog walking[?] when the corn is coming into ear. Were more extensive search made at Spring Head, I have no doubt that further interesting archaeological discoveries might be made such as Roman Baths &c. &c. The "Fleet" a branch of the Thames must have been at one period navigable up to the site of this Roman Town as I am informed that an anchor and other -naval- remains have been found in the vicinity and the remains is well known in the river below. Spring Head is well known as the [?] of the London [?]. The gardens are elegantly laid out, and there is a plantation of Alder trees[?] (originally made by Mr. Bradbury) that now is the occupation of the widow of Mr Silvester, who made a collection of Roman remains. -[?]- George Ratcliffe -?- will perhaps give you any information

Folio 9

respecting the enclosed drawings, and perhaps it would be worth your while to make enquiries of Mr. Shuttleworth at Spring Head respecting what he and the late Mr. Land found in digging or trenching his Garden. When you have taken copies of this enclosed, I shall feel obliged by your returning them to me. The spring that rises in the garden part of the Garden and water crop at Spring Head is the property of Mr. Bradley of Woodhouse Hall and myself in right of our respective houses and the heiresses of the late Mr. Harlam. That part of the ancient site of the Roman Town is still to be fields where the Roman Town is still to be traced, belongs to Mr. Collyer of Bolton, in whose occupation the Garden &c. &c. at Spathfield. I wonder the Archaeological Society has not started to make searches upon the spot with a view of elucidating the history of the Roman during their prolonged stay in Britain. I have no doubt that the proprietors of the soil would render them any assistance and facility for so doing. I recollect a Roman Millstone in Mr. Ratcliffe's Garden at

Folio 10

Spathfield, which was taken from near Spring Head - from the side of the Roman Road which runs in a direct line from Rochester to London it was marked X and it is exactly ten miles from Rochester. The Roman Road is now clearly traceable through Spring Head or Vagniacis. I am, Sir Yours Obedient Servant Walter D. Sykes Dunkin Esq Dartford

Folio 11. Front cover

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[Engraving and signature]

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MEMORANDA
OF
SPRINGHEAD
AND
ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD,
During the Primeval Period.

author's own copy - interleaved - for notes, additions,
etc etc etc etc

ONE HUNDRED COPIES
PRINTED FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION.
1848.

Folio 18. Blank page

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Advertisement.

WHEN this tract was commenced printing eighteen months since, it was intended to have made a thick volume, in fact, to be "A His- tory of Kent in the Primeval Period," but circumstan- ces, over which the author had no control, compelled him to vary his plans no less than three times—during which interval, the great discoveries made in various parts of the county, also induced him to change his opinion on one of the theories mooted.

However, the author does not despair of being ena- bled to present the public in a few years, with a work upon Springhead and its neighbourhood, agreeably to his original design, for which he has accumulated vast materials. He likewise lives in hope, that it will be his fortune to describe in it, the discoveries which he antici- pates will be made at the still-deferred thorough ex- ploration, which is to take place at some yet un-na- med period, of the massive and extensive remains in Barque lands; and also minutely detail the contents of the adjacent tumuli in Stone-Park and Swanscombe woods. Tasks long since promised to be undertaken, by the lord of the properties, and both, yet to be ac- complished!

Folio 20

[figures]

ROMAN ANTIQVITIES discovered at SPRINGHEAD, KENT.

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Sir,—I never was more surprised in my life than in read- ing in The League the statement that "Kent got its name from Canute the Dane," in the first letter of "One who has whistled at the Plough." Really, Sir, I conceived that every tyro in this country's etymology was aware that Kent got its title when the Romans, the most deeply learned in prosing people that ever lived, planted their eagles upon its soil. Kent rejoiced in the name of Cantium. I am writing this letter on board one of the Gravesend steamers. I have "Cæsar at hand—for reference." I believe his words are—"The inhabitants of Cantium, or of the 'Cantii,' are the most civilized of the inhabitants of the interior." I am corroborated in this by the learned authors. As the Augustan age, alludes to the Cantii; so also Tacitus, in his "Life of Agricola," written after the decline of Domitian.

This, Sir, as you well know, I assert that the conqueror Cæsar marched into the country. Mr. Danish maintains in the "Chronicles of Kent," that Cæsar had an interview with the sons of Thermas; and in the Antiquities of Kent reasoning from the circumstance that "Tamesis" literally translated into English signifies "a bay formed by the Thames."

Here, Mr. Barry asserts that Cæsar's autobiography is foolishly written; and he does not know whether the great Roman general was disgracefully beaten in all three of his Kentish invasions. Geoffrey of Monmouth, the father of our British Chronicle writers, asserts that, when the three inva- sions in unhistoric statement the modern antiquaries I have named coincide.

Sir, William Betham, the Ulster King at-Arms, and in his "Gael and Cymbri," with Cæsar in conjunction asserting two expeditions; but as his was published in reply to Messrs. Barry and Dunkin's labours.

As, Sir, I am treating of Kent, it may be as well to men- tion the discovery of the body of Cæsar's column in the barn upon the green lanes about Gravesend and Dartford; but that the years has done more to send the question at rest these pages in the age of mistake we live.

I have upon reading the religious learning in this country's antiquities, that it is clear that Cæsar never in any of his expeditions (the two or three) went out of Kent. For evident chances Medway was the river instead of his "Tamesis."

I remain, &c. John Duncombe

Oct. 2, 1846 One of the late contributors to the West Kent Anti-Corn Law Magazine.

When men establish themselves, either as the first inhabitants of a district or by expelling its former occupants, they naturally settle in the first instance along the watercourses. They occupy both banks of streams, not only as affording the most fertile available land, but also the easiest mode of communication. Those whom they esteem strangers are not their neighbours, to whom they can call across the valley water, but the dwellers in the next valley, separated by tracts of forest or barren hill.

Ἔπει μάλᾰ πολλά μεταξύ ὀυρέα γε σκιόεντα.

The watersheds, therefore, not the rivers, will be found almost uniformly to constitute the demarcations of our successive ethnographical maps.

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An Enquiry, &c. &c.

CHAP. I. INTRODUCTION.

"Temples! Baths! or Halls!
Pronounce who can; for all that learning reap'd
From her research, hath been, but these are walls.
There is the moral of all human tales;
'Tis but the same rehearsal of the past.
First Freedom, and then Glory—when that fails
Wealth, vice, corruption—barbarism at last.
And history, with all her volumes vast,
Hath but one page—'tis better written here." CHILDE HAROLD.

Few subjects present greater attractions to ar- chæologists than enquiries into the histories of the earliest inhabitants of Britain. Amongst the sites first selected by the aborigines for settlements, were the eastern and western fruitful heights over- looking the fertile vale watered by the river Ebbs- fleet. On these elevated spots, towns were formed by two distinct tribes, who, thenceforward, actively par- ticipated in the different revolutions, which have oc- curred in the island; since, in times long antecedent to our era, its shores were first trodden by human foot. But unfortunately, of these struggles not even a traditionary legend remains.

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These obscure periods, which some British histo- rians have briefly dismissed, "as utterly unworthy no- tice;" recent investigations and laborious researches have proved to be replete with important and curious memorials. Supposing even that these vestiges do not furnish sufficient data, wherefrom to compile de- tailed and lucid annals—yet it must be admitted, that they are nevertheless, of satisfactory significance to claim the careful consideration of those who have a due sympathy for their fellow creatures.

Comparatively a short period after the advent of our blessed Saviour, there was a Roman town in the valley, of considerable magnitude—far advanced in all the ele- gancies and refinements of social life. A fact, amply attested by the sculptures, ornamented pottery, vases, Samian ware,* querns,* jewellery, domestic utensils, sacrificial debris, sepulchral deposits, &c., which have been exposed, since cultivation has again converted the site to the use of man. These relics combine to

¹ The earliest settlers used stone mullers and grinding troughs of a similar material for pounding their grain. For an engraving of some of the querns found at Springhead, vide fig. 16, plate iii,— kindly etched by Horace Burkett, esq.

² The superior kind of pottery, of a bright red colour, usually termed "Samian," has been supposed, with reason, to be of that kind so named by the younger Pliny, who mentions its being made at various continental towns, and exported to all parts of the empire; and its identity seems confirmed, says Charles Roach Smith, esq., from being met with in abundance in all places occupied by the Romans. This pottery is not less remarkable for its fine texture and rich coraline hue, than for the great diversity of its ornaments. Fabroni, in his history of the antient Aretium vases, has lately sought to prove, that this was the kind of ware fabricated at

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These remnants of former life, silent heretofore, become now the interpreters to man of events antecedent to his own time on the earth. The progress of the enquiry—aided continually by larger scope of increased methods of observation—has furnished us with in our own day a record, singularly authentic, of the great changes the country has undergone.

These are the exponents of a people whose genius, like their blood, is the produce of Celtic—~~the Celtic~~ Celtico-Phoenician crossed by the Roman, of the Saxon wedded to the Norman.

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show, that on this spot, was concentrated a mighty popu- lation, enjoying all the luxuries, gratifications and pleasures, wealth and influence could procure. And since, to the ruined edifices of the Romans we are greatly indebted for the proportions and decorations of our present architecture, it is important, that these monuments and vestiges, which happy accidents have presented to our notice, should be explored and preserved.

"Well may the sad beholder ween from thence,
What works of wonder all devouring time
Has swallowed there, when monuments so brave
Bear record of their old magnificence."

Aretinum, and of which, mention is made by Virgil, Persius and Martial. Isidore of Seville, who wrote in the seventh century, speaks of the red ware as being the manufacture of Aretinum, and cites Sedulius, a poet who flourished before the Christian era, in confirmation of the statement. Vases of this description have been repeatedly found near Arezzo; and Franceso Rossi, who formed a collection of this kind of ware, and made careful researches respecting the manufacture, discovered in the neighbourhood of that town, the furnaces and implements of the potter's art. Numerous potter's marks are to be noticed upon the specimens found there; these marks differ in certain peculiarities from those which occur in specimens found in England, the style of these Aretine vases seems to be more delicate, and is probably the original which subsequently served as a model for the fictile manufacturers of the provinces. Mr. Artis discovered at Caistor, in Northampton- shire, a smother kiln and all the apparatus for potters' mysteries. The reader is referred for an account of Mr. Artis's labours, to his Durobrivae of Antoninus, and the Journal of the British Archaeolo- gical Association. For specimens of some of the Samian ware discovered at Springhead, vide figs, 7, 8, 10, 12, and 14, plate iii; and fig. 2, plate v.

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So completely was the destruction of the Roman town accomplished, that, until, towards the close of the last century, a vague tradition alone existed among the peasantry, that, "in this valley, once stood a large and fair city." The same medium, filled it with "pub- lic houses and churches,"* adding, moreover, "that the stream of the Ebbs was navigable for large ships, even to the church of Southfleet." Modern discoveries have proved, that in some respects, tradition did not err; since, of late years, the plough and the spade have ex- posed multitudes of coins in admirable preservation, once in common circulation, together with massive foundations of mansions, baths, public buildings, and antient temples

"Erst resonant with instrument and song,
And solemn dance of festive multitude."

Different, indeed, was the landscape that lay around, from the aspect which that part of the country now presents. In the valley to the north-east, a full view of which, the Watling-street commanded, (where now, the water-cress plantations* and the far-famed

³ In Mr. Kempe's account of the discoveries at Holwood hill, he says, "in that neighbourhood there was a tradition of there being a large town called Beaverstone or Plaxton, which vulgar report in talking much of the extent of its buildings frequently combining the grossest anachronisms, &c., says that it contained some sixteen public houses, not being willing to have the antient town unfur- nished with a matter of such indispensable comfort to the common- ality of modern days." Archæologia, xxii.

⁴ To the marshy soil may be attributed the fine condition in which the majority of the relies of the Roman period have been preserved.

Folio 29. Wolves in England

WOLVES IN ENGLAND.—Wolves, according to some histo- rians, were extirpated in England by the Saxon King Edgar. Rymer's Fœdera shows that they remained in the kingdom till the reign of King Edward I., more than three hundred years later. A.D. 1290, Edward I. issued a mandate to the sheriff of the counties of Worstershire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Shropshire, and Staffordshire, reciting that he had enjoined to Peter de Corbet to hunt and destroy wolves in the forests of those counties, with men, dogs, and snares, and enjoining said sheriffs to give him all possible assistance.

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Springhead strawberry beds are to be found,) then lay a densely-populated city—for which, the local situation was admirably adapted; Nature having blessed it with fertility of soil and salubrity of climate. To an exterior vallum constructed for the purpose of pro- tecting the outer fosse of that celebrated via militaris, flowed up the Ebbs—on the western bank of which, was the noble navalium, fully described in subsequent pages—whilst the Roman fleet rode securely at anchor in the creek's sheltered harbour. Instead of the wide expanse of water which eighteen hundred years ago occupied the estuary—now, changed by the silent ope- rations of natural and indirect artificial causes can only be beheld a dwindled streamlet, solely preserved for the cultivation of esculent vegetables,

"To what base uses may we come at last."

During the lapse of years between the departure of the Romans and the Norman conquest, the ferocious Saxons wantonly destroyed the artificial barriers which had retained the tides in submission to the rule of man—then, the channel silted up—and by slow but certain processes, the desolate salt marshes became fine and fertile soil, easily yielding to the industrious agriculturist bounteous harvests.

With the ambitious design of preserving from obli- vion the almost obliterated memorials of extinct nations, these pages have been penned;—and, after, a careful scrutiny of contiguous chronology and of the circumstantial evidence in existence, an attempt has been made to furnish an Account of the Towns and the Occupants of the Valley and its Neighbourhood in the olden time.

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14 The execution of the endeavour will be judged by the reader. The facts adduced, will, however, de- monstrate, that more than twice* during the primeval period, did Britain attain comparatively, a high state of civilization; from which, she was suddenly hurled in- to more than midnight darkness by bloody invasions.

The desire of examining the transactions and pro- ceedings of periods of time wrapped in an almost im- penetrable veil of obscurity, is one of the phases of the development of the human mind, which has alike cha- racterised the eras of civilization and of barbarism; and not merely an acquired taste confined to some particu- lar age or country.

A calm and patient investigation in the rude legends and traditions of a predial peasantry, and a philosophi- cal examination of the fables of the “dark ages,” com- bined with a comparison of the pages of the inspired and classic authors, assisted by analogical hypotheses, will enable the plodding antiquary to winnow from the heap of absurdities, pure grains of historic information; and when record and tradition equally fail, he is often enabled by enquiries into the affinities and peculiari- ties of manners and languages, to enlighten the dark allusions, and unravel the mysterious difficulties of antient authorities.

And after perusing the following memoranda relating to four races of men, who, great in their generation,

⁵ “The history of the monarchs of this primeval period, as given by Geoffrey of Monmouth, is absolutely unworthy of credit, and ought to be banished to the region of fiction and romance.”— McPherson, Crit. Diss.

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ON THE TRANSMISSION OF OBJECTS OF ANTIQUITY TO OUR TIMES.

It may not be without interest to consider the means by which various antiquities have been preserved and have devolved to our times, and it is not unconnected with a correct knowledge of them. Indeed, in regard to the villas of the Romans, and some of their other structures, there are particulars which seem to require explanation, and, perhaps, have hitherto not fully received it. To supply this will be one of the principal objects of these remarks, which otherwise will be but brief; and it may be premised that they apply only to the primeval class.

OF BUILDINGS.

It is well known that in Greece and Italy, as well as other parts of the continent, and even in our own island, there are some few structures of the ancients, either still nearly entire, or only so partially in ruins as to exhibit considerable remains of what they were: it is not intended to speak of these under this head; but merely to treat of those remaining portions of villas and domestic structures in our own country, of which many specimens have come to light.

The Roman villas which have been examined in various parts of England have been found covered over with a depth of earth, varying from about four or five feet to two and three, above the higher parts of them now left; and when the superincumbent mass of earth has been removed, not only have hypocausts and tessellated pavements been often found in existence, but even frequently some small portions of the side walls, stuccoed and exhibiting the pattern of the painting and embellishments. These ruins are pronounced by antiquaries to have been buildings destroyed by the Romans themselves on leaving the island, or by the Saxons afterwards in their invasions. What we have now to do with is their having become subterraneous, and the why and the wherefore of that circumstance. In modern times the plough has gone over them, or flocks have fed over them, at a very different level of surface from...

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ON THE TRANSMISSION OF OBJECTS

what formerly existed. Hypocausts, indeed, were sunken down low when they were first formed, but the buildings must have been otherwise so constructed as to have had their tessellated pavements above the level of the adjoining ground: now they are several feet below it. This might not beforehand have been expected, nor is it a thing which we should think likely would now occur.

In fact there was something peculiar in the state of things which produced the effects now alluded to. It is certain the same entire chain of circumstances would not again take place in the case of an edifice abandoned by its owners in a ruinous state at the present time.

That the buildings in question were destroyed by the Romans themselves, or Saxons, there is but little doubt; though we should rather say the latter. There are frequently traces of fire, which denote the devastations of war; since dwellings which suffer by that calamity in peaceable times are generally rebuilt. The reputed cause of their destruction may be therefore admitted, but it must be assigned that very altered circumstances in the population of the country, both as to numbers and habits, took place concurrently with the time of their destruction, to account for the state in which these remains are found.

Britain appears to have been very populous before the coming of the Romans. Caesar says that there was “an infinite multitude of people;” and some other facts and data can be collected to the same purpose. During the first part of the Roman sway there is no reason to suppose that the case was otherwise; but in the latter times of their residence here, the incursions of the Saxons, the continual levies for the Roman armies which were taken out of the country, as well as emigrations to the opposite coast of Brittany, must have caused a diminution. However, there is reason to believe, that after the Romans were withdrawn, there was a real devastation of the population in the Saxon wars. Those invaders are believed to have given but little quarter in battle, and to have had but slight compunction in slaughtering the inhabitants, or driving them away, in order that they might not dispute the possession of the country. The Britons appeared to have retired from time to time to the parts which continued to be possessed by their countrymen; till at last they were repelled to Wales,

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and noble in their attributes, reared monuments in their respective eras⁶ only to be rased⁷; the impression on the reader’s mind can scarcely fail to be indelible,— that, here below

“All is Vanity.”

Dust thou art, and unto Dust shalt thou return.

⁶ The Aborigines. The Belge. The Romans. The Romano-British.

⁷ Bishop Jewell says, “cities fall, kingdoms come to nothing,—empires fade away as the smoke! Where is Numa, Minos, Lycurgus? Where are their books? What is become of their laws?”

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CHAP. III.

ETYMOLOGY.

Names, says Mr. Frederick C. Lukis, however common, have some meaning; therefore they should be well considered: and the antiquary knows the value of examining further when these occur. He also observes, that on many occasions, within the range of his researches, he has had nothing but the name to stimulate or encourage him, and seldom has he been disappointed. Observ. on the Prim. Antiq. of the Channel Islands. Arch. Jl. i. 143.

In the second, third and fourth centuries a Roman city existed in the fertile vale of the Ebbs—the Watling street from the sea-coast to the interior of the island running through its centre;—and in proportion as this city progressed gradually to splendour and magnificence, two British towns on the eastern and western heights fell into irrecoverable decay. These towns⁸ are supposed to have been founded about

⁸ "The Romans found more than twenty towns among two nations only, upon the southern shore of the island." Whit. Manch., i. 3. apud Suetonius—Vespasian. The copy in the British Museum, of Whitaker's History of Manchester, has appended (we were going to write, is defaced by) Francis Douce's hypercritical notes,—notes some of them as remarkable for their illogical reasoning as for their impertinence. Gibbon whose learning and research are indisputable, repeatedly quotes with most favourable observations, "the particular historian of Manchester," whose work, he says "embraces under that obscure title, a subject almost as extensive as the general history of England." Decline and Fall, ch. 38. The two na-

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[Figures]

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...sixteen or seventeen centuries anterior to the Christian era; and at the arrival of the Romans, their inhabitants were celebrated for their learning, virtues, and the cultivation of the arts⁹ they possessed.

In both these settlements, at various periods, flint and metal celts, and arrow heads,¹⁰ have illustration of flint and metal celts

⁹ Kings Mun. Antiq. i.—Archael. xxvi.—Borlase's Cornwall, 287. Whit. Manch. i.—Discord.
¹⁰ Vide Thorpe's Cust. Roff., pp. 100.

tons alluded to by Suetonius, were probably the Belgae and Damnonii. The incidental remarks of Julius Caesar, Diodorus Siculus, Pomponius Mela, Strabo and others, tend also to show the populousness of Britain and the amazing number of towns it contained.

Mr. Yates' theory was, that these instruments were incidental with the doloires of the ancients, and had been used in war as chisels, mounted on the ends of long staves, to destroy the walls of fortified places. Mr. Yates admitted also, that the celt was probably used for domestic purposes, and his views met with the general concurrence of the archaeological audience. The later speaker also referred to his researches in Scandinavia, which confirmed, in his opinion, the truth of Mr. Yates’ conjectures. In all these wars, it was used as an occasional domestic use.

The celt, although simple, seems to have been widely used among early Celtic tribes. But the small apex to which it bears a resemblance suggests it had a specific design beyond mere destruction.

James Yates, Esq., delivered a lecture on the instruments called celts, which are found in such abundance, those discovered in the earlier barrows being formed of stone, and the later specimens of bronze and iron. Mr. Yates's theory was, that these instruments were identical with the dolobræ of the ancients, and had been used in war as chisels, mounted on the ends of long staves, to destroy the walls of fortified places. Mr. Yates admitted also that the celt was probably used for domestic purposes, as a spud, or small spade in gardening, &c. The hole in the side of this implement, he considered, was used to suspend it from the belt of the soldier on his march, and also, by means of leathern thongs, to fasten it to the pole which formed the handle. He adduced, in support of his opinion, the fact that a large number of celts had been found near ancient encampments—that some of them had been found sticking in the ancient fortifications—and that in the Assyrian marbles found by Dr. Layard (two drawings from which were exhibited), soldiers were represented using a similar weapon in destroying the walls of a besieged city.

Mr. Jones and Mr. J. M. Kemble strongly combated the opinion of the lecturer, on the ground that the size of the celt unfitted it for such a purpose. The latter gentleman also referred to his researches in Scandinavia, which confirmed him in his opinion that although some use might be occasionally made of the celt in war, it was applied to a variety of domestic uses, as a chisel, a gardening tool, &c., being apparently almost the only implement in use among the early Celtic tribes. Used as a small axe, the celt must be a formidable weapon; but the small depth to which it could be affixed to a stick rendered it too weak for picking down stone walls or even mounds of earth.

Mr. Yates, in reply, undertook to show that the adze was a very different sort of implement, and bore a distinct name among the ancients.

In consequence of the length to which this discussion extended, the other papers appointed to be read this evening were postponed.

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been picked up; but unfortunately they have been given by the finders, to individuals, who, it is feared, were hardly sufficient archaeologists to have appreciated the presents, and unhappily, they are now dispersed.

At the commencement of the present century, these aboriginal towns¹ and the Roman city, were, alike, types of the old story,

“jam seges Troja fuit.”

cleaving wood. That the Britons cast celts, spear, and arrow-heads, was proved by the discovery in 1735, at Easterly Moor near York, of one hundred heads, with many lumps of metal and a quantity of ashes. The mould of a celt was also found by Sir R. C. Hoare, containing the instrument cast in it.² The metal of which the British weapons and tools were made has been chemically analyzed in modern times, and the proportions appear to be, in a spear-head, one part of tin to six of copper; in a celt, one of tin and ten of copper; and in a knife, one of tin to seven and a half of copper.³ Spear-heads of bone and flint and metal have been found in the barrows on Salisbury Plain. Ex Epist. H. Hatcher, armis.

¹ It has been suggested to us, one of these towns might have been that alluded to by Nennius in his Historia Brittonum XXIII—cair collon. If so, it must have been the one upon the eastern heights.

² In 1845, Barque-fields and Sole-field, were cultivated with wheat,—whilst, as if to mock the skill of the agriculturists of the nineteenth century, in Mr. Silvester’s garden were then growing sundry ears of far finer wheat,—the produce of grains found in a vase hermetically sealed with asphaltum, deposited by the side of a sarcophagus in a tomb at Thebes. The Egyptian wheat and the mummy are considered to have been simultaneously entombed during the reign of one of the seventeen kings, who comprised the eighteenth dynasty of the rulers of Egypt; or to speak clearer to our readers, between the years 1822 B.C., when the Pharaonic

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The curious weapons of flint celts which further examined the knowledge of flint-based tools further into Stephani’s Man. Antikuit.

EXTRAORDINARY VEGETABLE ANTIQUITY.—In “un-
rolling an Egyptian mummy,” in the Thebais, in 1833,
wheat was ascertained to be 3,000 years old when
sealed was there discovered. A portion of this
had been re-planted and found the basis of a field
producing wheat once in the “lot of November last,” by
Lindsay’s gardening. Yielded four seeds of
hereditary significance. The produce of the
heads were 100 stalks, about six feet high, and the ears in
over 50 stalks grain each. The ears have bearded
barley and not unlike those of barley, and the leaves on the
stalks are long, and nearly in rich broad.

Mr. Pettigrew, while whilst unrolling a mummy at the Worcester Congress of the British Archaeological Association, at which I was present, wrote that the Corn did contain in a mummy box a vase hermetically sealed, almost in the British museum's trust-grown to the custom. Hence he left the offering to that institution “should be not turn into a harmful act although found tests ago yet as due to these lives thousands tests lapses of generation."

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The Dean of Hereford, who called on James Yates, Esq., to read the paper he had prepared on the use of bronze celts, as warlike implements, by the primitive dwellers in Britain.

Assuming, as proved, that the Latin term Dolabra meant a chisel, and was given to chisels which varied greatly in size and form, and were applied to many different purposes, the author cited passages from Quintus, Curtius, Livy, and Tacitus, proving that those instruments (bronze celts of the most elaborate kind) were used in destroying earthworks and fortifications. He argued from the Roman coins, the weapons, and the military decorations, which are sometimes found with these ancient implements, and their ornamental mouldings as a description of uniform, by which they were suited to the compactness of form, by which they might easily be carried and, in simplicity, might easily be carried into a military expedition in the large numbers found together, especially in those widely scattered encampments, from the size of the bronze celts in question; where it is found in specimens of varied elegance to their mould, and from representations later brought to light by Dr. Layard, in the statues lately exhibited by Dr. Layard, from which the implements have been strongly believed to be used by the Assyrians in war.

In support of his view, the author also pointed to examples of celts lately found in Yorkshire, and the straight haft attached to it by leather thongs, showing its adaptation to destructive use among ancient warriors.

More learning and research were displayed by the author of the paper in support of his discovery; the whole of which led to animated discussion, in which the Dean of Hereford, J. M. Kemble, Esq., and others, took part, and who appeared to dissent from the view of the subject taken by Mr. Yates. The discussion was prolonged until a late hour, and compelled the postponement of the papers announced to be read by Dr. Ingram and Mr. Moody.

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The sites thereof, are verifications of the words applied by Camden to Richborough, in the reign of the Virgin Queen, “to teach us that cities die as well as men, if at this day a corn-field, wherein, when the corn is grown up, one may observe the draughts of streets crossing one another, for where they have gone, the corn is thinner.”

The etymon of this Roman city, we greatly fear, is a mystery, that will ever remain enshrouded in the mantle of oblivion, and we can do little else than hazard conjectural theories. The ingenious Dr. Thorpe imagined it to have been Vagniacæ, from a fancied apparent similitude in the pronunciation of “Barque-fields” or “Ware’s town”; as the lands in the parish of Southfleet, are indiscriminately termed to this day by the rustic population, where the Roman foundations have been discovered.

This hypothesis, for many reasons, we are confident is untenable; and but few antiquaries have been, at any time, converts to the opinion.³ We diffidently throw out a suggestion, based likewise upon tradition.⁴

³ Dr. Giles the last editor of Richard of Cirencester’s Description of Britain, has servilely copied Hatcher’s Commentary, published in 1809, and as a matter of course, included the errors that erudite gentleman had fallen into, through not having perambulated the county of Kent. Dover Chron., 1844-5, art. Chron. of Kent.

⁴ It is the ascertained and acknowledged characteristic of all antient tradition, that it preserves the substance, but alters and

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a mean often found to furnish true solutions of puzzling etymologies; even after ponderous tomes and massy essays have been devoted by learned writers to the elucidation of a subject. In fact, we are inclined to pay very great respect to oral tradition of names of places, transmitted, as such cognomens have been, from generation to generation; for, we are convinced, such terms were not idly invented, but have been the appellations of the localities; subject simply to the corruptions of an ignorant and uncultivated peasantry’s pronunciation; we therefore take the word Sole, as the nucleus for a name to this town.⁵ But being perfectly aware that we can produce no authorities in confirmation, we throw ourselves entirely upon the mercy of the Archaeological Court, and trust we may not be too severely dealt with. In the modern German

confounds the circumstances of historical truth. Foster’s Hist. Geog. Arch. i., 22.

⁵ In the Itineraries which have descended to our time, the name of Sul Mago is given as a Roman station near London. Mago, translated, means city. The foundations in Sole-field, are considered to be the remains of a temple dedicated to the Sun. Dr. Henry says, “all our antiquaries agree in placing Sullonicae at Brockley Hills, where many Roman antiquities have been found.” Mr. Baxter and some others, think that this was the capital of the famous Cassivelaunus, which was taken by Julius Caesar.”—Hist. G. Brit. ii., 423. “The town of Caswallon was on the heights near Dartford, and a recent writer has contended, that the present town of Dartford stands on the site of the station of Noviomagus.” Dunkin’s Hist. Dartford, xxii. Dr. Giles ap. Hatcher, says Sul Mago is on the site of Mr. Napier’s house at Brockley Hill. Rich. Ciren. appar. C. R. Smith, esq., F.A.S., and other archaeologists, have repeatedly scrutinized this reputed site of Sul Mago, and after most careful examinations, have been unable to trace any Roman remains whatever. It is moreover the opinion of Mr. S., that Sul Mago was not on Brockley Hill.

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dictionaries, we find the word Sole rendered salt water,⁶ or salt spring; and when the tide flowed up, we are confident the waters of Springhead would have been rendered brackish.

Edward Cressy, esq., of South Darenth, observes, in answer to a paper by Mr. A. J. Dunkin, which had appeared in “The Dover Chronicle,” “that much might be said upon the etymology of the Roman city at Springhead;” a further communication has been received from that gentleman, which we have great pleasure in presenting to our readers.

South Darenth, 7th June, 1845.

My dear Sir,

I have no doubt that the word “Sole” is derived from the word solium. Vitruvius, lib. 9, cap. 3, uses it for the basin or bath containing the water; and Pliny, in his 32nd lib. cap. 10, as the vessel in which the bathers were seated, “In solium addi,” &c. In the 35th lib., cap. 46, the same writer says that Numa founded a company of potters, but that there were persons who did not like their bodies to be consumed, and their ashes to be put into vessels of pottery—“Fulibus solitis”—but to be buried in the Pythagorean style, with their bodies entire, laid upon leaves of myrtle, olive, and black poplar, in which way M. Varro was interred. Celsus used the word solium to signify a bath, or place where bathers resorted—“Introire et discedere in solium.” The learned commentators on Vitruvius, in a note upon the passage first alluded to—“cum

⁶ Söhle, and without the h Sole, in modern German söle, salt water as it springs from the earth, from which salt is extracted. Heinsius: sole—sal—fluidum—wasser. Not far from the spot assumed to have been the site of the Druid temples and groves, and near the large barrow, hereafter described, on an elevated piece of ground, is a deep and never dry pond called “Sole’s Pond.”

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solium discederet?”—seem to imply it was the term made use of for the vessel or place which contained the water in which the bathers' bodies were immersed, in the same manner as the Bath, a city of Roman origin, is called “Aqua Calidæ,” and fictile vessels contained the ashes of the bodies of the defunct. “Aqua Solis,” and the remains of a temple were found, dedicated to the Solar Minerva, or Minerva Medica.—See Warner's History, Appendix, p. 48.

The word “Sole” occurs on the map, so often in the county of Kent, that it would be worth while to trace the road or street which bears that name, and examine the various places that still retain the term. We find it first occurring near the coast at Capell Fern, or Capell Sole, near Folkestone, where a street runs in the direction of St. Radigund's, Swingfield, and other ancient sites. Also in the parish of Nonington, in the hundred of Wingham, mention is made of a manor in Domesday, called Soles, Soleton, or Soltone, at West Cliff, in the hundred of Bewsborough. There seems to be some difficulty to connect all these places at present, or to trace a street through them from the coast to that point which is between Wouldham and Crundall, or near the valley of the Stour in its descent from the Wye. After this valley of the Weald was gained, a road at the foot of the downs, or chalk hills, continues almost in a straight line towards Halling; and then, by Luddesdown, to the Sole Street, in the parish of Cobham, the route is traceable enough; but the most important site is that we have already mentioned, viz.:

At Crundall, or the dale under a hill, which is a small parish north-east from Wye, containing a small number of

⁷ Mr. Hatcher says in a note to the author of “the Chronicles of Kent,” that the name on the Bath inscription is Sulis. Speaking of Britain generally, Solinus says: “In quo spatio magna et multa flumina, fontes calidi optiparo exulti apparatu ad usus mortali um: quibus fontibus præsul est Minervæ numen, in cujus æde

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houses at present: it is situated on the chalk hills. In it are two streets or hamlets, one called Danewood Street, the other Sole Street, which is the principal, where is still held a fair on Whit-Monday.

On Tremworth Downs, on the hill, within a mile of Crundall, some Roman remains were found in 1678, 1703, 1713, 1757, 1759, &c.—earthenware, glass, female trinkets, a coin of Faustina (the wife of the emperor Marcus Aurelius). All the skeletons were laid with their feet to the south-west.—Hasted, vol. 6, p. 369.

It appears curious that a cemetery should appear near a Sole Street, at Crundall, as well as near Sole Field, at Southfleet; and from these places being used by the Romans for interment it would appear that the route called Sole Street was a very important line in those days, as they were in the habit of burying by the road side, and near to waters.

Dover, Crundall, Cobham, and Southfleet, where the name of “Sole” occurs, are almost in a direct line, and Nonington may indicate a branch to Deal or Sandwich. I am satisfied that were this road examined carefully, much that is important would be elicited.

Believe me,
Yours faithfully,
EDWARD CRESSY.

The present name of the River Ebbsfleet is clearly of Saxon origin, and its etymology is self-evident. Ebb—ebba, Saxon, the reflux of the tide. Fleet, fleet, flot are all derived from the Saxon fleot, which signifies a bay or gulph, or inlet.⁸ This account is at va-

⁸ From this word are derived the Kentish names of North-fleet, South-fleet and Wain-fleet in Lincolnshire. To this may be added

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riance with Bishop Percy’s statement, that towns and villages are almost universally of Anglo-Saxon derivation, whilst the hills, forests and rivers retain their old Celtic names.⁹

This river was inhabited with colonies of beavers,¹⁰ who built their towns in its waters, even to the con-

the inlet called the Fleet, behind the pebble bank near Portland, which also gives name to the village of Fleet. Fleet forms part of a long series of local names as may be seen in the Topog. Dictionaries. In the Terrier of lands belonging to Dartford Priory, (No. 9493, Arundel MSS. Brit. Mus.) Fleet when applied to the Darent or Cray, uniformly means a running stream.

“I think this may be accounted for, if we recollect that the British towns were generally on hills, and in situations of difficult access, while the Saxons occupied the Roman towns or formed settlements, on the Roman Roads.” Ex Epist. H. Hatcher, arm.

¹⁰ “Beavers in the time of Giraldus Cambrensis, (the end of the twelfth century), were found only in the Teivy, in the neighbourhood of Cardigan; but at an earlier period they constructed their towns even in the Severn, where was an Island near Worcester, named in Saxon Beofor-ege, the beaver isle. There is also a Beaver-stone in Gloucestershire.” Wright’s Hist. Ludlow. In a note, p. 12, ante, we have already mentioned a Beaverstone—the site of which stationary colony would have been adjacent to the source of the spring, perchance, at the spot where an artificial dam had been placed to form a fish pond, when we saw it last (1842). In fact beavers inhabited the whole of the rivers in the island. “Many plants indigenous to Britain have disappeared: some within the last quarter of a century. You find them in Gerard’s Herbal, but not in the fields. Amongst animals there has been a more evident and more remarkable process of destruction. Like the Dodos in the Mauritius, whole races have become extinct within a recent historical period. The beaver built his house on the banks of the stream beneath that summit where the eagle reared her young; and the British names of stream and of rock still remain, the witnesses of the former existence of the inhabitants which have passed away.”

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ANIMALS IN ENGLAND IN 1685.—Few people perhaps are aware that in 1685 even England was literally an open forest, containing, within its circumference of twenty-five miles, “only three houses and scarcely any enclosed fields,” and that the wild stag ranged there as freely as in the woods of Kentucky. In Gloucestershire and Hampshire, “Red deer were as common as they are now among the Grampian hills.” On the accession of Queen Anne, on her way to Portsmouth, she saw a herd of no less than 400. The wild bull with his fierce whelps was still to be found wandering in a few of the southern forests. The badger dug his dark and tortuous hold, and the otter dwelt under the reeds the cops wood grew thick. The wild cat was frequently heard by night wailing round the lodge of the yeoman. Without any need to wood or fell the branches of nut-bearing yews, the Dorset Chase affords fruit, meat, and interior only of that of the bulb. Foxes feasting, requiring more than ten feet between the extremities of the wings perches and fens, and the kites and ospreys skimmed up and down from the British Channel to Yorkshire. Huge bustards and great herds of stags strayed over the eastern heaths and western downs of Wessex, and Cambridge and Lincolnshire were covered with rooks almost indistinct. Yet efforts to reduce the forests to cultivation in some parts have already been anticipated. Not to offer to gaze at in astonishment except the other “louse;” but few employments of a sporting day.” Og Dog hath not contented with a single performance, but he took stock of his subjects or seven times the course of his abilities. The idea good deed by Mr. Macaulay is prevailing, at the time born this matter will go a good way to examine the torpor people still behind. When we look at the dress of regular European and Knox as nobility against the other Zecaes. (He was almost big as his Salisbury,) he was answered, “eighty miles more hedged with mere matter.” A [being] rather an intelligent Londoner ordinarily talked of lands as containing several families only, “an acre of soil most frequently aristocratic and lower settee.”

It is true that after the Restoration upon the accession of Charles II, and the extortionate profits of common Enclosures, the Normans introduced a better system in the northern than in the southern shires. Coal seems to have been also little known, but plentifully between Derwent and Tyne, which pass marked by arches, flocks marked from the Teutonic plains, the farm steed so characteristic with Kent, became a measure of association—the golden grain of Kent, the most precious metal in the country found, was not better treated than the same out west. The patch in which Wessex sheaves still enclose. The table within the innkeeper of the inn treated upon the public road was more equally rooted and poor. The House the bagpipe in Caithness knew that leather, little known by south of the Erse, was cut into very loiry nonnative and forced lodges, peculiar to Northumberland. Few were still aware that in Yorkshire's ancient world lay down ranks of unsown reed from the very roof-stocks to lighter darkness, [warlock]. The Saxons by their descent adapted to be Germans, and were introduced far and more southeast. Mr. Macaulay states “the returned they wandered in pursuit of gold to the sources of the Tyne and Blyth.” The Hays round Kielder castle were too far secured only bare “like the stones of the plains of California, and heard with surprise the half-naked woods call numbers and measure, while the man, with brown skin besides, danced a war dance.”

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Page 25 ...quest of the Romans, half a century after the Christian era. The channel, cut by the floods, is still remarka- whilst the egret and the crane, the bittern and the bustard have been lost within living memory. The bear and the wild boar ranged the forests at the era of the Conquest,—the latter in the immediate vicinity of London. The wolf continued to infest the fold long after the supposed extirpation of the foe by the tribute which the Basileus of Britain imposed upon his British vassals; but in the loose nomenclature of popular speech, it is very probable that the hyena of Yorkshire may also have been included among the animals to which the name of “wolf” was assigned, thus bringing the ossuary of the Kirkdale cave within the period even of the last population of the wolds.” (Qterly. Rev. lxxiv. 299.) We have been favoured with a view of some unpublished letters by Dr. Owen Pughe, the author of the Welch Dictionary, and editor of the Myvyrian Archaeology, to which we are indebted, for the following curious matter:— “I remember one thing in Giraldus, which is ridiculed by Lord Littleton, in his history of Henry II.—The assertion of there being Beavers in the river Teivi—I would rebut this, by supporting Giraldus with quotations from the laws of Hywel the Good, in 940, by which the existence of the Beaver is unquestionably proved; and, that too, by a name so characteristic of the animal, as leaves no room to mistake. The name is Llustriadan, which is happily rendered into English by the epithet Spattle-tail, than which, no appellation whatever can be more suitable. By the laws, the fur of the Beaver, the Marten, and the common Ermine of this country, were appropriated to trim the royal robes. And, as the value affixed by law on various skins, may excite some curiosity, I annex a list of a few here:— THE VALUE OF SKINS. (Wotton’s edit. p. 900.) The value of a Spattle-tail, 12s proper price. The value of a Marten, twenty-four pence. As to the value of a Wolf, the Fox, and various others, which do nothing but mischief, no legal value has been put upon them, for every lord is at liberty to kill them. THE VALUE OF SKINS. (Wotton’s edit. p. 261.) The skin of an Ox, 8d. Skin of a Hart, 8d. Skin of a Cow, 7d. Skin of a Hind, 7d. Skin of a Sheep, Goat, a Roebuck, and a Roe, 1d. on each of them. Skin of a Fox, 8d. Skin of an Otter, 8d. Skin of a Wolf, 8d. Skin of a Marten, 24d. Skin of a Spattle-tail (Beaver), 12d. Skin of an Ermine, its value is equal. The value of the Beaver skin is very high, being exactly of the same value as a horse.”

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...bly defined, and the surrounding soil is replete with myriads of sea shells, silent records of that long-gone period when Father Thames surged his brackish waters up the worn gulph.

In the immense primeval forest (now sadly shrunk in magnitude), which descended on the western side, to the water’s edge—amid the dense coverts of this appropriate region, the ferocious boar and savage wolf chased their natural prey, the timid deer and the wild ox. In later ages, a portion of this forest, under the...

Specimens may be seen in the collections of E. Colyes, esq., and Mr. Sylvester.

"The Triads describe Britain as having been ‘uninhabited by men, till the arrival of Hu, the mighty leader of the Cymri, from the country of Summer. They found wolves, bears, beavers, and oxen, with the high prominence.’ The latter description applies to Britain, from a Coracle."

Hu the Mighty, on account of his attributes, was called the pillar of the nation—first, for leading the Cymri into the Isle of Britain, from the Summer country of Defrobani; and those who came with him were styled the Social tribe, because Hu would not obtain a country through fighting and destruction: He was the stem energy against oppression, because he thus led his nation to possess land through peace and tranquility. Hu was the dispenser of gifts, because he first shewed the way to plough land to the nation of the Cymri in Defrobani; He was styled the primary artificer, for first bringing them into a compact and moveable society; and he was the cultivator of song, for being the first who made vocal song the means of preserving memorials and the works of imagination.

Bound in print, in ancient Bardic letters, are these words:

"Hu Gadarn, by leading the Cymri, thrice prevailed."

That is—"Hu the Mighty, leading the Cymri into the Isle of Britain."

With respect to the name of Britain, it may not be amiss to attend to what the Historical Triads contain, which is to this purpose:—

"The three names that were imposed on the Isle of Britain, from the beginning; before it was inhabited, the name of Clas Mervin (or water).

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...name of Swanscombe Wood, has formed the theme of many a poet’s lay, and reaped an undying celebrity.

Defended green spot; after it was inhabited it was called Y Vel Ynys (or the Honey Island); and after it was brought under one general government by Prydain son of Aed, it was called the Ynys Prydain (or the Isle of Prydain); and no people has an original right in it but the nation of the Cymry, for they took possession of it first; and before that time there were no inhabitants, but it was full of bears, wolves, aurochs, and moose deer.

Dr. Harris says, “But that which hath rendered Swanscombe more famous than all these things, is the famous Legend of Thomas Spot, a Monk of St. Austin’s in Canterbury; which in Selden’s Translation from the Latin of Lambard in Explication: Verborum stands thus:—

When the Norman Conqueror had the Day, he came to Dover castle, that he might, with the same Ease, subdue Kent also: Wherefore Stigand Archbishop, and Egelesia Abbot, as the Chief of that Shire, observing, that now whereas heretofore no Villains had been in England, they should be now all in bondage to the Normans; they assembled all the County, and shewed the imminent danger, the Insolence of the Normans, and the hard Condition of Villainage: They, resolving all rather to die than lose their Freedom, purpose to encounter with the Duke for their Country’s Liberties. Their Captains are the Archbishop and the Abbot. Upon a Day appointed they met all here at Swanscombe, and harbouring themselves in the Woods, with Boughs in every Man’s Hand they encompass his Way. The next Day the Duke coming by Swanscombe, seemed to see with Amazement, a Wood approaching towards him: The Kentish Men at the Sound of the Trumpet, take themselves to Arms; when presently the Archbishop and Abbot were...

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...sent to the Duke, and saluted him with these Words:—"Behold, Sir Duke, the Kentish Men come to meet you, willing to receive you as their Liege Lord, upon that Condition, that they may for ever enjoy their ancient Liberties and Laws used among their ancestors: Otherwise, presently offering War; being ready rather to dye than undergo a Yoke of Bondage, and lose their antient Laws." The Norman in this narrow Pinch, not so willingly as wisely, granted their Desire; and Hostages being given on both Sides, the Kentish Men direct the Normans to Rochester, and deliver them the County and the Castle of Dover." Hist. Kent, i, 308. Darell writes:—"Cujus adventum cum multi nuncii et fama denique ipsa suâ celeritate superasset, habito et suorum consilio, et militum delectu, Stigandum archiepiscopum et Ashburnhamum regulum, quem Dovariensi castro praefecerant, et Everardum et Egelesium Augustinensis monasterii abbatem, universo rei dicto consituerunt. Qui demandatum sibi a suis negotium magnâ animorum alacritate suscipientes, postquam magnum exercitum, quibuscumque ex Cantianis gentibus potuissent, comparassent, eum in campo Suano, qui in eorum finibus est, circumvenerunt, ab eisque nunquam abierunt imperativæ posi-testatem, nisi et eorum postulatis subscripsisset, et juramento confirmasset, eam conspirationem nemini unquam crimin futurum, et, obsidibus datis, eorum tranquillitati cavisset." Hist. Dover Castle, 18.

“The Sons of Edna alone the Tyrie withstood;
Of Right tenacious; singular in good;
Law-abiding, tho’ only unyok’d,
In Arms collected all agreed,
To Live and Die, like their Great Fathers, free.
Grasp’d with one Hand the threatening steel they sway’d;
The other, Verdant Boughs display’d;
In dire Array, thus dreadful from afar,
Invasions’ flying Bar,
On the brow of the threat’ning Land,
The moving Forest made a dreadful stand.
The Warrior King, wrap’d, at the doubtful sight,
So equal for Freedom’s or for Fight.
A parley sounds; pleas’d ev’n in Foes, to see
Spirits so worthy of their native Free.
He comes, they answer’d, well agreed,
By Friendly Peace, or, ten yours ittle,
To claim their dearer Liberty and Right.
Undaunted Race, he cry’d, your Strife
Such Virtue cannot be deny’d.
Take Freedom from me, Foes can claim,
My Friendship; nay, my Conqu’ror’s Name,
Thus to your Rights, and Valour true,
‘Tis more, like you, to dare, than Kingdoms to subdue.” Mottrux.

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“The general and usual Tradition is, that the many Privileges and Advantages of Gavelkind came to Kent, by the gallant Stand which our Countrymen made against William the Conqueror at Swanscombe; when Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Egelesine, Abbot of St. Austins, are supposed to have terrified that Prince into a Grant of their Ancient Laws and Liberties.” This is thus celebrated by Hawke, in his Poem on the Law:—

Custom in Kent encouraging the Brave,
Distinguished well the Brother from the Slave;
And to each Son an equal Future gave.

With the just Bard, —“these the same amorous fire,
Caused Laws by Birth, that did the great inspire.
The great rose Youth, pleas’d with such equal laws,
Fought still for the Poor, and their Country’s cause;
With resolute resistance, that Fenced Brigance,
Which conquered Harold, but not Kent invades;
But solemn peace with oaken standards made;
Granted those Laws for which the Patriots strove,
And kiss’d the Forest to the moving grove.”

Swanscombe Church too, says Weever, “in times past was much haunted by a mad company of Pilgrims, who made here standing in the upper Window of the South Isle to St. Hilderferd (a Bishop by conjecture of his picture, yet distracted ranters for restitution of their wits).” Fun. Mon. 332.

“Roman catholic legends, state this as a fact,
That the holy Saint Ethelferd Lunacy checked,
To those who had faith he bowed down at his shrine;
The pilgrims who brought the most glorious line,
The best antidotes had, their disorder to kill,
As if fed him with burgundy, capon, and chine.”
HOLMEY.

Swanscombe Church is dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul. Waller says, it is built of an heterogeneous mixture of materials, chalk rag, masses of stone of various kinds, and an admixture of Roman tile. The tower shows some attempt at a regular plan in the disposition of its materials; it is for the most part constructed of small stones laid in courses of three and four alternately with one of flint; this disposition is by no means regularly observed, sometimes there are two courses of flint, and sometimes but two of stone. There is something in this arrangement like an imitation of the Roman manner, flint being used in the place of tile. The quoining presents some curious features, and has evidently been controlled by the nature of the materials at hand; it exhibits a strange variety of stone, some disposed in long and short masses, some alternately with...

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Roman tiles, and the latter are found worked into the rubble, here and there, without any order. It may also be well to observe, that a large circular window of Roman tile, on the south side, is now blocked up. The chancel is chiefly flint-work set in herringbone, and covered with the durable rough-cast before noticed: the south side, where much of this is removed, shows very evident indications of the walls having been formed by planking the sides, until the mortar or concrete had firmly set; the mark of the planks are still very visible. This part of the church has undergone many alterations; an addition to the east end is easily to be distinguished from its patched appearance; lancet lights of the twelfth century have superseded windows of a much earlier date, traces of which still remain; and a doorway on the north side appears to have been blocked up at the same time as the addition was made to the east end, but its architectural features are quite destroyed.

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Chapter III: The Aborigines

"And they (the Noachidae) said, Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth. And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded. And the Lord said, Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech. So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth." — Genesis xi. 4, 5, 8.

Hark, what strange noise from Babel's walls proceeds,
Like the hoarse thunder that rattles through the reeds!
From stammering mouths discordant voices sound,
And tongues unknown the blended scene confound.
— Sir Alex. Croke's Orig. Idolatry.

The purification of the earth by the Deluge occurred B.C. 2348-2, or A.M. 1656, and shortly afterwards, the territorial possessions of the three surviving representatives were defined. But the dispersion of the Noachidae did not take place till the days of Peleg; "the whole earth was divided," that is, the general dispersion took place, consequent upon the Confusion of Tongues. Previously to the dispersion at Babel, it is clear that there were partial emigrations from the primitive post-diluvian habitations. One of these was headed by Cush, the son of Ham, with his two sons and five grandsons, according to uniform tradition, and the presumptive evidences that are afforded by history, colonized the head of the Persian Gulph. — Qly. Rev.

"Whereas," says Theophilus Antiochenus, "in old time there were—

British Queen and Noah's Ark — It is worthy of remark that the proportions of the British Queen steamship are exactly those of Noah's Ark. The first has 350 feet of length, 40,000 tons of burden, and a draught of water 24 feet; the dimensions of floating boats first given by the Great Builder of the Universe."

Note: The ark was twice as long as the Queen.

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... unto heaven," caused "the LORD to scatter the children of men abroad upon the face of the earth, A.M. 1934, or 2074, to the territories specifically predestined for their occupation, after confounding their speech phonetically in the vowels. The project of building such an enormous pile demonstrates most decisively that even the antediluvians were the possessors of architectural attainments of no common order.

But few men in Arabia and Chaldea, after the division of tongues, remained; these more and more increased. Hereupon some took their way towards the East, others to other parts of the great and wide continent; others, travelling towards the North, seeking a place where to settle, still kept onwards, taking possession of what they chose, until at last they came to Britain and seated in the Northern climates.

(Apud Camden. A writer in the Gents. Magazine, Feb. 1846) states that the antediluvians preserved written records of their history; there can be no doubt, and that Moses formed his account of the events told therein from what still remained in the archives of the Noachite race, the Shuminites, whose direct descendant Abraham was, is directly proved in the story of the Creation. Moses evidently made it from two different records. In the lapse of years, and the confusion consequent on the removal to Egypt, and in the difficulties of the enslaved condition of the family in Goshen, these records had probably suffered much, and from their remains Moses collected all he could, and not wishing to omit anything, or to shock the feelings of those who had so long been accustomed to hear these histories read, he put down both versions; for in the account of the creation of man, it says in the 27th verse of the 1st Genesis "male and female created he them" while in the 18th verse of 2nd chapter, it says "it is not good for man to be alone" and in the 21st and 22nd verses gives the creation of woman. These discrepancies are evidently from following, or rather preserving, the written fragments as he received them.

(Gents. Mag., xxv. 137). A friend commenting upon the theory observes in a note to us, that "Moses the inspired and faithful servant of God, was directed by the Divine Being to ...

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"Both Celtic & Danish hostility point to the earlier migration from Jutland & the earliest settlements of Britain — Wilson Industries, 30."

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Every domestic tie to the soil being abruptly severed by the miraculous confusion of tongues; we can readily commence his narrative. For, it is not irrelevant here to remark, that the earlier part of the Book of Genesis consists of several distinct compositions, marked by difference of style, and by express formulas of commencement.* It is entirely consonant with the idea of inspiration, and established by the whole tenor of scriptural compositions, that the heavenly influence operated in concurrence with the rational faculties of inspired men; so that the prophets and apostles wrote from their own knowledge and memory, the testimony of other persons and written documents, to which indeed express appeal is often made.† From the evidence of language and matter, we have no slight reasons for supposing that Moses compiled the chief parts of the Book of Genesis, by arranging and connecting antient memorials, under the divine direction, and probably during the middle part of his life, which he spent in the retirement of Arabia. Thus, it is far from improbable that we have in this most antient writing in the world, the family archives of Amram and his ancestors, comprising the history of Joseph, written in great part by himself; documents from the hands of Jacob, Abraham, Shem, Noah, and possibly ascending still higher, authentic memorials from Enoch, Seth and Adam. The Book must have been composed in one of three ways,—first, by immediate revelation of every circumstance from God; secondly, by a collection of antient traditions; or thirdly, from former documents. The first supposition is generally abandoned. The second, which is a common opinion amongst theologians in this country, would not injure the credibility of the book; since Lamech the father of Noah, was contemporary with Adam, Shem the son of Noah lived in the time of Abraham, his son Isaac was contemporary with Japheth, &c. The third opinion is the one generally received by the German theologians.

* The following appear to be distinct compilations:—Gen. i. to ii. 3,—ii. 4, ii. 4 to iii., iii. 4, Chap. iv., v., vi. 1 to v., vi. 8, vi. 9, to ix. 28,—vi. Chap. x., XI. xi. 9, VIII. xi. 10 to 26,—IX. xi. 27, and what follows may be regarded as the house of Abraham,—Chap. as a separate document, inserted in the most suitable place.

† We have these instances in the Old Testament:—Num. xxi. 14, 10,—Josh. x. 13, 2 Sam. i. 18,—1 Kings xi. 41, 1 Chron. ix. 1,—xv. 29, xvi. 29,—2 Chron. ix. 29,—xiii. 15, xv. 34. In the New Testament many of the anecdotal portions in the first three Gospels; and see Luke i. 1, 2.

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conceive that many of the dwellers upon the Plains of Shinar, conceived the plan seeking their fortunes on the seas and finding a home in remote lands wherein never had mankind dwelt. Not only were the details of the construction of the Ark fresh in the minds of many then living, but that memorial of the triumphs of naval architecture itself remained in existence^X—enabling vessels to be built after its model. Britain it is supposed was discovered in one of the exploring expeditions, which left the shores of the East at this epoch; but it was not till about sixteen or seventeen centuries before the Christian Era, that it was colonized. About that period an enterprising band, roaming up the Thames, in quest either of prey, or a convenient site for permanent residence; probably sailed up the wide and noble estuary formed by the river Ebbsfleet, near...

theologians of the present day, and was maintained by many former writers. See Carpzov, Introd. i. 57. Vitringa, Observ. Sac. i. Dissert. i. 4. Le Clerc. Proleg. Diss ii. 30. Calmet, Com. Lit. I. i, 13. Others believed that this book of Moses was compiled from such documents.

Perhaps the view is very bold, that there must have been these small annals, and passed lessons, among the early patriarchs and Moses had these before him, and wrote them out, and worked them up into his book of Genesis—in doing which he had Divine assistance, so far as God spake to his heart, or he were moved by the Holy Ghost. Compare with this, how we are referred, at 2 Sam. i. 17, to the Elegy of David over Saul, being as “written in the book of Jasher.”

See also p. 50. That the Celts or Cimmerians were synonymous with the Cymmerians is clear from Appian in Illyr. p. 1196, and Bell. Civ. lib. ii. 625. Diodorus Sic. lib. v. 309, also affirms the same. Herodotus says, the Celts dwelt in the most western parts beyond the Pillars of Hercules. Herod. Melpom. c. 49. McPherson affirming, that the name of Celts is an adjective derived from Gaël. Whitaker in his Refutation of McPherson asserts it is not merely derived from Gaël but equally a substantive and actual...

(Margin notes: Perhaps the ark remains were seen or their memory is vivid—annotation on historical hypothesis.)

Folio 64

Sir,
On directing my attention to your MS this evening it struck me in the very outset that you had commenced with a too common historical error, i.e., that mankind have usually retrograded in the arts—everywhat arts?—whether they had been divinely instructed. If this be meant in religion I believe it an error; if of sculpture, manufacture, commerce, fire—yes, etc. The fine arts were also connected with becoming practical or utilities; progenitors fled or were driven by neglect to sea-girt isles, and found an early and suitable foundation for freedom and security, or for attack.

For centuries, violated themselves by isolation, and thereby of necessity retrograded. I am, therefore, fully persuaded that the whole of the human race should have receded in developing state history illustrated by monumental demonstration of the most unquestionable character states the fact. Surely the histories of the Assyrians and Egyptians are very contradictory as against this retrogressive measuring. For instance, glance at Egypt. Abraham was born 316 years after the flood, and when he was 80 years of age he visited Egypt; and we have the scriptural testimony of the high and flourishing state of the country at that period. This is far from supporting the retrogressive hypothesis. The magnificent monuments of...

(Note continues on further pages regarding monuments and their significance in refuting the retrogressive argument.)

Folio 66

Oversteen I. of the 17th dynasty, B.C. 1740—the obelisk of Heliopolis, for instance—be covered with the proof of a back-door movement. Nay, even the idea of building Palaces—this was no new prospect! So far from indicating the retrograde march backward, proves the development of a magnificent genius. The extensive works of engineers, architects, and decorators, certain proof of their depression, served but to engrave on imperishable proofs, on our more satisfactory examination, of the progress of those mighty entities. Wherever they wandered, these might evoke those mighty cities, over whose solemn dominions, silence and desolation has finally settled, whose turrets have glared defiance to eternal night from their obscure bowers, or were indignant bursts of indignation as they would contrast the driven snow-walled. Joseph died under the 17th dynasty, and in his time so far from there having been retrogression in the direction of “barbarism,” Egypt presents a spectacle of surprising physical and intellectual glory! Calculations who accompanied Alexander to Babylon found astronomical observations for 1903 years backward from that time; which reach as high as the 11th year after the flood. The sacred records refer this priority of Egypt to Ham, or as it stands in the Coptic dialect Charn; Charn is the root of Chamnes the flamed. H.G.F. states Chammes is a large city of the Hebrews—Sesostris—Ramesses the Great.

Folio 67

The successor of Moses, is faced by Herod, about 1350 B.C., or 600 years after the flood, a time when the Israelites were still in the minority. It was 609 years after the deluge and 150 years before the invention of Greece. Letters were introduced to Egypt, in fact to the learned, possessing the subject, as antiquities in the British Museum. These historically tie the continent, furnish indisputable proofs that from the period of the deluge to the descendants of Noah, the flood has marked the boundary of the old face of times. Mankind gradually progressed in rediscovery, forming its wonders under the stars and scribes who celebrated the illustrious epochs in those ages of splendor. While some historians to the contrary, Moses had shown his qualifications for the various offices, befitting, by the school of Egypt, its present arts and sciences, equal to the old specimens of learning. The earliest learning to gather together and perpetuate mankind by a strong pattern of truth and order.

Even in the highest circle of time, the historical fragments and decayed symbols, there in them, for the multitudes of inscriptions, of the 12th century, we were to evoke the prophets from their resting places, and compare them with the Selenological and Messenic, we see the light and heir of their intellectual wonders. Truly, what a comparison for flights we could place! History’s hand affixed the greatest retrogression, as if by learned record lifted the great tree of life once easy, which then has educated and brutalized the human race! However, mostly, war burned shame and blood and priests have ruled and reshaped society; sadly, the two former in one manner, and the latter in no other; but the writings of Christ and Moses have burnt the bottoms out of the buckets. The...

Folio 68

...part of his life which he spent in the retirement of Arabia. Thus it is so far from improbable that we have, in this most ancient writing in the world, the family archives of Amram and his ancestors, comprising the history of Joseph, probably written in great parts by himself; documents from the hands of Jacob, Abraham, Shem, Noah, and possibly ascending still higher, authentic memorials from Enoch, Seth, and Adam.*

Notes:† The following appear to be distinct compilations:

1. Gen. i. 1 to ii. 3. 2. ii. 4 to iii. 11. 3. iii. 12 to iii. 24. 4. Chap. iv. V. vi. 1 to vi. 8. VI. vi. 9 to ix. 29. VII. Chap. x. XI. xi. 9. VIII. xi. 10 to 26. IX. xi. 27, and what follows may be regarded as the records of the house of Abraham. X. Chap. xxxvi. A separate document, inserted in the most suitable place.

† We have these instances in the Old Testament: Num. xxi. 14. Josh. x. 13. 2 Sam. i. 18. 1 Kings xi. 41. 1 Chron. ix. 1. xvi. 29. 2 Chron. ix. 29. xii. 15. xv. 32. In the New Testament, many of the anecdotal portions in the first three Gospels; and see Luke i. 1, 2.

J. Smith. D.D. F.G.S.
Lecture on Scriptural Geology, 1839.

I have not the books by me to make other quotations, and I hope this will be deemed satisfactory.

"Alas, poor Yorick!"

Folio 69

"The book must have been composed in one of three ways: 1st, by immediate revelation of every circumstance from God; 2nd, by a collection of ancient traditions; or 3rd, from former documents. The first supposition is generally abandoned. The second, which is a common opinion amongst theologians in this country, would not injure the credibility of the book; since Lamech the father of Noah was contemporary with Adam, Shem the son of Noah was contemporary with Abraham, and his son Isaac was contemporary with Japheth, etc."

The third opinion is that this book of Moses was composed from twelve such documents, as maintained by many former writers. See Carpzov, Introd. part i. p. 57; Vitringa, Observ. Sacr. i. Dissert. i. 4; Le Clerc. Proleg. Diss. ii. 30; Calmet, Comment. Literar. 13.

Others believed that this book of Moses was composed from twelve such clay tablets."

Illustrations and proofs: Really no time to copy.

"I am off to worship the God of Moses, go thou and do likewise."

Folio 70

From these circumstances, it seems certain that the Kesbet of the Egyptian monuments was an alloy of copper, and there can be little doubt that it was the same substance mentioned by the Hebrew writers under the name of kashvat, keseth, or kescheta, and that we have here the material of which Homer spoke as Κασσίτερος. The extensive use of bronze among the antients, and the absence of any ornaments or articles of domestic or warlike use in Κασσίτερος, supposing this word to mean “tin,” strengthens the opinion that the Κασσίτερος of the Greeks was a bronze, or mixture of tin and copper.

These considerations are further strengthened by the circumstance that the old Cornu-British name of tin is “stan.”

The Latins, a people of Celtic origin, had the same Celtic word “stannum” which they must have derived, not like the Greeks their Κασσίτερος, from the Phoenicians, but from their Celtic congeners, from whom, no doubt, they also obtained the metal itself by means of a land trade through Gaul. The French “étain”, the Teutonic “zinn”, and our own “tin”, have the same origin. The learned Beckman, in his “History of Inventions,” considers it as proved—from a passage in Pliny, lib. xxxiv., c. 16, s. 47—that the stannum of the Latins was not a pure metal, but a mixture of silver and lead. It seems to me, however, that Pliny is expressly describing the separation of lead, galena, from an ore containing lead, tin, and silver. The first product of the melting was stannum tin; next, the silver was separated from the lead, and this last procured in a pure state by a subsequent fusion.

There seems on the whole to be little doubt that the “plumbum album”, and the “stannum” of the Latins, were the same, and that the latter is the original, while the former is the technical name used in some instances by Pliny, for the same metal.

It is remarkable that this, the native name of tin, became afterwards confounded with, if not applied to, a very similar metal, “antimony.” The Egyptian name of “antimony” is “stem,” whence the Greeks derived their word στήμμι, and thence probably the Latin “stibium.” This name was evidently applied to a substance, which, in some state, was capable of producing a black or dark grey powder, used for painting the eyelids by the women of the East. The Hebrew word Kohl is probably of a farther Eastern origin, and derived from India.

The Kesbet of the Egyptians then was used for making a blue pigment, which no ore or oxide of tin is capable of producing. If the substance sought after and procured by the Phoenicians from Britain were an alloy of copper and tin, somewhat similar in proportions to speculum metal, they would have imported into Asia and Egypt a white, lustrous, hard, and close-grained metal, capable of taking a high polish, and well adapted for the formation of mirrors, though too brittle for the manufacture of swords or other weapons. Of mirrors composed of this alloy, we can well understand how Moses should have constructed “the laver of brass and the foot of it of brass, of the looking-glasses of the women.” — Exod. xxxviii. 8.

From this alloy also a blue pigment was capable of being made, though it is, of course, difficult to understand why it should have been preferred for the purpose to any other alloy of copper, or to that metal itself. The Greeks knowing this alloy by its Egyptian or Phoenician name Kesbet, applied the same appellation to tin, which it resembled in lustre and colour, though it is very probable that the Κασσίτερος mentioned by Homer, as used for bosses or shields and greaves, was rather such an alloy than the pure metal.

It is concluded, therefore, that the Kesbet Κασσίτερος brought from Cornwall by the Phoenicians was not “tin,” but an alloy of that metal with copper, which formed an important article of commerce with the Egyptians among other nations of antiquity, and that from hence was derived the name applied to the country of its production. Metallic tin, in the shape of grains, or stream tin, budel, was also no doubt largely exported by the Phoenician merchants, as well for the purposes of their purple dye as for other processes of manufacture, but the application of the name Κασσίτερος to this metal appears to have originated in a mistake of the Greeks.

Bristol, July 24th, 1851.

Folio 71

Between the two stories is a long inscription in Black Letter. This building is fully described and illustrated in “The Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain.”

The once splendid, but sadly mutilated, parochial Church of St. Mary Redcliff is now in a transition state, being under the architect’s protection and skill, and the mason’s workmanship to preserve it from total ruin, and renovate it to pristine beauty and splendour. Its architectural design and details, with historical and descriptive particulars, have been laid before the public in a volume which I published as far back as the year 1813. Of this noble edifice, Mr. Godwin, who is the approved and sole architect of these restorations, will explain its leading features and peculiarities of detail.

Of Glastonbury, the questionable seat of the first planting of Christianity in Britain, by St. Paul—of a thorn, said to have blossomed miraculously at Christmas, annually—of a former inscription, commemorating the name of a poetical, and perhaps historical personage, named “King Arthur;” the topographer and antiquarian student will find ample facts and comments, in his aged and amiable friend, the Rev. R. Warner’s “History of the Abbey of Glaston”; and of “The Town of Glastonbury,” 4to. 1826. Its Abbey buildings, with the unique Kitchen and Market Cross, are illustrated and described in the “Architectural Antiquities”—and more recent accounts in Phelps’s “History of the County of Somerset.” There are few localities of England more exciting and interesting to the antiquary and historian than Glastonbury. Not only in its monastic annals and remains, but its connection with one of, if not, the most estimable English monarchs, renders Glastonbury and its vicinity of first importance. The justly renowned and noble Alfred is associated with this locality: as commemorated by an inscription and monument still preserved in the adjoining fields. My last visit to Alfred’s tomb, and Glastonbury, was two years ago, in company with members of the Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, one of whom was the learned enthusiast, and much-regretted Dean of Westminster, who, at that time, and on the occasion of the Society’s meeting at Taunton, was more than usually fluent and amusing in his discourses. He gave us an account of his boyish days, (he was a native of the vale of Taunton), his rambles, geological studies, and map drawings; of the fattening qualities of the rich soil both to beast and to man; and that the farmers were, consequently, among the richest, happiest, and idlest of their class. Nature did all the work: they had only to feed on the fat of the land. Let us indulge a hope, and breathe a prayer, for the speedy recovery of this most estimable and profound geologist.

The Churchwardens’ accounts, and other documents, of Glastonbury, are numerous and truly interesting, as explained by Mr. Warner, who had access to them when preparing his History. They extend from 1301 till the reign of James I.

“Some account of the church of St. Mary Magdalene, Taunton,” by the Rev. Dr. Cottle, is noticeable here, from the beautiful style in which it is printed and illustrated by Vizetelly, Brothers, & Co., London, and for the account it gives of elaborate restorations which have been effected in that spacious, elegant, and interesting edifice. It also contains a paper on the “Gothic Towers of Somerset,” by B. Ferrey, Architect, which I can confidently refer, as containing admirable descriptions of and comments on some of those fine and interesting edifices, which at once distinguish and ornament this county. Amongst these are two, remarkable for their height, architecture, and lofty positions—Dundry and Glastonbury Torr. The latter has the date of 1408 cut in stone, and was erected as a “mark” by the merchant adventurers of Bristol, to guide captains in navigating the Bristol channel. That of the Torr occupies the summit of a conical hill of great height, and forms a conspicuous object from all the neighbouring eminences, from extended fen-lands, and from the Bristol channel.

Mr. Ferrey’s remarks on the sizes, proportions, designs, and construction of towers are judicious and worthy the particular notice of modern architects. In “Pugin’s Examples of Gothic Architecture,” 4to., 1836, are accounts by my old and esteemed friend Edward Jas. Willson, Architect of Lincoln, of the following remarkable buildings in “the vicinity of Bristol, with its suburbs.”

Folio 72

Himilco in narrating his voyage to the Œstrymnides, supposed to be the Scilly islands, furnished us by Festus Avienus, alludes to these coracles. He says, the natives are numerous, high-spirited, active and eagerly devoted to trade; yet they had only boats constructed of skin, sewed together, with which they, in a wonderful manner, made their voyages. Doubtless these were distended with wicker work. We have well authenticated accounts of voyages of considerable distance, at much later periods, made in these apparently fragile vessels.

The origin of the coracles or corachs is thus given, in Wood’s Enquiry concerning the Primitive Inhabitants of Ireland. The followers of Simeonbreac, who had sought shelter in Greece, from oppression in Ireland, found, when their population grew numerous, that the Greeks subjected them to great hardship and slavery, obliging them to dig earth and raise mould, and carry it in sacks, or bags of leather, and place it upon rocks in order to form a fruitful soil. In consequence of this servitude, they came to a resolution of shaking off the yoke, and five thousand of them assembled, and made boats out of the leathern bags in which they used to carry the earth.

In these frail vessels they embarked, and bid adieu to the inhospitable shore on which they had sought a refuge.

Folio 73

From the evidence of language and matter, we have no slight reasons for supposing that Moses compiled the chief parts of the Book of Genesis, by arranging and connecting antient memorials, under the divine direction, and probably during the middle part of his life, which he spent in the retirement of Arabia. Thus, it is far from improbable that we have in this most antient writing in the world, the family archives of Amram and his ancestors, comprising the history of Joseph, written in great part by himself; documents from the hands of Jacob, Abraham, Shem, Noah, and possibly ascending still higher, authentic memorials from Enoch, Seth and Adam.

The Book must have been composed in one of three ways,—first, by immediate revelation of every circumstance from God; secondly, by a collection of antient traditions; or thirdly, from former documents. The first supposition is generally abandoned. The second, which is a common opinion amongst theologians in this country, would not injure the credibility of the book; since Lamech the father of Noah was contemporary with Adam, Shem the son of Noah lived in the time of Abraham, his son Isaac was contemporary with Japheth, &c. The third opinion is the one generally received by the German theologians.

Folio 75

Chersonesus was the ancient name of the peninsula which juts out southward from European Sarmatia, between the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azov); it is now called the Crimea. It is mentioned as Chersonesus Taurica by Herodotus, who ascribed it to the promontory of the Taurica (IV.99). The isthmus which connects it with the mainland was called Thapsis, and there appears to have been a town of the same name upon it (Strabo, VII. p. 308; Pliny, IV. 26; Mela, II.1). According to Strabo, the full name of the city of Chersonesus or Chersonese (Ptolemy) was Chersonesus Heracleotica.

The earliest inhabitants of this peninsula appear to have been the Cimmerians, some of whom are known to have been driven out after the great Scythian invasion, but a remnant of this nation has been shown to have continued on the Palus Maeotis by the Strymonites (Herodotus, IV. 11, 12). Strabo refers to these as having been gradually displaced by the Scythians, who occupied the Chersonese Bosphorus. By these, the city of Chersonesus was founded, upon a promontory often called Parthenium, and near this the Crimea is undivided. Who these Taurii were is a question of much difficulty. Strabo (VII. p. 300) calls them a Scythian people, but Herodotus (IV.99) clearly distinguishes the Taurii from the Scythians as being a different nation. The inhabitants of the southern part of the peninsula are not infrequently called Taurica or Scythotaurica, arising from the mixed names, from the testimony of Herodotus and the two facts that it was once under the older Scythic people known as the Taurii, and afterwards occupied by a latter race of Scythians. The question of whether or not we are able to divide out the Cimmerians from Chersonesus, and partly from several analogous cases, it at least appears probable that the Taurii were a remnant of the old Cimmerian inhabitants, who maintained themselves in the mountains against the Scythian invaders.

*The name was probably derived from a ditch which in very ancient times ran across the isthmus, and which appears to have fulfilled its use ever since. The ditch would not be completed until the expedition of Pericles (IV. 320), which history places to the back of the peninsula itself. See the mention of it in Stephanus's De Urbibus. Herodotus, IV. 12; Bähr's notes on the passage (Herodotus, IV).

Folio 76

The name Tauri is supposed to be derived from an old root “Tau,” meaning a mountain. The Tauri were reputed by the Greeks to be wholly savage; to strangers, they were said to offer human sacrifices, especially unwalled mariners, to a virgin goddess, whom, according to Herodotus, the Greeks themselves confused with Hecate, the daughter of Uranus. Her worship was traced to the promontory of Parthenium (Herodot. IV.103; Strabo, p. 308; Mela, II.1; Diod. Sic. IV. 45). This legend enters into the composition of the Iphigenia in Tauris of Euripides, and is several times referred to by the Roman poets.

The other words do not occur. There must be some mistakes in the filling—give me some other clue. State the subject; say whether it lies in the heavens above, in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the earth. If you have nothing else at hand to enter, well also.

In haste,
W. Gregory

Folio 77

Bristol, 6 Jan 1841

My Dear Sir,
I am hurrying with your [work]—it will be finished tonight or Friday, or ready for the press. What shall I do with it? I have undertaken Mr. Smith to ask he may think there will be some difficulty in the other plates with plan, pottery, the wine bowl, for any other worker to get over, which, I propose to do another engraving of the Proteus or, as I hope, my experience will give you quite as good. Please say so by return of post or it is sent.

Mr. Smith says he will after [content unclear].

Folio 78

He has sent nine pieces of [Bristol?] besides the one with Apollo.
If you agree, I have nothing more here than I know what to do with and must make it. It will devote some time to spirit. I have it ready before I start.

Yours in great haste,
[Signature unclear, possibly W. Buckland]

Folio 79

Duan VI. Fingal

Now, when the sound of melody had ceas’d,
Old Carril rose, and thus Fingal address’d:
In Tura’s rocky cavern Erin’s chief
Disconsolate remains, absorb’d in grief
Resolv’d no more to shine in martial fields,
To thee his father’s sword the hero yields;
Whose arm destructive, as the storms that blow,
Hath Ullin rescued, and dispers’d the foe.
Accept, O king, the sword of Semo’s son!
Who now concludes his fame for ever gone,
Like vapours blown, and scatter’d by the wind,
That leave no vestige of their tract behind.

To him Fingal: again the sword restore
To its brave master; who deserves it more?
His soul is great, his arm in danger strong,
His deeds will be the theme of future song.
How many are recorded who o’erthrown,
Yet after, like the son of heav’n, have shone?
Great son of Starno! whose imperial sway
Extends o’er Lochlin, give thy griefs away;
The bravest are sometimes compell’d to bend,
But virtue always conquers in the end.
The sun of heav’n, thus clouded for a space,
To southern regions flies, and hides his face;
But, bursting forth again, his orb displays,
And lights the nether world with keener rays.

300–325

Folio 80

Duan VI. Fingal

From streamy Cona Grumal drew his birth,
His brave achievements fill the spacious earth;
Insatiable of war from shore to shore,
The restless spirit of discord he bore.
His heart delighted in the strife of spears,
The clash of arms was music to his ears.
To Craca's sounding isle he cross’d the main,
And pour’d upon the coast his hostile train.
The king of Craca, from a neighbouring wood
Advancing, met him near the briny flood.
(For then he spoke to Brumo’s stone of pow’r,
Whose circle rose not distant from the shore.)
Fierce was the battle of the chiefs: each strove
Who should possess the snowy breast of love.

The fame of Craca’s beauteous daughter came
To Grumal; where he sat at Cona’s stream:
To win the snowy-bosom’d maid he swore,
Or lose his life on Craca’s echoing shore.
Three days they fought, and bath’d in blood the ground,
But Grumal vanquish’d on the fourth was bound.
Far from his friends, in chains, they left alone
The prince, confin’d at Brumo’s horrid stone;
Where ’twas asserted spectres walk’d their rounds,
And fill’d the midnight air with fearful sounds.
Yet he surviv’d, and all these suff’rings past,
Shone glorious as the beam of heav’n at last;
They fell beneath his hand, and now his name
We have recorded with the first in fame.

326–353

Folio 81

Duan VI. Fingal

Ye bards strike up, and let your songs unfold
The warlike actions of the kings of old.
In tournaments their fierce rencounters tell,
That on their fame I may delighted dwell;
And Starno’s son, invited by your lays,
May yield to sleep, and set his mind at ease.

In Mora’s heath they slept; the surly blast
Of dusky night loud whistling o’er them pass’d;
While from a hundred mouths the song aspires,
A hundred minstrels strike at once their lyres:
The tale was ancient, and contain’d the praise
Of mighty warriors, famous in their days.
When shall I hear the bard’s melodious voice,
Of all the praise of Morven’s kings rejoice?
In Selma now no more the harp is strung,
The voice of music has been silent long!
The bard is with the great in battle dead,
And all renown has from our mountains fled.

Mean time the ruddy sun his light displays,
And Cromla glimmers to his early rays:
When Lochlin’s king, arising with the morn,
Bids them o’er Lena wind his bugle horn.
The sons of ocean, waked by the sound,
Rise on the heath; and silent gath’ring round,
Dejected mount the wave, and to the gales,
That rush from Ullin, spread their snowy sails.

354–379

Folio 82

Duan VI. Fingal

Like Morven’s mist they float before the wind,
And mark, with frosty paths, the seas behind.

No sooner Swaran’s fleet had disappear’d,
Than for the chase his hounds the monarch cheer’d:
White-breasted Bran, (the fav’rite of Fingal),
With Luath, Neart, and Ker, he bid them call.
Let Ryno—but alas! upon the heath,
He slumbers silent in the bed of death.
Let Fillan then, and Fergus blow my horn;
Hail, with the music of the chase, the morn,
That Cromla’s deer may hear the sudden sound,
And from their secret lairs affrighted bound.

Along the wood the piercing clangours spread,
The roes of echoing Cromla rising fled.
A thousand dogs, let off at once pursue,
Swift-bounding through the waving heath they flew.
By ev’ry greyhound fell a spotted buck;
And three the matchless speed of Bran o’ertook.
Roes, deer, and goats, promiscuous load the plain;
One near the tomb, o’er Ryno rais’d, lay slain.
This casual incidence the father view’d,
And gushing tears afresh his cheeks bedew’d.
He visited, once more, the lonely place,
Where silent slept the swiftest at the chase,
And sighing said: no more shalt thou awake,
The joyful feast of Cromla to partake!

380–405

Folio 83

Alfred Dunkin Esq.
Dartford
Kent

Folio 84

The Irish often trace genealogies to antiquity in allegory. This described as "the bounty of the monarch morning?" by the bards. The truth speaks of the Lake Slior (which may explore the great slope & water) as the seat of the industry contributing the few spirits. The legend connected with an animal god Droyant (Noah?) the great cattle protector. Droyant the son of a lake woman or sea cause (who spread sand themselves in an old spirit & replenished the isle). The state produced a secondary order with the higher deity raised to Neptune or Cernunnos.

The ancient thought of Britain is reported that here the buildings of the ship of Noyant (aka Neptune) was a celestial one, long the wisdom of Neptune’s cult, and its art and masonry arrived adapted here. Slior itself is attested to in natural French writings connected through Ivern & through the lake. Slion must refer to a cairn or cairn-dwelling of broad raised stones. It is thought "Kelts" knew this, the isle (dim or shining beams masonry) having been drawn (the power in the monuments) to great covenant movement to testify the Rock (or Tain to Irish the Stone of Briton as covenant movement to deity as the ark).

The first bard described the holy petition as Boitain—"The shore peaceful raised under safe forms."

The wife, Noah, of the legends a river divinity "mother sea bright"...

...the poet’s bard writes "describes the front of the home mighty look" of the island of Britain was raising the state of Kelts."

Folio 85

"The raven... which forth to prove from the ark" and "the waters were dried up from the earth" is signified in British mythology under the name of "Morran" i.e. "the raven of the sea" & is reputed to be the first-born of the architect goddess.

Folio 86

Gravesend. In accordance with their usual practice of nightly seeking a shelter upon land, these adventurous Celts disembarked and encamped upon the western heights. Pleased with the admirable position of the site—the pure spring which freely welled forth—combined with the promise of other requisites their simple wants demanded—they adapted the spot for a permanent location; and excavating the sandy soil, formed for themselves dwellings. Once fixed, they rapidly multiplied, and their progeny spread into the neighbouring districts, where Nature reigned in dreary and undisturbed solitude.

The rigour of the northern climes, in which the lot of some tribes was cast, entailed the necessity of abodes, which should effectually be a protection from the severity of cold. Calling to our service analogical instances, aided by collateral evidence, and the examinations we have made, we feel convinced, that natural caves in the earth, from their warmth, were primarily adapted to this use; and when these became insufficient, artificial excavations were dug with rude flint instruments.

In the primitive stages of barbaric life, similar habitations appear to have been generally adopted.^* The first settlers in Egypt were a colony of Ethiopians and ...

* The authors of the Pictorial History of England, although they have laboured hard to deny the antiquity of the first settlement of Britain, are however finally compelled to admit much against their ...

Folio 87

...were Troglodyte, or inhabitants of caves, pits or grottoes.^* The Horites who dwelt in Mount Seir, were Troglodyte, as the word חֹרִי imports. Strabo describes Troglodyte dwelling on each side of the Arabian Gulf. In the Koran,^† a tribe of Arabians is mentioned, (the tribe of Thamud,) "who hewed houses out of the mountains, to secure themselves." In the Bible, are many allusions to subterraneous residences, thus: "Because of the Midianites, the children of Israel made them the dens which are in the mountains and caves, and strongholds."^‡ — Judges, vi. 2. In these secure resorts they sought refuge in periods of distress; "When the men of Israel saw they were in a strait, then the people did hide themselves in caves, and in pits," &c.

That the residences of the aborigines in this island were subterraneous, we have indeed corroborative indications, "that the first migration from the one [Gaul?] to the other [Britain], took place at a very early period, most probably considerably more than a thousand years before the commencement of our era."^§

^* Alberti, fol. 1. a. ^† The Koran, ch. xv and xvi. ^‡ 1 Sam. xiii, 6, and Heb. xi, 37—8. Vide also Jer. xl, 9.

^§ "On Friday morning, Nov. 21, 1845, the surface of the ground in 'The Paddock' at Orpington, Kent, suddenly gave way and developed, at the depth of sixteen feet, subterraneous arched chambers. The soil is sand. 'The Paddock' is a plot of ground devoted for the gardens of the peasantry, and the subsidence happened in that portion occupied by Master Willoughby." There is little doubt but that these caverns were the residences of the aboriginal Britons.

"The formation of these pits may be ascribed to a tribe of Celts who had previously voyaged up the river Cray in wicker coracles. It must be recollected, that then, the river, unconfined by artificial barriers, had no limits, but what nature herself provided, and consequently overflowed the whole of the valley between the hills, rendering it one vast morass, from the Thames to the source of the Cray. The ..."

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Top margin note: Fulfillment of the determination of the Jewish curse where "the Edomites exhorted the pictures of Petra 'those that dwelled in the clefts of the rocks, that boasted the height of the hill.'"

Middle margin note: Josephus mentions the cave in which he was hidden, where he submitted to Vespasian.

Bottom margin note: Pelissier smoked out the natives in the Syrian cave—artillery killed them all in the operation.

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...proofs furnished us by the authors of the classic era: amongst whom, we may incidentally enumerate Ephorus, Diodorus Siculus, and Dion Cassius. The excavations in this county, consisted of three circular caverns, arranged equilaterally with a connecting passage about four feet high.^* The entrance with some times a chimney or vent, at extreme points.—The depth however varies—[some we have examined at Stanhill and Stankey, (opposite parts of the great town belonging to Caswallon, which Cæsar stormed,) have been eight feet, twelve feet, fourteen feet and even twenty feet below the surface of the ground.] Charcoal, bones, stone celts (and)...

* Ephorus was a pupil of Isocrates, who desired him to write a history, which he composed from the return of the Heraclidae into the Peloponnesus to the twentieth year of Philip of Macedon. It obtained him a brilliant reputation. His geography is often mentioned and criticised by Strabo. But he is extolled for his knowledge by Polybius, Diodorus, and Dionysius Halicarnassus. Sharon Turner ii. 41.

In the Maidstone Journal, March 1845, is an account of a discovery by Mr. J. Dunkin, of similar excavations on the heights immediately above Kit’s Coty house, near Maidstone. Dunkin describes many similar pits in the heaths, fields and woods, near Crayford. He says that some of them, are ten, some...

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...in one instance a flint arrow-head) have been discovered fifteen, and others twenty fathoms deep. At the mouth, and thence downward, they are narrow, like the tunnel of a chimney, or passage of a well, but at the bottom they are large and of great compass, insomuch that some of them have several rooms or partitions, one within another, strongly vaulted and supported with pillars of chalk. In Gibson’s Camden, there is a rude woodcut of some caverns near Tilbury, Essex, “spacious caverns in a chalky cliff, built very artificially of stone to the height of ten fathoms and somewhat straight at the top. A person who had been down to view them, gave me a description of them.” The chambers in the caverns which Camden depicts, consist either of a large space, with semicircular recesses, or of two chambers, each with three semicircular recesses connected by a passage. The universality of the practice is shown in the caves which were discovered in Ireland, in 1829, which are described in the “Transactions of the Antiquarian Society of London,” vol. xxiii. (Figs. 52, 53, and 54.)

A person who peregrinated England and Wales in the time of Henry VIII, and whose descriptions, whenever he enters into detail, are so curious that we sigh over his usual brevity, and wish that he were as prolix as the travellers of our own age—thus describes similar pits near Caernarvon: “There be a great number of pits made with hand large like a bowl at the head, and narrow in the bottom, overgrown in the swart with fine grass, and be scattered here and there about the quarters where the head of Kenner river is, that cometh by Caernarvon. And some of these will receive a hundred men, some two hundred. They be in the Black Mountain.” Old England, p. 20.

The excavations at Pen Pits, near Bourton, in Somersetshire, appear to have been a town composed of these subterraneous dwellings. Of this curious relic of antiquity, Sir R. C. Hoare makes these observations—“The extent of ground comprised within our plan, amounts to about seven hundred acres, of which, nearly half, have been brought into cultivation: but I have no doubt, but that the whole of this fine plain was originally excavated into pits. In my own time the southern declivity of the hill, and another large tract near it have been levelled, and a considerable allotment near Pen Lodge is now undergoing the same process. These excavations seem also to have extended along the eastern banks of the river..."

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These hills were alone habitable as a resort of the wild beast.

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Asp. Hunting ancient Britain.

The poet Nemesian, the Somerville of his day, speaks of Asp in a hunting poem v. 123:
But not the Spartan dog or swift Molossian,
Famed around you are; for further Britain
Sends forth a hound that’s swift of foot, to fit
To urge the chase in this part of our globe.

Chernis were known in Britain before the final century of the Roman era.

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Although these attempts of late writers have been distinguished from their creative [traces] altogether in distinction, we do not feel inclined to admit such primitive errors in the remembrance of the former lot. [Illegible] One never can admit that the aborigines were altogether the creators of the supposed earliest pottery, as we see the reasoning to our minds.

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...upon removing a few inches of the soil, at the bottom of the pits, which still remain as dry as when excavated. In these abodes,^* large families of men, women, and children were promiscuously huddled together, as even in the present century was the practice of certain savages in Southern Africa.

The situation of the location on the western heights comprised all the essentials requisite for early settlements—being on the brow of an eminence^† in a copse of wood, near marshes formed by a creek of the Thames. These circumstances conjoined, necessarily engendered myriads of reptiles,^‡ which, with the fruit...

Stow, as far as the farm house at Bonham, and from the appearance of the ground, on the other side, I have reason to think they were continued along the western banks of the said river. These pits form their form in an inverted cone, and are very unequal in their dimensions. In some instances we see double pits, divided by a slight partition of earth; and the soil in which they are dug, is of so dry a nature, that no water has ever been known to stagnate in them. Antient Wilt., p. 353, 26.

Ephorus says the primeval tribes abode in subterraneous habitations, which they called argillas, communicating by trenches. Ap. Strabo. Geo. lib. v. p. 375. Argel in Celtic signifies a covert, an enclosure or a place covered over. In the Afallannau of Merdhdin we find:

a dyf yn argel yn argodydd,
will come in the covert in the lofty woods.
1. W. Arch., p. 152.

The word is again used in the Englynion Beddau of Taliesin:

Bet Llia Gweltit in argel arudduw
dan y gwellt ac gruewel.

The grave of Llia the Gwyddelian in the covert of Arduwdy, under the grass and withered leaves. 1. Arch., p. 80.

Mr. Saull, speaking of early settlers selecting such sites, observes—"The reason for their preference I conceive to be found in the abundant supply of reptiles and such like animals, consisting...

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...the earth spontaneously produced, formed the principal food of the primitive inhabitants, ere they arrived at the epoch, when they merged the hunter into the nomadic phase. For nations like individuals, advance insensibly from infancy to youth; and history has invariably demonstrated, that the greatest nations, like the noblest rivers, date their rise in obscurity. These pioneers^* in the Cantian wilds, were of peaceful pursuits—war formed no portion of their pleasures...

...of snakes, frogs, mice, and a variety of other small game.^† We do not altogether coincide in this herpetologic hypothesis, although it is an extremely ingenious theory. Notitia Britannica.

^† The Mosaic record testifies, "that God said, Behold I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be given for meat." The earliest profane writers frequently allude to the innocence and happiness of man in that primeval period, when he only consumed the spontaneous productions of the soil. A late author in proof of a theory, that the "longevity of a frugivorous people is most amazing," has given for authorities Manetho, who wrote the Egyptian history; Berossus who collected the Chaldean monuments; Mochus, Hestiæus, Hieronymus the Egyptian, and those who composed the Phœnician History; also Hecatæus, Hellanicus, Ephorus, Nicolaus, Diodorus Siculus, Herodotus, Strabo and Jerome of Egypt. Ovid says:

Void of care and crime
The soft creation slept away their time:
The teeming earth yet guiltless of the plough,
And unprovoked, did fruitful stores allow.
Content with food, which nature freely bred,
On wildings and on strawberries they fed.
Cornels and bramble-berries gave the rest,
And falling acorns furnished out a feast."

Sharon Turner says that this "class of mankind was composed of distinct families, that multiplied into separate tribes, living insulated from each other; and rarely coalescing into nations; though sometimes confederating for the purposes of war and depredation."

Dio Niceus out of Xiphilin's Epit. concerning those Britons who dwell in the interior, says they till no ground, but live upon prey...

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...their pleasures—and in after days, when their descendants became the proprietors of flocks and herds, the perpetual verdure presented in the valley, gave its inhabitants but little cause to range in search of fresh pastures—as these flocks multiplied, their produce combined with the results of the chase, formed the chief subsistence of the people. We are however anticipating the course of events—for, before this material change occurred, ages had rolled away.

The country around, to this day, presents marks of the dwellings of the aborigines; and one of the excavations at the verge of Stone-Park Wood, still bears the evidently Celtic appellation of "Caerberlaber's Hole."

Tradition has brought the name to us, as Caerberlaber, or Clablabber. Even the pronunciation...

...and hunting, and the fruit of trees. Their weapons are a shield and short spear, in the lower end whereof is a piece of brass like an apple, that by shaking it, they may terrify the enemy. This short spear was the bronze celt, so many of which, have been found in this county, and which invariably were cast with a loop for fastening the instrument. Vide p. 7 ante. Probably the shape of the celt may have varied, being one time like a bill-hook, or tomahawk, or again like a bowie knife or μάχαιρα: it was a short slaughtering tool, a celt, or cutter, which at Gen. xxii, 6, is called ma-celti.

For this orthography we are indebted to W. Crafter, esq. "A Traveller" in 1803, writes, In the bosom of Swanscombe wood, part of which is said to be in Southfleet parish, is a wonderful cavern, divided into detached cells, or apartments, excavated from a hill facing the south, at the bottom of which you enter it. This is probably of very remote antiquity. The woodmen tell you that once in thirty years or thereabouts, the rage to see it rises in the minds of the neighboring villagers; and they make parties to go and regale there, taking lights that they may find their way out.

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...palpably demonstrates the Celtic origin of the nomenclature. All names of places being to a certain extent arbitrary, we can but trace the meaning of the separate syllables, after their conversion into a discriminative or descriptive appellation, for mnemonical convenience by the settlers. The first syllable is evidently from clo’, locked or shut in; which, again, is a compound of cau’, an enclosure. Llai, is less, from le-is or es, the lower place. Ber, the final part...

Our guide had not been down there for thirty years, but he says he then saw names and dates thirty years back. Our “Traveller” gives a very far-fetched version of the origin of the name, as follows: “The last owner was a terrific kidnapper or freebooter, who may have lived probably many hundred years ago, and whose name seems to originate, like many other proper names of old, from his possessions, caen a’r dre the dwelling or habitation in the wood of trees, and now by colloquial shortening become clabber, to which they add his profession napper; and Clabber Napper’s hole has been the terror of the rising generations, possibly ever since the time of our great Alfred.”

“There was formerly known, as I am well informed, a similar cave in the extremity of the chalk cliffs near to where Gravesend is now built, and subject to the same marauder. They go so far as to say, that there was an underground intercourse between them (four miles!); but unless we were assured that Clabber Napper was a monk, I would not believe it.” (Rather illiberal.) “The present appearance of this cave is, that its entrance which was sloping downwards, has now a foss of ten or more feet deep; and over its principal cavity is a well-like hole, which the guide judiciously considered was a fall of the earth over the crown of the cavity. He said the people called it his chimney widened by the operations of time.” Gent’s. Mag. An account of an examination of the cavern in 1845, may be found in the Chron. Kent.

Philologists may trace the word in different tongues—thus: Latin claudo and cludo; French écluse; Italian chiusa; German schliessen; and Teutonic schliessen.

The earth before us calls to men.

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...ticle er, water; to which, the letter b, signifying life, motion, &c., being prefixed, makes ber, spring-water. Thus hypothetically rendering for an explanation of the syllabic combination, what it certainly is geographically, a town, or walled enclosure near the spring water in the lower place. A different solution may perhaps be furnished from fewer elements, thus: caer, a town; b, er, l, arbhar, a camp. The Celtic language being, says Rowland, “but a broken Hebrew,” accordingly the word might thus be explained, קיר ceer, a citadel; באר ber, a well, or wells; and ארבע arba, four: the first is being but a sound.

Upon this subject we have already recorded a deliberate opinion—vide The Report of the Proceedings of the British Arch. Assoc. at the Congress held at Canterbury, in 1844—as many of our readers may not have seen the volume, we take this opportunity of presenting the paragraphs to their notice.

Affinity to the Hebrew has been heretofore considered the test by which other Semetic languages might be ascertained; and yet, it is more than doubtful whether Hebrew be Semetic. What we call Hebrew is called throughout the Scriptures, the language of Canaan, and consequently of the descendants of Ham, and not of Shem. The evidence in the Bible does not rest alone on the mere calling this tongue the language of Canaan, although that is very strong. There is more convincing testimony. In the account of the covenant between Laban and Jacob (Gen. xxxi, 47), the heap of stones made as a memorial of that agreement, shows that Laban spoke a different language from Jacob. Thus speaks Moses—"And Laban called it Jegar sahadutha, but Jacob called it Galeed.” The first is Syriac, the second Hebrew.

Two men, not only of the same nation, but of the same family, each speaking the language of the people of the country among which they had been brought up—Laban, Syriac; Jacob, Canaanitish; both had lost the original Chaldee of their ancestor Terah. Yet the Hebrew has been considered the Holy language, which some even go so far as to call a tongue revealed to Moses—which it could not have been, for we find it spoken by Jacob long before the time of Moses—it is very plain that it was that of the cursed Canaanites. p. 40. Beham, Orig. Idolatry.

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This makes ceer-ber-’l-arba, the city of the four wells. And we might compare Gen. xxiii, 1, “Kirjath-arba,” the city [not of the giant Arba, but] of four sides, a quadrangle; like as Plutarch, and Ennius apud Solinus, tell us that the old name of Rome was “Quadrata”—the Welsh for four is peduar.

North from the settlement, in the adjacent parish of Swanscombe, upon the land occupied by the Messrs. Hassell, “the surface of the ground has many times sunken down,” and developed the subterraneous residences of the aborigines. In the summer of 1845, “whilst ploughing this land with four horses, the crown of the arch of a cavern, till then unknown, gave way beneath the feet of the cattle, when two of the animals sank to such a depth, that they were with much difficulty extricated.”

The barrows, wherein, rest the mortuary deposits of the primeval possessors of the soil, are in the southern portion of the forest, which, at the period we are treating, was of enormous extent—infested with wolves and other animals of the chase. Even at the present day, it is one of the largest in the county of Kent, although every year witnesses a decrease in its magnitude from the policy pursued by landlords of disforesting their lands, so continually pursued.

Some years after the settlement of the first colonists upon the western side of the bay, another tribe of wandering Celtæ, selected the opposite or eastern heights, now called Wingfield Bank, for their dwelling place. One excavation only, (partly filled up,) ...

Vide West Kent Guardian and Maidstone Journal, pas.

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The Athenæum

No. 1062
Saturday, October 17

Historical and Theological Discussion

In this continuation of historical analysis, the focus remains on reconciling archaeological findings with biblical records. The articles delve into:

The accounts of ancient expeditions and conflicts, such as those involving the Egyptians and their neighbors.
Detailed discussions on the authenticity and interpretation of historical timelines, especially those derived from Mosaic texts.
The religious and cultural significance of ancient Egyptian monuments and inscriptions.

Selections from Goethe’s Dramas

The later sections include a poetic and dramatic analysis of Goethe’s works. A notable passage describes the translation challenges in capturing the original spirit of Goethe's German into English:

"Who to hold a thing of beauty, must first understand the words that give it form."

This poetic rendition encapsulates the translator's challenge and the artistry required in adapting Goethe’s intricate prose.

In-depth Theological Reflection

The text concludes with a reflective note on the coexistence of faith and historical inquiry, emphasizing the need for diligent research when interpreting ancient texts.

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now remains, (1845,) for the cultivators of the land, considering these aboriginal residences as nuisances, have invariably endeavoured to destroy them; and were it not that the tumuli are in woods retained in their normal condition, they, too, would have shared the same fate, and been levelled with the surrounding soil. Even the Romans respected not the vestiges of their predecessors, for they filled up many of the Bri- tish excavations, and actually directed one of their vi- cinal ways over an aboriginal subterraneous habitation, beneath the Northfleet portion of the very road, the reparation of which, was the vexata questio, that caused so much litigation between Mr. Silvester, the present occupier of Springhead, and the Southfleet and Northfleet parishes in 1845.

Religion, &c.

Although the arts and sciences amongst these tribes had retrograded, yet there still remains sufficient con- clusive evidence, satisfactorily to convince us, that they had preserved a traditional acquaintance of the wor- ship of the One true God. It may reasonably be sup- posed, that each body of people or tribe, after sepa- rating from the parent stock, to seek an independent settlement, in empty and unknown regions, conveyed with it a portion of the faith of its fathers—a faith transmitted from Babel's walls.⁵ Besides, analogous

Folio 105

circumstances lead us to infer, that each of these tribes migrated under the command of young and en- terprising supernumeraries of the military and sacer- dotal castes;—who multiplying according to the course of Nature—threw off other colonists for other climes, who reflected the chief features, both religious and poli- tical, of the Noahetic root whence all had alike sprung.

The corrupted religious worship of the aborigines we are describing, is inferred from existing and chronolo- gical and analogous data, to have been the ~~striation~~ ser- pent, or dragon.⁶ The former was the most visible object in creation presented to their notice—and in the climes, whence they emigrated, had been adopted as the object

Southey in his Curse of Kehama, says of "the Judgement Seat" in the Infernal regions or Padalon:—
A golden throne before them vacant stood,
A throne, immense as are the bounds of night,
From whose radiant summit, floods of light,
With listed hand suspended, and subdued,
What little burns, what little glows, around.

A fourth was waiting. "They see the tree of the two
Unfolded its wings! They bear all the blood,
That here they evil-bent their first abode,
And red they are belial & they all stood."

As thus, for their mistakes, they stood tormented there.

Kehama enquires for what misdeeds the "who bear the Gol- den Throne," are thus "tormented there?" The first replies, "because he was the first misser; and the second says:

To or my Brethren of Mankind the first
Usurping power, set up a throne sublime,
A king of Conqueror, therefore thus accuse.
For ever I in vain repeat the crime!

—TILLIAH STAN.

In the Children of Mankind the first,
Of goals not brought & planning—led cause,
of impious falsehood! These his cause!
For ever I in vain the crime bewail.

"A Time was when the Universe was darkness and water, wherein certain Animals of frightful and compound forms were generated. There were Serpents and other Creatures with the mixed shape of one another, of which pictures are kept in the Temple of Belus, at Babylon." Berossus. * The name of the national God Bel, is supposed to signify nothing more than Lord, and was also sometimes appropriated to deified heroes. (Kircher. CEdip. Egypt.)

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of adoration. In the Sanchoniathon the Origin of Idolatry is traced to the descendants of Cain, who began with the worship of the Sun. The serpent was allegorical of this luminary; and he is depicted biting his tail, and with his flexible body coiled into a circle, in order to indicate the ordinary course of the sun. Under this guise it was an emblem of time and eternity.

The Sanchoniathon fully verifies the sacred writings —it shews, that in the earliest ages, one God was the sole object of adoration; and that the corruptions of idolatry, arose from interested and avaricious individu- als among the initiated and learned, making a mystery of everything for their own profit and advantage, by trafficking on the fears and hopes of mankind with "cunningly devised fables, sorceries, and abomina- tions," by which they passed off falsehood as truth, hid the divine light from the eyes of mankind, and

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plunged them into the horrid mysteries of a demoniac idolatry. Thus speaks the Sanchoniathon:—

All these things the son of Thabion the first hierophant among the Phœnicians, allegorized and mixed up with the occurrences and acci- dents of nature and the world, and delivered to the priests and prophets the superintendents of the mysteries; and they, perceiving the rage for their allegories increase, delivered them to their successors and to fo- reigners, of whom one was Isiris, the inventor of these letters, the bro- ther to Chna, who was called the first Phœnician.

Sir William Jones says, "that one great spring and fountain of all idolatry was, the veneration paid by men to the sun, or vast body of fire, which looks from his sole dominion like the God of this world;" "But,"³⁸ says Richard Watson "the scriptural account of the matter refers the whole to wilful ignorance and a corrupt heart: 'they did not like to retain God in their knowledge.'"

³⁸ To this may be added, what indeed proceeds from the same sources, the disposition to convert religion into outward forms; the endeavour to render it more impressive upon the imagination through the senses; the substitution of sentiment for real religious principle; and the licence which this gave to inventions of men, which in pro- cess of time became complicated and monstrous. Watson, Bibl. Theol. Dict. Idolatry sprang from mistaking scripture; so also witchcraft and sorcery, which hold near affinity to idolatry, and seem to have had the first beginning from an imitation of God’s oracles: "God spake in divers manners," Heb. i. By dreams, by Urim, by Prophets, 1 Sam. 28, 6, 7. When the Lord would no none of these answer, King Saul then sought a witch. In Holy Writ there are hosts of idols mentioned, of whom little or nothing is spoken save their names. Of this nature are those chambers of imagery, wherein all forms of creeping things were portrayed on the walls. Ezek. 8.

Degenerate man, in weakness and decay,
Left to himself became an easy prey,
As earth was peopled, plenteous vice increased
And love for God’s parental blessings ceased
And wandering man on Nature’s works bestowed
The worship to his God he justly owed,

—Croke

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The Ark rested on the mountain of Ararat known by the Armenians as Naxcis "the mother of the world" & situated in N. lat. 39° 30' and E. long. 44° 30' nearly in the middle of the vast ridge of Taurus encircling the earth, as the Arabian geographers describe it, which runs eastward from Cicilia (Cilicia) through the whole extent of Asia; portrayed lies newly sundering between the Persian provinces of the Russian expansion for Minor Kingdom Tract. 60.

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CHAP. IV.

PHŒNICIAN COLONIES & COMMERCE.

"The breath of heaven has blown away
What toiling earth had piled."
Scattering wide heart and crafty hand,
As breezes strew on ocean sand
The fabrics of a child."
—KEBLE

B.C. 2000–750

About three centuries after the first coloni- zation of Britain, by the descendants of the sons of Japheth, the island was visited by those enter- prising navigators, the Phœnicians; "whose antiquity is of the earliest date;" and who engrossed all the traffic carried on at that time in the world. The dwellers on the Kentish shores equally imbued with a love for the sea, gladly cultivated their connexion and sought their commerce: and the productions of Britain were exchanged for those of Tyre, to reciprocal advantage." The great extent of the coast possessed by the Britons, was favourable to their continuing the pursuit of a maritime life, long after their occupation of the Kentish shores.

Richard of Cirencester affirms that it was about A.M. 3000, that Britain was first visited by the Phœnician merchants. Lib. 2, c. i. § VI.

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Holy Writ furnishes us with a concise pedigree of the descendants of Noah, and the division of the earth amongst them. It states that Noah begat Japheth, who begat Javan, one of whose offspring, was Tar- shish. Amongst this race, says the inspired chronolo- gist, "were the Isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands; every one after his tongue, after their families, in their nations;"—and in ourselves, their descendants, we experience the fulfilment of the prophetical bene- diction of Noah "God shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem."

Wherever the Phœnicians penetrated, there they planted colonies, and it has been feasibly supposed,² that the Gaël or Gauls, were drawn from the two Galilees, and Gaulonitis, the inland provinces, Gael, or Gaul, to the ports the Phœnicians selected for fixing their establishments, and called themselves Gael.

TALIESEN in the ancient poem, entitled—The Appeasing of Lludd, thus graphically describes the first colonists.

Llyrwyd hîlias, aswns ei henywryns
Ewygrwn ffynonawdd Fyridd Gwyn,
Frydwych Awenwn Fynyn Ci wyn,
Llyfr fy awyllt ynn, Adran ei gynwyn!

Families of princes, bards of bliss,
Primæval forms of pride, they (of Merddin) wis,
Their numerous race, heroic as to have been,
The most ancient colony of yore; the first Isles Gaël is!
Nor to the haven of life, itself their ever boast,
Their destiny hath no being as to cost;
To whence their worldly stock did leave, And midst their long days, who could equal their weaves.

The nations, the offspring of Japhet, possess from Mount Taurus to the North, all the middle part of Asia, and all Europe, as far as the British Ocean, and give their names both to the places, and to the people. Origen, Lix. c. 2. We are aware of the attempt to prove from the etymology, that the descendants of Gomer, the eldest son of Japheth, first peopled the Isles of Britain, and, though we have been accused of too readily listening to tradition, yet over the earliest records who settled...

Folio 111

That the colonies they planted in Kent & Britain were drawn from those adjacent provinces to their own immediate territory, viz: Galilees, Gaulonitis, & Galatia. The analogy of the names of the colonists themselves is nearly seen: Gaels; Gauls; Gaeltach.

+ Fact 87% (no why)

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The most ancient name for a stranger or foreigner in Irish is Gall, in modern use it is applied to Englishmen in the plural Gall.

It is a well-known fact that Celtic names of places are, invariably, descriptive.

^X Note: Brownson (V.24) says the daughter of a Celtic prince, during her reign in Gaul, having had dealings with other nations, but while Hercules was placing Murus (Celtic walls) in Lycia, where he begat Geriones, she claimed his capture of strength. He bore to her a son named Galates, from whom the people were called Galates in comparison to numerous tribes of the Scythians. Servius. IV.9. The two are combined in Parthen. 30.

Folio 113

and Gaeltach, or Celtæ,³ and thenceforward, the abori- gines, whose descent was similar, were confounded as one race.

In this instance, we do not coincide with the learned and ingenious theory. It is nevertheless certain, that the radical part of the names of Gomer should be found in the appellation of the Cim- merians in Asia; Cimbri and Umbri in Gaul and Italy; and Cymri, Cambri and Cumbria in Wales and Cumberland, as the present day. Camden deduces it thus: "Gomer, Gomari, Gombreri, Gomerito, Kumero, Cymro, Kumri; and gives Josephus and Zonaras as autho- rities. Gomer in Hebrew Signifies Bounding, or the utmost border."

Sir W. Betham says, "It has escaped all observation, as far as I have discovered, that the country about Tyre and Sidon, at the earliest, antiently bore the name of Galilee, or country of the Gael on the sea coast; the very name Gael, the Phœnician colonies in Europe called themselves, and gave to their settlement in Europe; Gael, the Gael—country of—i.e., sea coast. The conclusion therefore appears irresistible, that the Gaels were those Phœnicians who conquered and settled Celtic Europe, at such remote antiquity that when they were found by the Romans in Gaul, Britain and Ireland, they had forgotten all but a tradition of their original country, their gods, their religion, and their language."

Diodorus Siculus says Galatæ is only another appel- lative of the race. Origen calls the Gaulish Druid Galatæ Druides. Galli is probably but the abbreviation of Galatai, a clipping prac- tice too often employed by the present generation in daily conver- sation, i.e., omnibus vulg. bus; railroad vulg. rail; steamboat vulg. steam or boat.

³ The Irish, the Gael of Scotland and the Manks, are now the only descendants of that antient people who have retained the language. The discovery, by Sir Wm. Betham, that in the Irish a people still exist who speak the language of the Phœnicians, is of the first historical importance, for by it, Phœnician inscriptions may be deciphered, and the extent of their commerce and naviga- tion, traced by the antient names of places in the world known to the antients. Plautus happily establishes the clear identity of the language of Hamilcar, of Carthage, itself a Phœnician colony, with the vulgar Irish of this day. Hanno the Carthaginian, in Plautus.

Folio 114

under the same cognomen. The Romans after- wards denominated the whole continent by the name of the people on the coast. The Hebrew, for Galilee is GALLI; and at Isaiah ix, 1, "Galilee of the nations," seems to be an expression referring to the connexion which Galilee had maintained with distant climes— as if it were the Mother of Colonies, "Galilee of the nations;" or, as in Matt. iv, 15, "Galilee of the Gen- tiles." In after days they...

The Greeks and Romans gave the general name of Celtæ to nearly all the interior natives and tribes who lived in the forests of Europe. It corresponds exactly to our name Indians, conferred on all the tribes of America. There were no people more Celt than one another, but it happened that some name was given for distinction. Celt was the genus; Gael, Gaul, Cymri, &c., the species.

The terms "Western Isles" and the "Isles of the Gentiles" are used indiscriminately by sacred and pro- fane writers, to express Britain of Tarshish. (The etymology of the name of Tarshish is mnemonically significant of its position.—The particles of which it is composed, demonstrate, according to the explanation of Sir William Betham, the identity of the Gaelic and Phœnician language.)

...exclaims in Carthaginian—Byth lim! mo thym noctothi neil ech anti dias machon. Which in current Irish would be written at this day—Beith liom mo thym noctaithe neil ach dias maoine.

In another sentence the Roman Plautus is accurate to a letter as in current Irish:—Han done fiill havan been filli in mustine. In like manner, Hanno's "Meipsi et en eiste dam, et alaim na cestin um." Is in current Irish, "Meisi et en eiste dam, et alaim na cestin um."

Folio 115

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Ancient Iberian Population

In reading your report of the very interesting communication of Mr. Wilson to the British Asso- ciation on the former inhabitants of the British Isles, I was somewhat surprised to find that he makes no mention of the existence of an ancient Iberian popu- lation over all Europe. Whether the existence of such a people has ever engaged the attention of eth- nologists, I am ignorant;—but facts seem to point so evidently to such a conclusion, that I cannot but think it must have been urged before. How else can we explain the geographical distribution of the Iberians? That they distributed themselves by aggressive land emigration or by maritime en- terprise seems alike impossible and inconsistent with their character and state of civilization, as it is universally represented by ancient authors.

On the other hand, if we consider what would be the effect on a thinly scattered and hunting popu- lation—for such we must consider the Iberian to have been—of the spread of a more condensed and energetic people from the region of the Black Sea, every phenomenon of their geographical po- sition seems to be completely explained.—Thus, by the advance of the invading race, the Iberians of North Russia and of the east coast of the Baltic would be driven still further north. We find, ac- cordingly, in Finland a race which still speaks a language allied to the Basque,—the acknowledged descendant of the old Iberian. But the great body of the Iberian race would retreat before the in- vaders through Germany and Gaul, and finally into Spain;—and here, in fact, we find the principal locality of this people. Those who inhabited the peninsulas of Greece and Italy would be cut off and driven southwards. In Greece the mountains of Arcadia would naturally form their last retreat. From Italy they could easily pass to Sicily:—the whole of which island we are informed they once

Folio 116

The Athenaeum

[Sept. 14]

...itself to this object. This medieval festival, there- fore, would have been altogether imperfect without the Carroccio. But when I call it "ancient," I mean in institution. The heavy timber car which I saw appeared quite new.

The whole of this procession marched more than other circumstances of a festivity belonging to the days when no Italian city was without its "fuor- usciti."

T.A.T.

Our Weekly Gossip

It is with no little satisfaction that we find that the remembrances of students in the school and...

Our Weekly Gossip

It is with no little satisfaction that we find that the remonstrances of students in general, and our own earnest and continued ones in particular, have borne some amount of fruit; and that Mr. Panizzi has been aroused to the necessity of im- proving the arrangements of the Reading Room of the British Museum,—especially as regards the means of reference. Advantage has been taken of the short period during which the Museum has been closed to prepare for the reading public a sur- prise in the shape of increased facilities at once for "finding" and for study. We believe that with a little further perseverance we shall yet get what we want. The changes are as follows:—Mr. Panizzi and his assistants have found accommo- dation for twenty more readers by removing the old catalogue desk, &c.,—have let in light to those sides of the reading rooms which before were totally dark by cutting through the gallery floors, —and have taken off the absurd wire fronts from the book-cases. These have been emptied, and judiciously re-filled by well-selected books on gene- ral and English history, state papers, and English topography, joined to the parliamentary and law papers, and the London Gazette, in one room,—and in the other, by works on biography and travels, the encyclopædias and dictionaries, as before, English classics, ancient classics, reviews, editions of the Bible, church history, Transactions of learned Societies, heraldry, calendars, almanacs, et id genus omne. The old printed and manuscript Catalogue has been removed from the west to the east room; where it is placed in a convenient posi- tion on one of the walls, and flanked on each side by a "supplementary" Catalogue in manuscript in 153 volumes, ranged on shelves placed along three sides of the room. Before these Catalogues stand rows of strong oak desks, on which they may be placed for consultation. The volumes are hand- somely bound; and they contain the titles of a great number of new works hitherto inaccessible, except with trouble, to the reader. We are told that fewer than a thousand titles are now only in arrear. The Grenville Library is also at length catalogued and made available. It is even possible now to get a pen that will write,—and, there being two addi- tional attendants, a book in less than half-a-day. The rooms are better furnished; and measures have been taken to let in extra light.—The rapidity

Folio 117

The Athenaeum

Page 189

...at least, since Geoffrey of Monmouth, has shined from the light of history, and the fecundity of romance. From the days of Julius Caesar, our events may indeed have been bright; but we have nothing that can be written into fairy or legendary record. We are tolerably satisfied with the venerable national antiquities of Stonehenge, and "leading lines of evidence."

Still, some statistics, related, not to war nor blood, but to the record of people who peopled these Isles, England, in the early centuries. They were regarded by the Welsh as the Cimbri, the descendants of Gomer; by the Irish, they were designated by the name of "Scotia." The Scots, for national pride, long gloried in themselves as a nation from Scythia, and through their isolated position, we may infer they were somewhat less prone to the south.

To relieve our southern neighbours, ceasing the idea of war, it was then questioned that some records distinctly refer to nations who fell into alliance in these Isles, yet cannot define them nor their borders. While of language, what some modern etymologists find more distinct is drawn from old Europe’s Iberia and her wandering tribes.

On the next examination of historical data, Mr. Skene traces the “Cymry” as here; yet Mr. Skene distinctly refers to the first “British settlement in Gomer’s Isles,” originating, he suggests, with Ireland’s distant identities. From the “Isle of Hibernia” to the north, the pictorial base appears to convey national likeness through Celtic neighbours who contributed their tongue to Welsh Britain.

Through the subject before us, we cannot be very extensive; the great bulk of our traditions, and those nations’ remarkable records, remain briefly spoken before history itself will clarify as to why the settlements grew here. Iberians and Gaels form the British tale.

For further investigation, the Cimbri reappeared in a former public inquiry at some great distance; it remains doubtful, however, how such a name became affixed to “Gomer” for those who mingled, or remained distinct, with Celtic Iberian descent.

Folio 118

The Athenaeum

Page 190

...romans, or the old inhabitants. In the fifth century they had yet given their name to the whole island, and, to the regions in which they were settled, and this respect they held like the victorious titles of Gaul, who did not succeed in imposing their name on the country and centuries after found themselves numerically much stronger than before, by be- lieving that the Scots were of Scythian origin.

Those, indeed, settled among foreign tribes, were soon able to forget much of the origin of the word Scythia, which, in Greek, ever meant native Scythians. Their oral history revived with Africa’s Eastern Shores, which preserved the same word designating much of the later regions.

Although the settlements in Gaul were similar to those in Germany’s annexations of Austria’s Alps, or the past descendants in Andorran ranges, their descriptive analysis still main- tains strong determination to rectify the origin of settlement. By referencing the remarkable mix of Celtic and Iberian neighbours, which so often spoke of common “warfare” while settlement survived “Territories.”

Ultimately, just as the Scot settlers from Cymry related to their Western Celtic brethren, they retained what appears to have mingled through a probable West German ancestry. To this day, we commonly refer to Cymry or ancestors relating these settlements.

Jack Brag. By the Author of Sayings and Doings. 3 vols. Bentley.

This is a book so much of the pleasantly entertaining order, that we virtually include ... full of high spirited, brisk anecdote, com- ... in the best English...attention.

...The scene with Lord Ilfracombe...with rapid wit and amazing...sparkling con- versation...broader jokes.

Folio 119

Phœnician languages: "It is TIR, country—IAR, western—SIOS, down in:—that is literally the western country, or the country down in the west, pronounced 'Tarshish.'"

At the close of the fourth age of the world, about one thousand years before Christ, we read of the ce- lebrity of the ships of Tarshish, for Solomon "the king had a navy of Tarshish" always at sea, and it is further recorded, that their voyage to Tarshish and back, trading on the route, lasted three years.⁵ Gold and silver are two of the articles of commerce men- tioned, both of which the mines of Britain and Ireland produced.⁶ The route pursued by the fleet appears to have been from Eziongeber on the Red Sea, and thence.

⁵ About two hundred years afterwards, Pharaoh Necho king of Egypt, who reigned between the years 616 and 600 B.C., directed a similar voyage to be undertaken. (Herod. iv., 42). The vessels sailed from the Red Sea, and returned by the Mediterranean, per- forming the voyage in three years; just the same time that the voyage under Solomon had taken up. It appears likewise from Pliny (Nat. Hist. ii. 67), that the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, was known, and frequently practised before his time; by Hanno the Carthaginian, when Carthage was in its glory, by one Eudoxus, in the time of Ptolemy Lathyrus king of Egypt; and Celius Antipater, an historian of good credit, somewhat earlier than Pliny, testifies, that he had seen a merchant who had made the voyage from Gades to Æthiopia. The Portuguese under Vasco de Gama, nearly three hundred years ago, recovered this navigation after it had been intermitted and lost for many centuries.

⁶ Griffiths says that an ardent spirit for mining adventures must have pervaded Ireland at a very remote period, from the nume- rous traces existing of formerly worked mines. Report to the Royal Dublin Soc. on the Metallurgic Mines of Leinster, 1828.

Folio 120

round by Africa, whence they procured "the ivory, apes, and peacocks," likewise included amongst the items of commerce.

Tarshish agreeably to the peculiar allegorical prac- tice of Hebrew poetry, is oftener instanced than any other place in the Holy Scriptures, metonymi- cally to express wealth and commerce. Such was actually the case with Britain, it was a mart abound- ing with treasures—and its inhabitants enriched by trade, possessed many of the luxuries and enjoy- ments of life; since commercial nations always arrive at wealth and luxury earlier than others. But unfortunately, with the exception of circumstan- tial evidence, no record or description has descended from antiquity, to convey to us a particular notion of their prior modes of life. From analogous instances we may however safely arrive at the conclusion, that the Phœnician colonists incontinently excited amongst the apt aborigines, a desire to participate in the novel luxuries they introduced. Attendant upon the use of "strange luxuries" came the civilizing customs of the East, which tended more to the advantage of the Phœnicians, than a retention of the natives in their pristine condition, because it created a demand for the merchandize and mineralogical treasures, in which they trafficked. Rich too, as was Britain in mines, yet without heavy and continuous labour, the ores were not available for commercial purposes.

In mining and metallic operations the processes are so varied and complicated, that the toil of an isolated individual would be of little avail—it was, therefore, of paramount importance that whole communities ...

Folio 121

pervets Vbes[?]

Folio 122

should be imbued with a desire of gain, and moreover positively assured of receiving an equivalent for their exertions. Consequently it must have been the endeav- our of the new colonists to excite amongst the aborigines those artificial wants, they alone could supply. Thus, the productions, the knowledge, the refinements of Tyre, "the triumphant city," "the mighty fortress of the sea," with all the good and evil fruits of commerce were introduced into the Western Isles. An intimate political and commercial relation thenceforward existed between the two countries, and an interchange of man- ners and customs, which were partially retained even after the fall of Tyre, till the advent of the Romans—the most deceptive and imposing people that ever dwelt upon the earth. Even Caesar, in his eloquent yet partial description of the Cantians, is compelled to admit, that in chariots, in agriculture, and strategical skill, they were far superior to the Gauls, their nearest neigh- bours, who were at that time amalgamating with the Teutons. Reluctantly too, he states, that the Roman galleys were unable to contend with the mighty British ships. Being his "own reporter," of his own feats, he has invariably endeavoured to decry the Britons, and disparagingly asserts his opinion, that they were barbarians—but when he descends to minute detail, the gloze becomes transparent, and the Kentish men are discerned to have filled a higher grade in the community of nations, than he wished to represent, lest he should too clearly exhibit the complete discomfiture and ruin of the armies he organized for their inva- sion.

The poet prophet Ezekiel says, in the Lamentation...

Folio 123

for Tyrus, (one of the towns of Phœnicia,) which he was ordered to make by the Lord our God, in the fifth age of the world, "the ships of Tarshish did sing of thee (Tyre) in thy market; and thou wast replenished and made very glorious in the midst of the seas;"—again, "Tarshish was thy merchant, by reason of the mul- titude of all kinds of riches; with silver, iron, tin and lead they traded in thy fairs."

Now as Britain alone possesses the whole of these metals, and "Tin is not to be found elsewhere in Europe," it is another convincing proof that Tarshish was the Western Isles or Britain, whose wave-bound coasts also supplied the hardy mariners who manned the fleets which swept the seas from Tarshish to Tyre.

The destruction of continental Tyre took place be- tween the years 607, B.C., during the period Nebuchad- nezzar was associated with his father in the government in the first year of his reign. The ascertained dates of these occurrences, combined with other corroboratory links, materially assist us in ascertaining the correct epochs.

⁷ Gael and Cymbri, art. Tarshish, p. 39.

⁽⁸⁾ "Thus saith the Lord Jehovah concerning Tyre:
At the sound of thy fall, at the cry of the wounded,
As at great slaughter in the midst of thee, shall not the islands tremble?
And shall not all the princes of the sea descend from their thrones,
They shall cast aside robes, and strip off their embroidered garments;
They shall clothe themselves with trembling, they shall sit on the ground;
They shall tremble every moment, they shall be astonished at thee.
And they shall utter a Lamentation over thee, and say unto thee,
How art thou lost, that wast mighty upon the sea!
The renowned city, that was strong in the sea, she and her inhabitants!
That struck with terror all her neighbours!
Now shall the coasts tremble in the day of thy fall,
And the isles that are in the sea shall be troubled at thy departure."
—Lowth's Ezekiel, xxvi., 15—18.

Folio 124

Tin is a metal of rare occurrence though found in apparently inexhaustible quantities in a few localities. The only districts, according to Berzelius, where it is obtained in Asia, are the island of Banca, only discovered in 1710, and the peninsula of Malacca when Wilkinson concurs it possible that tin may have been wrought by the Egyptians.

Folio 125

In the late Bishop of London's literal translation of Isaiah's "Oracle concerning Tyre" the reference to Britain is more palpable than in the generally received versions:

Howl, O ye ships of Tarshish
For she is utterly destroyed both within and without;
From the land of Chittim (9) the tidings are brought unto them.
Be silent, O ye inhabitants of the sea coast;
The merchants of Sidon, the that pass over the sea, crowded thee.
The seed of Sihor, the seed of the Nile, growing from abundant waters,
The harvest of the river was her revenue,
And she became the mart of the nations.
Be thou ashamed, O Sidon! for the sea hath spoken,
Even the mighty fortress of the sea, saying:
I am, as if I had not travailed, nor brought forth children;
As if I had not nourished youths, nor educated virgins.
When the tidings shall reach Egypt
They shall be seized with anguish at the tidings of Tyre.
Pass ye over to Tarshish! howl, O ye inhabitants of the sea coast!
It is your triumphant city; whose antiquity is of the earliest date
Her own feet bear her far away to sojourn.

We have, altogether, most authentic and indisputa- ble testimony furnished us, by both inspired and profane writers, that the Phœnicians traded to Britain, many centuries before Cæsar, who mentions, as also do the prophets, precisely the same metals, as in- digenous to the isle.¹⁰

⁹ Chittim has been taken by Hales for all the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean; which appears most consonant with the general use of the word by the different inspired writers. Watson's Bibl. Theol. Dict. It can easily be accepted that the intelligence of the overthrow of Tyre, was revealed to the British by this mean. Bishop Louth in a note says "The news of the destruction of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar is said to be brought to them from Chittim, the islands and coast of the Mediterranean." "For the Tyrians," says Jerom on Isaiah xxiii, 6, "when they saw they had no other means of escaping, fled in their ships and took refuge in Carthage," "in the islands of the Ionian and Ægean sea;" from whence the news would spread and reach Tarshish."

¹⁰ The name of Midacritus, has descended to our days as the first Phœnician voyager whose cargo comprised lead. Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. iii. c. 57.

Folio 126

Under the fostering auspices of the Phœnicians, Tarshish or Britain reached a high position in the pale of civilized countries.—Her sons ceased to dwell in the subterraneous habitations they occupied on their arri- val in the isle—replacing them by houses with stories, after the Tyrian manner, but constructed chiefly of wood and iron.

These erections were first raised in the towns adja- cent the ports frequented by the Phœnicians, such as those on the heights near the mouths of the Med- way, the Ebbs or Ebbsfleet, the Darent, nay, along the coast of the south-eastern extremity of the island. The fashion and convenience of the novel residences pleased the aborigines, and their use became general. Thenceforth the majority of the excavations in the earth were converted into repositories for corn and pro- visions during winter.

That portion of Political Economy called “the divi- sion of labour” was fully understood and practised by the Britons, for no one can credit that the same labour- er who delved in mines and smelted ore;—or he who cast or chiselled the pure metal into forms of elegance or usefulness—cultivated at the same time sufficient soil for the sustenance of himself and fa- mily. No.—Agriculture and commerce had their re- lative followers—and wherever the site of natural source of wealth, there sprang up a town, whence ra- diated good roads by which the hands employed in manufacturing or metallurgic operations received pro- visions from the husbandman.

It is evident that the Britons possessed a thorough knowledge of mechanical power and its application,

Folio 127

The Israelites, when they sought to pass through Edom, solicited permission in the following highly illustrative observation: "Let us pass, I pray thee, through thy country: we will not pass through the fields, or through the vineyards, neither will we drink of the water of the wells: we will go by the king's highway."

Folio 128

After heavy plants a colony amongst the Britannic in the estuary of the Somme. (Voir, procès-verbaux de la Soc. Roy. d'Émulation d'Abbeville, année 1835, séance du 17 Avril.) Many traces of the presence of the early Britons have been met with in Abbeville and other parts of that peninsula formed by the waters of the Somme, and nearly skirted by bounds of the archie, which was occupied by the Britanni. Besides divers statues, une figure d’Isis, et une figurine à tête d’épervier found near Noyelles (M. de Poilly says that it was one of the numerous tombs pulled down on the streets of Abbeville in 1795, anec. p. 75). Many additions and observations are in the "Mémoires de la Soc. d'Émulation d’Abbeville" with the following antiquities: Monuments to verify it.

Folio 129

Caesar's landing place in Britain. Roman authors have assigned ports in Britain as the landing place.

Folio 130

from the stupendous monuments, which, after exposure to the fury of the elements for upwards of two thousand years, would have remained even now almost unscathed by the touch of stern old Time, had not man icono- clastically lent his assistance to their demolition.

The introduction of carts, waggons and carriages, either for trade or pleasure, occurred during this epoch, although we advisedly place their adaptation to mili- tary purposes much later. As a fondness for frippery or magnificent costume was innate in the breasts of the people, all who had the means, profusely adorned themselves with glittering ornaments, such as gold or silver armlets, chains and torques. Their dress in summer, consisted of close fitting tunics, either of gaily coloured cloth, or tinctured with the far-famed Tyrian purple. In winter, the dress was composed of wool, interwoven with threads of gold. To farther decorate their persons, they used furs, dressed skins, and the plumage of birds, even as they are worn at the present day.

Upon the destruction of Tyre, it would appear that the maritime power of the inhabitants of Tarshish decayed for a time, that the prophecy of Ezekiel might be fulfilled: "and the isles that are in the seas shall be troubled at thy departure," until it was resuscitated after the invasion of the Belgae.

Hanno, the Carthaginian, in his famous expedition which comprised a fleet of threescore sail, and thirty thousand men, visited the Kentish shores rather more than four centuries before the Christian era. After establishing communication and planting several colo- nies in various parts of the island for commercial ...

Folio 131

ends, he sailed to Cerne, or Chernaa. We know not whether his mariners mutinied and refused (like those of Columbus), to penetrate farther into unknown seas, but it is evident, from the name, that "Cerne" was the termination of his voyage. The almost invariable practice of antient and modern travellers has been to affix some arbitrary appellation to the countries they discovered explanatory of the circumstances attendant on the event. Agreeably therefore to analogical instan- ces, "Cerne" etymologically rendered, expresses the last dwelling place, evidently furnishing the root of the word Erne or Ierne, as Ireland was called by Strabo. After this visit, the Carthaginians continued to traffick with the British isles,—the geographical position of which, they endeavoured to keep unknown, in order to ...

Dionysius in his geography, mentions the two Islands of Britain one towards the east, called Albion; that towards the west, Ierne [Ireland]. Ptolemy also says the same. Apuleius in his book De Mundo, on the authority, as he says of Aristotle and Theophrastus, speaks of two British Isles, Albion and Ierne. Eratosthenes, libra- rian to Ptolemy Philadelphus, two hundred and fifty years before the christian era, states the distance of Ireland from Celtica or Gaul. Pliny, Ptolemy, and others, speak of the Islands of Britain, as the largest in the world; viz: Albion and Ibernia. Strabo speaks of Ireland as scarcely habitable from its coldness. Claudius, styles it Glacialis Ierne, [Icy Ireland]. Julius Cæsar describes Ireland as lying to the west of Great Britain; and Catullus calls Britain (i.e. Ireland), the remote Island. Diodorus Siculus, co-temporary with Cæsar, calls the inhabitants of Irin, Britones, as being of the same Celtic origin with the Britons; Plutarch speaks in the same manner. In short says Sir Wm. Betham, all the antient authorities agree in considering Ireland, one of the British Islands colonized by Celts. We must therefore conclude, that, as the antients always included Ireland amongst the British Islands, whatever they said respecting these Islands, generally, must apply to Ireland as well as Britain.

Folio 132

Transcription of Handwritten Notes

At the beginning:
1. Coffee may be found in abundant traces of the Arabian descent. He knows
Arabia may strike the reader as not sufficiently spiritual and generous, nor, perhaps,
acceptable to dramatic poets, grammars, or strict Europeans.
[This sentence appears to describe perceptions of Arabian influence and their reception by various audiences.]

On Britain (the other margin):
- From Herodotus (circa 484 BC) we learn almost more definite descriptions of various
island peoples, but they were corrupted as to his obtained update, the
authentic information corrupted.
- Without specific evidence of the largest island’s size, smaller islands were despised
by the same environment.
[This section discusses Herodotus’ accounts of Britain and other islands.]

Folio 133

Transcription of Handwritten Notes

Top margin:
“Proof 654. Results of many attempts and of better writers.”
[This seems to highlight the idea of accumulated contributions from various authors.]

Below the headline:
“Rising, even hopeful.
To show how early relations lapse into oblivion or may restore the passage in Procopius quoted by Gibbon. Chap. 30 p. 609.”
[A reflection on the transience of historical connections and referencing Procopius as cited by Gibbon.]

Left margin (near the inserted clipping):
“+ Phoenician type of commerce.
Corn, labor, civilization.”
[Annotation discussing Phoenician trade and its implications for agriculture and societal development.]

Center clipping:
[A printed excerpt titled “On the Cassiterides of the Greeks, and the Name Kassiterides, Applied to the British Islands” by D. W. Nash, discussing historical interpretations of trade and naming conventions related to Britain.]

Folio 134

Transcription of Handwritten Notes and Text

Top left margin: "Later notes."

Right margin near "Chap. 38 / p. 609": "We may."

Highlighted text in the body:
The term "The Cassiterides" — with "or Tin Islands" crossed out.
Comment: "Phœnician origin."
[This note discusses the debated origin of the name and its historical significance, linking it to Phoenician commerce.]

Notes near text about "kasda/kisda":
- "Upper margined, likely connection."
[This appears to elaborate on the etymological links to Arabic and other ancient languages for the term related to 'tin.']

Contextual Remarks

The page contains a detailed printed discussion about the etymology of "The Cassiterides," referencing Greek, Hebrew, Phoenician, and Arabic terms. Notes in the margins suggest an analysis of the role of tin in ancient trade routes and its cultural significance.

Folio 135

Transcription of Handwritten Notes and Text

Printed Text

...himself pursued by one whom the Romans had appointed to watch him, purposely ran his vessel aground. Thus sacrificing his cargo and periling his life rather than betray a secret so important to the interests of his country.

In despite, however, of all their craft, Pytheas of Marseilles, a Greek navigator, about a century afterwards, penetrated into Britain. Dionysius Periegetes v. 568, says "that the Greeks preferred the British Isles for trade to all others." Thenceforward, the Massilians and Burdigalians participated also in the profitable traffic and adopted the policy of their predecessors the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, in endeavoring to conceal their knowledge of the land whence the treasures were derived.

Handwritten Notes

Next to "Britannicas insulas..." (bottom of page):
"Strabo's description of the natives of the Cassiterides is not to be greatly relied upon. According to him they were a nomadic pastoral race of peaceful and industrious habits."

Bottom margin:
"Visit the land: this revealed much and... [ends abruptly]."

Context

The printed section highlights the secrecy surrounding the trade routes and the Greeks' preference for British Isles in commerce. The handwritten annotations critically assess the reliability of Strabo's accounts and emphasize the nomadic and peaceful nature of the people of the Cassiterides.

Folio 136

Transcription of Clipping

In a manner highly creditable to all who have been concerned in the undertaking. The best authors and the most comprehensive libraries seem to have been diligently consulted for the compilation, and the editor’s own experience and judgment to have contributed not only to the importance of what has been derived from other sources, but also to the value of his own original communications. We have found ourselves, on more than one occasion, referring for ample information to his work, which, while it affords a guide to readers in its most substantial features, also presents to us topics of which full study and investigation might lead to additional profit. The work provides us not only with the raw materials of most productive and profitable enterprises of the arts and manufactures, but with much of the earliest conceptions of practical inquiry and progress. Translated from the "Magdeburg Gazette." (Ed. Foreign.)

By Prof. C. H. Eaton. Published by Whittaker and Co.
It is truly an excellent publication; possessing features derived at the same time from the most accurate and extensive works of modern scientific inquiry, as well as the earliest essays of human rudimentary reason, or common life. It may be much read, well mastered, and stored by the professional student or the mere artisan. Its recommendations will be obvious to youthful readers, as to men of greater age and knowledge.

"The Garden for Grown-up Children Stories. By the Grandfather Grey."
Grandfather Grey’s stories, true, speculative, with coal, oil, thinking, events, etc., are illustrated in these volumes, well written down to the capacity of childhood, and no more than the mere recitative of instances. We recommend them as a contribution for the holiday cheer of a little pleasant reading to diversify the stillness of St. Harrow’s, etc.
"King Copley." By the author.

We are persuaded that hardly any board office or the Wheel-open would like any officers or readers to refuse the library references to such excellent and effective books. "King Copley" has proved a success. It deserves a shelf-top of the library. We constitute it more objectionable in order that no useful hints might be given in any bad way.

We close the present item, raising our hats, making faces to be alike. We see a sort of high-reading buyers. More people would turn to this if some more proper authors can be...

The Pursuits of London, and Anecdotes of Fisher Street. By T. J. Smith. Edited by J. S. Kelly, Esq.
We take much delight in this dainty or muddy production. It is well illustrated throughout with references to (say the necessary humors) and sketches of a city filled at the time with those many-sided sentiments. Admirably, this has been through hands before the plate, and the newer scenes have come to be placed, even though we mean No. 27 could not be more reasonable to a viewer. Secrecy should be noted. We have therefore no time to doubt that the late Mr. Joseph’s work is full of curious personal anecdote and local incidents...

Folio 137

Sacred Annals

Sacred Annals; or, Researches into the History and Religion of Mankind. By George Smith, F.A.S. Vol. I. Longman.

The first division of Mr. Smith's learned and faithful work as reviewed in the Literary Gazette with the respect it merits, the same reverence is due to the spirit and labor evident in this continuation, which now completes the History and Religion of the Hebrew People, from the Origin of the Nation to the Advent of Christ.

And it is truly stated: "In this portion of the work the Author has most faithfully, from the groundwork of truth and honesty in it, woven the progressive series embodied in the 'Preface to the History of the Nation;' namely, a reception of the truths of holy history and reason, of this panorama of decidedly political national life."

Politics, as elsewhere have been said, need not be hinted: that, amidst numberings now of them, has become foreign, and all embarrassments from these assumptions have been endeavored by the predecessors of modern persuasion, and connections mingling with sacred rite better inquired. The Author has proceeded to advance truth and omit divisiveness more wisely regarded than prejudices.

Mr. Smith is wise indeed as to "a present to the cause of religion." If upon it at all there be error or other objection to blame, it is to those who have before him missed sagacious ends.

Being the design and scope of the work lessening whatsoever novelties promised no good, but the Author advances to present it to think over, to wipe such ship, and this, Mr. Smith rightly puts in upon these ways, is that by Christ (the test of government and policy and by sacred realities founded).

This Author raises religion and the Bible without unfit pride, in all ages. The Author records the Scriptures’ duties, its progress in silent affinities, developments, and forms, often quite beyond those interpreters and in our very questions of the Wight—a selection of family destined in appointed meanings and manners. Mr. Smith would wish his readers to receive the lessons of unity proved from facts—spirituality; dignity of revealed truths should prepare new ways for development of right, allied to good.

This section includes many fine arguments, summaries of progress with which to look about for the truths in no surprise to reach another less honored reader’s desires; it is valuable to sacred associations.

We should think the work would do much favor among Jewish readers of the highest and more erudite classes; but it is no less deserving of the serious consideration of Christians.

Folio 138

Transcription of Handwritten Notes and Text

Printed Text

The same root appears in other compounds of copper. Brass or copper in Kashbaei, the root of which appears in the compound word Chashum in Coptic Kashbaei, signifying a mixed metal, according to Bochart a mixture of copper and gold, or “mountain-copper,” and translated by the LXX “brass.” The root denotes a “mixture,” having the root נחש (nachash), together with the ע (ayin), signifying “to mix – mixture.”

The name of the ore or ingots of metal, with which Jacob purchased the field of Hebron, is also placed by the hieroglyphic writers. Gen. xxiii, 16, and he pitched tents for the children of Hamor, Gen. xxxiv, 4, appears to have been of a mixed metal. It has been considered, as Lamb, a compound of copper and gold. Its currency in a limited circulation was carried into Mesopotamia and Media.

With commerce, the Kodee of the Egyptians and the Aztecal, or aboriginal tribes of America, is regarded as a mixed art or trade in metals.

... (the remainder of this section seems truncated in the image).

Handwritten Notes

Left margin:
- "In Hebrew."
- "Hebrew."
[These notes likely refer to the linguistic analysis and etymological points made in the text regarding the roots of words related to metals in Hebrew.]

Bottom margin:
- "The mixed lump."
[A concise note reflecting the discussion of mixed metals mentioned in the text.]

Right margin:
- "Trade use of."
[This note may refer to the application or usage of the metals being discussed in trade or commerce.]

Folio 139

Transcription of Clipping

"To Wight. By Correspondence VIII. Details on St. Mary from Londonium Augustan (London). Dr. Gilev said Hatcher reviews this remarkably into the value of ‘the same site,’ as news broke directly, and here the narration disrupted. A letter was to Peck, by Mr. Hatcher, who—after starting this—reads from London, a Richardian letter to Dr. Pearson. It says, with published Richard (of Cirencester’s description) translation is a commentary on the primary ancient maps.”

“By restoration, other villages and notes by temples also ought to be introduced into the Secretary. It replaces, very neatly, the letters (disputed) he reproved by publishing respect. The sites, like London’s remains, now rebuilt, have monumental works, as evidenced commentary to relics on stones abundant and not full.”

"Visit the venerable said ‘Judge about’ Solve Fold Museum but replan better record notes.”

[The final part appears to discuss archaeological restoration efforts and recommendations for documenting ancient sites and artifacts more effectively.]

Folio 141

Transcription of Clipping

The Journal of the...

No. 1444. LONDON

Reviews of New Books

“Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire with Descriptions of the Fossil Plants, by John Phillips, F.R.S., Deputy Keeper of the University of Oxford Museum, &c., &c.”

Two octavo volumes, with beautifully executed plates and woodcuts, tell in every line the result of careful and patient labour. For years, the author has lived in the rocks, among the fossils, in the field life of deposition, formation, and classification, or amid the work done to give order and certainty to the bygone world. He is a true observer, and his books are found upon wide research, patient examination, and thoughtful induction. We have always to regret the premature loss of his life. It is not enough that such men should live, it is proper they flourish and, in their health, grow vigorous, but scientists are rare, and they are appreciated only too late. Mr. Phillips, in his time, did for his contemporaries what few have done, and his discoveries, writings, and advice, are now becoming rare treasures for readers and students of this time.

We rejoice to see books such as these, where the labours of science find record, and the dull, dark, overshadowing shadows, to be seen and thought of no more. Such a man is rare to the age.

“On fossil forest-stones.”

But when Abyss, Aethelstan and Stephen, to doubt, mildly reckoned the ideas that the past is not ancient alone but linked to life in the previous life, where one’s past deeds grow, whether on earth, as they be of the old pale, or in another, the great comments remain. This book, a test of matters found in England, deals deeply with fossil records, of mixed stones, the laps, and such fresher fields of hint where they remain.

The intent is to place stones together, and in a coherent arrangement, trace where history derived its true connection. On bearing a seal, fossils reveal, and growing trees remain collected over similar times, recording the conditions of our nature, and its reminiscence. It was a family of their kind, and enjoyed a...

... (the text seems to continue on a missing part).

Miscellaneous Notes

There is also a note about “Napoleon and his discoveries...” discussing the energy and efforts he maintained in his works.

Folio 142

Transcription of Clipping

Text Transcription

...its customs and heresies—on the period of the Saxon invasion, her descent, and the change of law in religion by the missionaries that also saw an interplay of pagan teachings and early medieval politics, and the islands turning to a Christian faith. Mr. G. details the pages of the ritual forms of the ancient Britons, the emergence of their cultural gods, as St. Augustine further advanced with prior practices.

The content reveals an admiration of Saxon society and their social laws alongside an evolving set of domestic governance. With the arrival of the missionaries, there came an adoption of external, liturgical influences, the adherence of the people to foreign laws, and a transformed morality which grew within the adjustment to Roman rites. The focus is on the gradual shifts of pagan devotion to adherence to revealed laws as provided by Scripture.

The author argues on the nature of sacrifices and festivals, alongside the Druids' deeply embedded attachment to the divine forces. The strength and adaptation of its role as a prelude to Christianity is, in the writer’s estimation, a dynamic cultural bridge.

...other key explorations on the decline of Druidical authority, and the consequences brought by the amalgamation of foreign cultures and doctrines.

The Religion of Ancient Britain

By George Smith, F.A.S., &c., Longmans & Co. Mr. Smith has prepared and diligently followed the traces of the Druids with their ideas. The sacred rituals and interpretations are reviewed, covering the geographic spread and its implications across Britain and Gaul.

In particular, the notes on early missionary interactions explore the shift from spiritualism and druidic powers to Christianity. The narrative extends from the first century AD to the era of Saxon integration, offering a rich history that illustrates the evolution of worship practices.

His analysis of ancient temples, sacrifice rituals, and the priestly structures makes for compelling reading, especially for those intrigued by the roots of Britain’s spiritual heritage.

From these two quotations, it will be seen that this is a book of the kind from which we do not take a stock of striking novelties, but rather a habit of understanding remote policies. It will please both in interest and curiosity for a very class of readers.

Folio 143

The Primeval Remains of Britain – Berkshire

Colt’s Pits, the capital town of the district or tribe, now referred to Faringdon—The Dragon Mound and White Horse Hill, commemorative of the defeat of the Danes—Barrow stones—The relics of the primeval obliterators of Gaul—the Zarathust, or worshippers of Baal.

During the past week, whilst visiting Wantage, for the purpose of attending the “Alfred Millennial,” or the commemoration of the thousandth anniversary of the great Anglo-Saxon Monarch’s birthday, we were induced, through the abounded hospitality of the sons of Berkshire, to extend our stay for a few days and take the kingly excursion through the historic series and archaeological objects for which the county is so famous. Although not extensive in scope, the interest was keen, and well rewarded with knowledge of the past.

While our minds were thus engaged, intertwined as it were with the primeval remains of Berkshire, we carefully and leisurely descended to the Colt’s Pits, regarded as the oldest yet Celtic town in the land, though in the present times even the very names have perished, the village which bore.

These antiquities were found to help us locate the mighty town once known in history or speech, and the deepest views of those who sought and defended the place itself. Around the deepening mound, the valley opens toward the south, while northward, the open plain takes in the vast sweep of field and sky, bringing forward horizons filled with shadows of their greatness, which no doubt imbued those that walked here:

“O’er land-mark of inland travelers far away
Or the death songs:—midst the flowing beams,
White Horse Hill, with its surrounded Roman and
Celtic camps, lifting up their heads from greenery;
It still bids how they are brown in decay,
As if the bygone breathe remains to rest:
Ye who gaze deeply tread closer, look down;
For though ancient efforts be fulfilled,
A thing of battle to be built,
And victory does but the ruin a crown
Spite of ages or by sovereign honour still.”

The primeval colonists of this island are supposed by some, on substantial arguments, to have been connected with Europe, and their presence thus predated even the Christian era. But as population changes or greets increase, the remains reflect equally their earlier association in a vaster, western pattern of race links, located in colonies with especially preserved lore from the parent lives, to seek their totems in its time.

Final Reflections: “Can we see the place as it was of yore?”
“Away as a year there has been no time
Beyond lore that marks the place.”

Folio 144

Antiquarian Researches (Page 161)

Printed Text

...material of their white paint? The red was oxide of iron: by heating it became black, and returned on cooling to its original hue. In a case where so much foreign manufacture was present, since the layer of red ochre described had to allow so great a depth, I considered the possibility of obtaining red oxide of iron from abundant profusion abroad. The black was obtained from charcoal, while it is assumed that the gum or vegetable resin in which it was mixed had been removed while burning, and the remaining pigment leaves only the describable white appearance, as if by a fire burnt entirely away. It is the “fire burnt” extract deservedly known to antiquaries as it dates considerably ancient.

However, though some layers of site mistaken for its antiquity to pottery, I should be hesitant to ascribe its later developments into metallic hues directly applied to the ground. The methods were laborious and intricate, and may well represent a period far different from what was later stylized.

Iron and other oxidized compounds, mixed with gluey residues and dissolved compounds, were abundant to deduce.
...

General Conclusions:

"Meteoric stones, consisting principally of iron and metallic alloys, probably led mankind to the discovery of iron from its ores." (Gent. Mag. February, 1834)

Handwritten Notes

Top margin: “Iron and asphaltite regions. Related note 260.”
[Likely a cross-reference to another part of the text or related discussion about iron use and asphaltic materials.]

Right margin: “In Labradorium historicus ancient source 166/166.”
[Possibly referencing historical artifacts or sources found in Labradorium.]

Folio 145

Folio 146

Folio 147

Literary Intelligence

The First Part of the Irish Ecclesiastical Register, edited under the sanction of the Board of First Fruits. By John C. Brooke, A.M., and containing the Dioceses of Armagh, Clogher, Meath, Down, Connor, Derry, Raphoe, Killmore, Dromore, and Ardagh. This Work will be completed in Four Parts.

No. XXII, being the first of vol. II. of Views of the Ancient Castles of England and Wales, engraved by Woolnoth, with Historical Descriptions. By E. W. Brayley, Jun., F.S.A., and T. H. Williams.

The Second Number of Graphic Illustrations of Warwickshire. Eugenia, a Poem. By Mrs. E. P. Wolstenholme.

Letters addressed to Mr. Belsham, late tutor of the Unitarian College at York, occasioned by his Epistolary Attack on the Vicar of St. Peter's, Bolton. By the Rev. Francis Wrangham, Archdeacon of Cleveland. By the Rev. John Oxlee, Rector of Molesworth, in Huntingdonshire.

Introduction to the Study of the Anatomy of the Human Body, particularly designed for the use of Painters, Sculptors, and Artists in general; translated from the German of Dr. Meyer, and illustrated by 27 Lithographic Plates.

Part I. of "The Animal Kingdom," arranged in conformity with its organization by the Baron Cuvier, &c.; with additional Descriptions by E. Griffiths, F.L.S., and others. To be continued Quarterly.

The Peerage Chart for 1824, adapted for a Pocket-case, containing the complete Peerages of the United Kingdom, alphabetically arranged. Also, uniform with the foregoing, the Baronetage Chart for 1824.

The Life of an Actor. By Pierce Egan. Embellished with 24 Coloured Plates, representing the Vicissitudes of the Stage.

A Compendium of Algebra, with Notes and Demonstrations showing the reason of every Rule. By G. Phillips.

A Dictionary of the Latin Phrases, containing the grammatical idioms of the Latin phrase from the best Authors, adapted for Students in Latin composition. By W. Robertson, A.M.

Preparing for Publication

Narrative of a short residence in Norwegian Lapland, with an account of a Winter's Journey performed with Rein-deer, through Norwegian Russia, and Swedish Lapland, interspersed with numerous Plates, and curious particulars relative to the Laplanders. By Captain Brooke.

A Tour through Parts of the Netherlands, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, Savoy, and France; in the Years 1821-2.

A New Translation of Josephus, the Jewish Historian.

The Author of "Recollections of the Peninsula", has in preparation a new work, entitled Scenes and Impressions in Egypt and in Italy.

Folio 148

Handwritten Notes

AM. MIMI M'DCC. Has lines
to occupants. Ref. Cir. 191.

AM. 3650. The Belgæ to Leuces. It. ibid.

Derive from the Latin text... [uncertain script continues]
as comprising races of two different characters, though spring from the same family.

Folio 149

Chap. V

Invasion of the Belgæ

"So we in filling up a thoughtful hour,
Gather the fragments of antiquity;
The lost restore, illustrate the obscure,
Connect the body of fair history." — Stukeley

The "Historiographer" Richard of Cirencester, who compiled his work from ancient British chronicles¹ and manuscripts no longer in existence, assigns the date of 3650, A.M., for the invasion of Britain by the Belgæ. But these Belgæ were not the posterity of Germans, who, Cæsar says, "Not many ages before," emigrated to the south of the Rhine, on account —

Dr. Giles in his Notice of the Life and Works of Richard of Cirencester, prefixed to his reprint of Mr. Hatcher's translation of "the Description of Britain by Richard of Cirencester," says, that he was honoured with the name of the Historiographer, from his proficiency in the study of Anglo-Saxon history and antiquities.
Nennius, who compiled, he himself says, his History of the Britons from "Traditions of our ancestors, and partly from writings and monuments of the antient inhabitants of Britain," observes, "the Thames and the Severn were the two arms of Britain, and bore the ships employed in the conveyance of the riches acquired by commerce. The Britons were once very populous; he alludes to the period before the Roman conquest, §9. He also states that the Britons came to Britain in the third age of the world, and in the fourth, the Scots took possession of Ireland, §15.

Folio 150

count of the fertility of the soil. Because the people to whom he thus alludes, represent the first appearance of the Gothic tribes in the western regions of Europe, and were invaders of the people, originally called Belgae. For Caesar says, "that Belgia was possessed by two sorts of people, the aborigines, and those who subsequently crossed the Rhine." It is thus evident, that it was the proper Belgae who invaded Kent some three centuries prior to Caesar’s Cantian expeditions.

The pure Belgae were the offspring of colonists, who originally crossed the Channel from Kent—whose habits, from local and other circumstances incidental to dwelling in the interior of a desolate continent, materially varied from those of the Britons, whose extensive sea-coasts led them from the earliest period to cultivate commerce and intercourse with distant climes.

The Celts

The Continent	The Island
The Belgae, or ancient Gauls, deteriorated in civilization after leaving the Kentish shores, from living in the interior of a vast continent. They were hunters, which by easy transition, emerged into warriors.	The ancient Britons, from dwelling upon an island, with its extensive line of coast, became a maritime people; and consequently more civilized from intercourse with other nations. They were traders, miners, and agriculturists, and only pursued hunting as an amusement.

Although the aboriginal Belgae, and the aboriginal Britons were scions of the same Celtic stock, yet the above table demonstrates that at very early periods their habits differed from the living influences of their environments.

Folio 151

Notes and Excerpts

Handwritten Note:
About 7 centuries before the stream down... the Semitic or Gothic body swept from some area of Belgium, overspread the Limmerick Bay and established their posterity, the aboriginal Celtic tribes.

Textual Content:
In treating of the Belgian region, the remarks on its language are characteristic of the way in which Dr. Latham deals with this part of his inquiry: — “Amongst the tribes...

Still in the reign of Charlemagne, the process of Germanizing went on; but soon after his death it came to a close; so that about four hundred years is the time that must be allowed for the replacement of the Roman-Belgic language of Belgium...

Antwerp, South Brabant, Limburg, West Flanders, and Hainault, to which may be added French Flanders, Artois, and the northern part of Picardy—for to this extent it seems to have gone, when it started its stream. And thus, a reaction took place, and the French has encroached in ancient Artois, French Flanders, and Northern Picardy have both wholly recovered in respect to their language to France, and the Belgian provinces partially. But while in Artois and Picardy it is still spoken, and of the traces of it in far south as the frontier of Normandy.

But is it not more analytic than areas of Belgium—I say attic, because the French as it is spoken at Brussels and the tone is Hollistic in Argyle or Inverness. In “Namur, Liège,” not Luxembourg, the speech was still derived from the German root roads, reformed. By this discussion, than the Roman Gauls and earlier waves...

Marginal Note:
"Theory of the origin by mixing Celtic and Belgic influences in history."

Folio 152

No. 1897

I never heard her speak of him but with pride and admiration, nor could any one do otherwise than admire his simple love for her, and the unselfishness which prompted him to place the interests of another before his own.

We have devoted more space to this matter than is probably desirable for the former order of our articles in this paper, and the insertion of it will, we trust, supply no cause for offence. If it may in any measure tend to enlarge correct ideas of the manner of life of the sailor, support the social interests of the profession, or contribute to a better acquaintance with those who make the sea their home, we shall feel amply repaid for our labor.

The English sailor, by the very nature of his occupation, is precluded from forming habits of industry and order. It is to be regretted that too many of our public-houses encourage a contrary system.

While Mr. Cruickshank was engaged in his labors upon the coast of Africa, he made valuable contributions to our knowledge of the country, by a kind and courteous display of Christian charity, and above all, to his zeal in the dissemination of the principles of Christianity.

"Since your departure from the coast," many communications circulated, telling of new missions and new Christian churches. The advantages derived from education, the introduction of English habits of cleanliness and order, were justly praised.

Women of influence in station stations in some of the larger towns have expressed their gratitude for the kind attentions shown by our missionaries. Wherever Christianity makes its entrance, it never fails to inspire confidence in the advantages of its adoption.

As a missionary, Mr. Cruickshank was faithful to his calling. Whether in the pulpit or teaching in some secluded African village, his quiet earnestness won the respect of all who knew him.

We would feel disposed for censure we might object to the prolixity and narrative tone of Mr. Cruickshank’s work. As a narrative, the accounts are valuable for the practical detail of customs and methods.

Folio 153

The Ethnology of Europe

By R.G. Latham, M.D., Van Voorst

A serious omission of the utmost practical and theoretical importance has been rectified in these volumes. Latham addresses the study of ethnology with a focus on special fields of research.

In the treatise on "The Ethnology of Europe," a breadth of analysis surpassing the limits of any single previous effort is presented. This work adds value to the subject, offering great insight and refined results.

Among the studies is a classification of races, based on Dr. Latham's exhaustive methodology. His effort bridges geography, biology, and the historical dimensions of human migration.

The volume of "The Ethnology of the British Isles" provides significant details on British ancestral groups. It addresses questions of Saxon, Norman, and Celtic roots and their cultural influence across history.

“We give but one other extract, referring to the general division of the people of the Germanic area:
‘As a general rule, the Germanic or Gothic stock has not only held its own area from the earliest times but has encroached on others.’”

Even within points disputed by geologists, Latham's classification of populations forms a consistent narrative. By tying the traditions of the past to modern study, he forges a coherent understanding of European ethnology.

Key Concepts

The relationship between geography and migration patterns.
The impact of linguistic evolution on cultural identity.
The social and political implications of ancient invasions and settlements.

Latham's analysis continues to influence the understanding of European origins, offering a clearer map of ancestral connections and their modern implications.

Folio 154

Journal of Science and Art

No. 1897

Volunteer some elements of proof, doubts are thrown, as in the amusing instance of Professor Owen’s comments on the bone of contention.

“Thus, the base of an Irish elk, according to one school of zoologists, is originally derived from an ox; according to another, gives evidence of antelope derivation; while the third party sees all traces of such ancestry effaced in calibration, and it is found under conditions of use as calked boots.”

But even now the Irish elk, though restored in both theory and substance, is in all probability a creature of one epoch only; the conclusion seems to be correct. The ox, as well as the elephant, grew by accumulation; the Irish elk, by contrast, declined because the combination of Nature worked too fast.

The greater number of ethnologists agree with the view that the Danes settled more readily in England than in Scotland or Ireland, but whether the original settlements were by voluntary migration or enforced seizure is a question still under investigation.

A “British History” may, as we may think, prove to be as successful as those of similar continental pursuits, not for want of skill, but owing to political pressure from various European states. Even to the present day, attempts to complete a comprehensive “Celtic History” are often thwarted by national bias.

“It is important, too, to remember that the mixture has already taken place in our ancestral forms, so that no single lineage can be isolated.”

The study of ethnology has, of late, attracted much attention. The attempts to analyze historical populations based on both records and myths are noble in design, yet the gaps left unaddressed often raise more questions than they answer.

Towards the close of the volume, Dr. Latham provides valuable insights into the ethnic migration patterns of the Celtic and Germanic tribes. His work, though dense, offers one of the clearest views on these interactions.

Key Excerpt

“In some English books, he maintains that the branches of the Celtic stock form the basis of the legendary history of Ireland and Scotland, so far as it relates to the migrations by which the islands were originally peopled by the Gaels.”

Additional Observations

The narrative remains a significant tool in understanding the cultural migrations of Europe.
Professor Owen’s work on zoological matters adds a fascinating perspective to debates on historical populations.
The integration of both cultural and biological theories enriches the study of ancestral populations.

Folio 155

The Literary Gazette and Journal

May 28

The time at which this part of the story commences is the year 1818, when Lorenzo enters the Royal College or school at Genoa, which is managed under the direction of the Reverend Somaschi Fathers, and is devoted to education. Curious details are rendered of the strict life enforced by the system of the college, the unusual positions of the priesthood, and the legislation required to enforce its moral discipline. Lorenzo’s knowledge of literature imbibed during those first influences of youthful life laid the foundation for his future.

Poor Lorenzo had troubles, arising from the rigorous and prohibitive laws imposed on him in this dark age, and what we sometimes look back upon as a trial. By his book, "Milon's Romantic Travels," he shows a willingness to promote greater independence of thought in educational texts.

The Father Retiree: The Father Retiree heads were agitated by the new influence, to such a degree, that it vented into a harsh dismissal from his literary pursuit. As if by fate, this was the start of a crisis in Lorenzo's literary and familial life. He was fond of poetry, science, and all education in its purest form, and yet this was curiously rejected.

He pursued his passion in secret, following his studies on ancient civilization, writing for the society, or observing the natural beauties of the Italian region. But a sad twist of fate marked his story—a betrayal by trusted peers who saw his ambitions as threatening.

A later chapter describes the influence of political upheavals on public affairs in Piedmont, emphasizing the great tension caused by the introduction of a constitutional regime.

An authority, or rather an unlimited power, once vested in the aristocratic circles of Italy, had found itself under the strain of revolution. Amidst this turmoil, Lorenzo's story unfolds further as he navigates the personal turmoil and the societal constraints that shaped his environment.

The narrative is steeped in emotion as Lorenzo seeks to reconcile his family’s expectations with his deep-rooted passion for freedom, intellectual exploration, and moral justice.

"What they expected, I gave—yet what I desired, I sacrificed. When the gates of opportunity closed on me, I remained resolute, and through the efforts of thought, I held my life together."

The final reflections on Lorenzo’s journey leave the reader with a powerful understanding of the struggles and triumphs of an individual within the broader currents of historical change.

Folio 156

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Manners entirely changed, through the difference of the soil, climate, and other circumstances, over which they had no control.²

A distinguishing trait of all the Celtic tribes was their restless disposition; in Britain, from its insular position, this feature exhibited itself under the peaceful guise of clearing new ground for cultivation, and the making of new channels by naval expeditions, for communication with unknown climes. In Gaul or Belgia, the desolate plains and forests tempted the inhabitants who had spread into the interior, to pursue the exciting occupation of the chase, which, by easy transition, merged into plundering pursuits. Thenceforward the profession of arms was followed, and their sons were bred from infancy to depredation and violence.³ To so great an extent did they maintain their valorous disposition, that they placed death itself in the number of their amusements.⁴

But those Belgae who had remained upon the coast, retained their maritime knowledge, and devoted their attention to marauding expeditions; often, for purposes of pillage, visiting the richer mother-country. The often-repeated piratical incursions upon the Kentish shore being generally rewarded with heaps of plunder, finally tempted the Belgae to extend their operations, and there make permanent settlements. In accordance with this policy, the Belgae of the coast recruited their ranks with some of the warlike tribes of Gaul.

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...riors of the interior; and then, crossing over the narrow channel which divides Kent from the continent, engaged and defeated the more peaceful Britons, and, seizing some of their towns, reduced the natives to slavery.

The language of the Britons and the Belgae being so similar,⁵ we have no hesitation in asserting that the majority of the quiet inhabitants speedily amalgamated with their conquerors; but a few, more high-spirited, finding themselves overruled by a class determined upon asserting their martial superiority, expatriated themselves, and departed across the seas to the colonies established in Ireland by Hanno the Carthaginian; where they were called SCOTTI, which rendered into our language, is probably equivalent to the modern Gaelic word, Scuit or Scaios, (a wanderer,) corrupted afterwards into Scot.

During this era, although the town on the banks of the river Ebbsfleet, in Northfleet parish, was one of the earliest seized by the Belgae, yet its great ship-building advantages rendered these marauders most anxious to preserve it from destruction. In its docks, vessels were continued to be constructed for the conquerors, who maintained with the Belgic soil a constant communication. At first, the invaders treated the natives with harshness; which however, as time rolled its course, softened down, till it gradually disappeared, so that when Caesar attacked the Veneti,⁶ the aborigines...

Folio 158

"— confined to altogether. — Regarding [Book?] Dust to [illegible]."

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... and the various colonies of Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Belgians, who, during the lapse of fifteen centuries had assisted in rendering Britain a most densely populated island, were completely fused down, and amalgamated into one indivisible people, fixedly determined upon repelling the invading Romans. Their manners and customs, with only the variations incident to peculiar positions, had assimilated throughout the southern division of the island. Neither during the interval which elapsed, between the cursory description furnished of the Cantians in Caesar’s interpolated autobiographical Commentaries,⁷ nor in the more detailed and elaborate ...

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... panegyrical Memoir of Agricola by Tacitus, it is apparent that any material revolution had changed their modes of life.

The majority of the vessels built in the river Ebbsfleet were of great bulk. The prows and sterns being raised high above the spray of the sea, were utterly impenetrable by the brazen beaks or rostra of the Roman craft—and, like those of the Veneti, were almost entirely constructed of oak, the produce of the forest, now indiscriminately termed Swanscombe? or Stonepark wood, which descended to the verge of the estuary. Formed in the strongest manner and of the ...

... in his Memoir of Agricola, has shown how severe the Roman censorship was; since they punished those authors with death, after burning their books, who wrote adverse to what was termed "the public weal." He says, "As Arulenus Rusticus, in praising Thrasea, suffered a deadly doom, as did Herennius Senecio, for doing the same to Helvidius Priscus. Nor upon the persons of the authors only, was this cruelty inflicted, but also the books themselves were destroyed; since, to the triumvirate of justice, orders were sent, that in the forum and place of popular elections, the works of men so illustrious for parts and genius should be burned. Yes, in this very fire they imagined that they should abolish the voice and utterance of the Roman people, with the liberty of the senate, and all the ideas and remembrances of the human kind; for they had besides expelled all the professors of philosophy, and driven every laudable science into exile, that nought which was worthy and honest might any where be seen. Mighty, surely, was the testimony we gave of our patience; and, as our forefathers had beheld the ultimate consummation of liberty, so did we of bondage,—since, through dread of informers and inquisitions of state, we were bereft of the common intercourse of speech and attention. Nay, with our utterance we had likewise lost our memory, had it been equally in our power to forget, as to be silent."

Folio 161

Handwritten Notes

Septimius
& Dion Cassius (vide the assigned book) clearly show that the Britons made great naval preparations, fortified temporary fortifications. Dion Cassius makes Boudica indignantly say, in allusion to the Britons:

"But we wonder at the authors of our calamities, who, when they were free, did not make it formidable to attempt the carrying of this further, as we did to Augustus and to Caius, surnamed Caligula."

Folio 164

Notes

Handwritten text:
But Geology teaches, the enormous age gone
of the story of earth. This era now wins the Daniella forest's fruits
of high interest to the naturalist as well as of charm to the
Biblical contemplative observer. To him are the faithful
continuous chronologers of the earth—the historians of ages
unprofaned by human records. — Mr. Lyell

Printed text (cut-out):
Who that wears fear, the fear of death, despise,
Because they can see this frail being feel,
But rush undaunted on the pointed steel,
Provokes approaching fate, and bravely scorns
To spare that life which must so soon return.
LOGAN

Folio 165

Handwritten Notes

Top text:
In a later age children were put out for education from Bath in England — See Nennius
Oxford XV.

Middle text:
Original:
The eldest son or number fails to continue us of...

Differing only in the adoption of the Magician or Basile traditions to settle even their very same families as confirmations belonging to their religious structures.
Baal text: 61

Bottom (upside-down text):
By AD 673 the Anglo Cornishman of the boroughs...
(remainder of the text is partially obscured or illegible due to placement).

Folio 166

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Most efficient materials, these ships were admirably adapted for distant voyages, or encountering the stormy seas which washed the British shores. It is evident, from Caesar’s description of the naval engagement off the coast of Armorica, “that the Roman armament under the command of ‘young Brutus’ was utterly unable to cope with the combined Celtic fleet, because of the magnitude of their vessels; the greater portion of which, in size, must nearly have approached to that of modern men of war.” Caesar endeavours to make it appear that the Romans were victorious, but an attentive perusal of his laboured statement can scarcely fail convincing an unbiased reader that it is the attempt of a defeated general to prove a reverse to be a victory.

A most convincing evidence of the British origin of the Belgae is furnished by Religion. In hierological affairs the Gaulish colonists bowed to the decisions of the British Druidical hierarchy, whilst their sacerdotal alumnus sought in Britain, education in the highest branches of sacred lore.

The Druid School in Stone-park Wood was a celebrated establishment, to which many aspiring continental acolytes resorted for the completion of their studies, and initiation into the mazes of mythological lore.

Folio 167

Druid School in Stone Wood

Unto the Druids of all mankind alone,
The Gods are revealed, or are unknown.
If a mortal doom they assign, right or wrong,
No spirits descend to cry foul deeds or songs.
No gates descend to ‘reveal’ the awful sight,
Nor speak unto guilty silence lost in night;
No knocking from giants' graves far below,
But there they remain untouched in shadowed snow.
Their bodies in no world’s embrace confined,
And their souls are sent wandering the mind.
The circle of life, one time to find the space;
A willed existence that always binds the place.
A stone left on burial mound for all in awe,
In holy pathways beneath the northern skies.
Who that wears fear, the fear of death, despise,
But rush undaunted on the pointed steel,
Provokes approaching fate, and bravely scorns
To spare that life which must so soon return.
— LOGAN

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... mystification. The site of the principal Sacred Grove,⁹ in that division of the island, now termed West Kent, was on the heights near Highfield in Southfleet parish.

The appropriateness of this “seat of learning” for foreign students was evinced by the local advantages it possessed;—combined with a convenient access by water and an immediate proximity to the Great Road from the sea coast into the interior, the name of which, in after days, was corrupted into Watling-street.

An indistinct resemblance between the Druid rites and the dark idolatries of alienated Judah, seems eternally flitting before our eyes. But we examine, and lo! the trace has apparently vanished to reappear like a far distant ignis fatuus;—and finally, we are convinced, although we cannot grasp a substance, there is something more than a mere shadow. A similar veneration for groves, by the British Druids to that of the Jews, who were, during the Babylonish captivity, immoderately addicted to like idolatrous practices and heathenish superstitions, is particularly striking. Isaiah, alludes to it, c. lxv. v. 3:

“A people who provoke me to my face continually;
Sacrificing in the gardens.”

God, in opposition to this species of idolatry, commanded his people to burn all the groves with fire. Deut. xii. When Jehu called the priests of Baal together to destroy them out of Israel, those of the groves amounted to 450. 2 Kings, x, 21, 8. The Jews sacrificed and burnt incense upon the hills under oaks. Hosea, iv, 13. The superstitious reverence for the oak, although a perversion, appears to have had some connexion with that feeling which led Abraham to erect his tent and his family altar beneath the shade of a spreading tree, as at Mamre and elsewhere—every circumstance unhesitatingly exhibiting the eastern origin of the British aborigines. The parasitical plant the mistletoe, because it vegetated upon the oak, was regarded as a most holy object. It was gathered with pompous ceremonies, and those who were favoured with the precious donation, considered it an inestimable and invaluable prize; believing that it would not only cause fecundity, and the inheritance of all things desirable, but be an amulet against poison and magic.

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Miles around, the country was studded with densely populated towns, which furnished the young strangers, during their temporary sojourn, with ample opportunities for acquiring a knowledge of the habits and customs of the dwellers on that soil from which their ancestors had emigrated, in years long gone by. The magnitude and shady recesses of the forest rendered it particularly suitable for the exercise of that profound secresy with which the Druids orally instructed their pupils in the knowledge of those doctrines they had mnemonically preserved, independently of their admirable adaptation for calm and serious contemplation.

The real government of the nation was in the hands of the Druids, who were either chosen out of the first families, or had achieved eminence by their talents. It was, however, imperatively requisite that their moral character should be irreproachable, otherwise they were not admitted even into the inferior classes. Their functions obtained for them the greatest veneration. They were exempt from tax, tribute and military service. Without their approbation the ceans could not war. The Druids were learned in astronomy, geography, jurisprudence, mathematics, mechanics, in fact skilled in almost the whole circle of arts and sciences.

The Druidical colleges were divided into classes, of “Druids,” “Legislators” and “Bards.” The first occupied themselves with the cares of religion; the second with secular affairs; and the latter with historical and other matters worthy of being transmitted to posterity.

We have stated in a preceding chapter, that the religion of the aborigines was a corruption of the worship originally paid to the Deity, by Noah, before the...

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... dispersion from the Plains of Shinar—which, after passing through various phases, had finally settled at the advent of the Romans into Druidism, as, in the East, it has degenerated into Buddhism. The Supreme Being was sometimes recommended to be worshipped under an emblem; but the Druid hierarchy tendered their adoration to the Father, without the adventitious aids of temple, image, or altar—religiously offering a pure heart and humble spirit.

Polytheism was not followed in Britain till after the invasion of Aulus Plautius; and, even then, the Romans were unable to engraft any of their ten thousand deities into the Druid creed. The two emblems adopted were the Sun and the Serpent; but the latter, when correctly regarded, was only allegorical of the former. The immortality of the soul was inculcated, and if an individual passed through the ordeal of this life, orthodoxy observing the...

“As a confirmatory proof that the heavenly bodies, the most visible objects of nature, were irrevocably impressed by the Druids upon the minds of the people, we may instance a beautiful anecdote of the French revolution, related in Les Derniers Bretons par Emile Souvestre. The notorious Jean Bon St. Andre thus threatened a Breton peasant, ‘Sooner than fail in extinguishing your superstitions, I will pull down all your steeples.’ ‘You cannot help leaving us the stars,’ replied the peasant, ‘and we can distinguish them further off than our steeples.’” Among the Druids one only awful mystery was the object of their ceremonies, whilst the Celts in general, omni Gallia, had the gods of thunder, of light, of battle, etc., etc.

Pensée.
Believe thou still in Him, the awful Sire
Of men and Gods, whose power we also own
Ancient of Days, the essence of all things
That have been, are, and shall be—
Regnator omnium Deus, caetera atque parentia.
TACITUS.

Fosbroke asserts that the Romans had more than that number.

Folio 172

The Dragon

The Dragon is the emblem of Sin in general, and of the sin of idolatry in particular; and the dragon slain or vanquished by the power of the cross is the perpetually recurring myth, which, varied in a thousand ways, we find running through all the old Christian legends, and not subject to misapprehension in the earliest times; but as the old idolatries grew darker and deeper, the symbol was translated into a fact. It has been suggested that the dragon, which is to us a phantasm and an allegory, which in the middle ages was treated as the arch fiend and adversary of all truth and goodness, might have been, in its earliest form, originally a fact; for which we may trace forgotten beings, either those who lived in Asia, Africa, or Europe, under peculiar circumstances and the forms were but varied.

Strange and instructive beasts, gaining evidence according to habitat: but can they have their roots in some origin of the type chosen, as if by connection of doubt, for future association. There has been even some faint tradition of one of these monstrous forms in antiquity surviving into Greek stories, as the dragon subdued by St. Martha; and St. Jerome relates that he himself beheld at Tyre the bones of the sea-monster to which Andromeda had been exposed—probably some fossil remains, which in the popular imagination were thus sequestered. Dr. Prosser once told me that the idea of a Gorgon, in some of the legendary pictures he had seen in Italy, closely resembled in form that of the Deinotherium Giganticum. These observations have reference only to the usage adopted when the old scripture allegory took form and shape. The dragon of Holy Writ is the same as “the serpent,” a personification, sin, and eternal enemy of mankind.

The scriptural phrase of the “jaws of hell” is literally rendered in the antique carving of the flaming jaws of a dragon vomitory of grilling flames, into which the souls of sinners are tumbled headlong. In pictures, Sin is represented by a serpent or snake. And in its form we find a deeply theological idea; also various winged snakes used as spiritual antagonism, mythology in late pictures of the seventeenth century, giving it a special legacy upon the canvass, and significant of the subjugation of the whole earth to the power of sin, till delivered by the Redeemer. — Mrs. Jameson.

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... fundamental articles of faith enjoined by the Druids,⁴ i.e., reverencing the Deity; abstaining from evil; and, behaving courageously; unalloyed happiness rewarded him eternally; — but, if the contrary, a long career of misery and suffering awaited him. To impress the people with the necessity of living properly; upon the death of a disciple, they publicly examined the course of life the defunct had pursued during his probationary phase. If unsatisfactory, the honours of public sepulture, and an elevated sepulchre or barrow were denied him, whilst his sentient spirit was sentenced to wander everlastingly in wretchedness and agony, in dark and icy⁵ regions.

Cory also in his Mythological Enquiry into the Recondite Theology of the Heathen says "multiplied their gods without any kind of restriction."

Footnotes:
⁴ The following epitome of the religious principles of the primitive Druids of Britain, drawn from their own memorials, will shew their conformity to the religion of Noah and the antediluvians; that the patriarchal religion was actually preserved in Britain under the name of Druidism; and, that the British Druids, while they worshipped in groves and under the oak like Abraham, did really adore the God of Abraham, and trust in His mercy. They believed in the existence of one Supreme Being. In the doctrine of Divine Providence, or that God is the Governor of the universe. In man’s moral responsibility, and they considered his state in this world as a state of discipline and probation. They had a most correct view of moral good and evil. They believed in the immortality of the soul, and a state of recompense after death. They believed in a final and coming judgment. They believed in the transmigration of the soul. They observed particular days and seasons for religious purposes. Marriage was held sacred among them. See an ably written treatise on the Patriarchal Religion of Britain, by the Rev. D. James, which displays great research. Also the learned Dr. Parsons, in his "Remains of Japhet," ch. iv., ap. Yeowell’s Chron. An. British Church, p. 7.

⁵ A tradition of this feeling still exists in the expressions, “The...

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The duties of legislation devolved upon the second order of Druids. It was their province to enact, expound and enforce the laws; taking cognizance of their breach—they sat as judges, either to acquit or punish, since from their decision there was no appeal.⁶ Criminals found guilty of the gravest offences, they condemned to be burned in osier cages; and, here may be incidentally contradicted the popular fallacy of innocent victims being offered on Druidical altars. Historical researches combined with recent discoveries, have most satisfactorily shewn that British augurs never predicted future events by the manner in which blood oozed from the palpitating forms of human sacrifices; and, that the consuming of living men by fire, with the Druids, was entirely a judicial proceeding, and not a religious rite. In truth, execution and not sacrifice.⁷

Much stress has been laid upon the fires seen kindled in Anglesea, to burn the Romans. But we must remember that the intrusion into “Holy Places,” by an invading force, was a criminal procedure. And that the Druids looking judicially upon the wholesale robbery attempted to be perpetrated by the Romans, felt it to be their duty to condemn the robbers to the flames. Nor were the Druids deceived...

Footnotes:
⁶ The ceans themselves were amenable to the Druid decrees—In fact, Dio Chrys., says of the British ceans—“it is the Druids who reign in reality; and the ceans, though they sit on thrones, feast in splendour, and live in palaces, are only instruments for executing their designs.”
⁷ “The cold grave,” “The dark grave,” “The silent grave.” It is not unnatural that amongst the Celtic nations the notion should have existed that the place of eternal punishment for evil-doers was in coldness, since it formed a diametrical contrast with their belief that to be in the lightsome beams of the sun, the emblem of their religion, was happiness. But the Sun was not worshipped, as has been erroneously supposed, but only regarded by the Britons as the symbol of the Supreme Moral Light of the Universe.

Folio 175

Ben Jonson's Alchymist—Mr. Law

... revert the least of his arguments, I cannot resist premising, that the three first who pretended to write were those who proposed to give him familiarly the title of “Old Ben,” (by which Mr. Gifford is so much offended) to Mr. Malone and his friends before us: look it up. (See Preface to Stevens’ edition, p. xxi.) The special epithet, as Mr. Gifford might remind us, had additional and needed result, when the players found memory of one, who was not only “Old Ben,” but precise in the act of reaping from his...

... travelled for nine months from place to place, to Brussels, Venice, Hanover, and Copenhagen, at the persuasion of Lord Glenorchy, the British Minister at the latter city, and of Sir John Norris, Admiral of the Baltic Squadron, he sailed thence for England with his son, Oct. 13, 1721. (The Evening Post, Oct. 21, 1721.) On Friday, the 20th, he dined at Chelsea; and on Saturday, the 21st, arrived in London. (See the Whitehall Evening Post of Oct. 24.) It is added that “the Rev. Mr. Law having obtained His Majesty’s most gracious remission of the penalty pronounced against him for an appeal that stood against him (on account of having slain Edward Wilson in a duel in 1694), the said gentleman and his son are safe, and in very good health.” On their return to England (Oct. the 22nd), they were at Court with His Majesty, and are returning to St. James’s Palace, Oct. 26, in their usual health.” (Evening Post, Hanover-square, London.)
... Thus the actor who delivered the Epilogue, when it pleased him, when he mentioned “I—-from France,” bow to the man himself.
I have not the means of ascertaining how often the Comedy of the Alchymist was performed at this period...

* Next the Chapel in Conduit-street, see some papers of later date.

Folio 176

Page 102 - Mississippi Scheme and Stonehenge

... or with this Epilogue. It is not unlikely, that the line “Though Law from France be landed on this coast” (or a similar expression) was inserted on an after-thought, and may be omitted rather with advantage to the poetry than not.

The favourable manner in which Mr. Law was received in this country, occasioned no small umbrage to the anti-ministerial party; and was judged so important a point not to be omitted in the “Theatre” only, but to occupy the attention of Parliament itself. The debate on their subject in the House of Lords is described in Wood’s “Cramond,” p. 237. But the matter was suffered to drop.

Mr. Law did not reside many years in England. At the expiration of his return to France, having expired in the death of the Regent, (Dec. 2, 1723,) he proceeded to Venice about 1724, and remained there till his cheque expired, in March 21, 1749, with some additions.

The subject of this lengthened article was transcribed from a small folio engraved plate, “Sold by the Print-sellers of London and Westminster, price 6d.” but to what extent we cannot determine. A clown and harlequin are introduced in the lower left back ground, and inspired epilogue, reprinted from an account of use and sale in 1805, several copies of the engraving was purchased at the remainder of Mr. Simon’s printing.
[The above article has been transcribed by a young gentleman and published by...

Mr. Urban

The communication made to you by Mr. Wansey, and inserted in a preceding number, respecting discoveries at Stonehenge, has induced me to resume my pen, and offer some observations on this very interesting relic of antiquity. Although, from the novelty of its researches, I feel not disposed to criticise the presumed novelty of his theory. For that Stonehenge has been a sanctuary of instruction, particularly in the science of astronomy, whether the youth of this island and of Gaul resorted thither for study or not, the popular voice has now for the first time propagated. It is certain, as Dr. C. Barry, M., an antiquary, a college of learned men, and his grandson have often averred, which, although seen as a stone has written upon the subject since the days of Stukeley, to some extent Mr. Wansey relies much less on. I am inclined to accept his conjecture that Stonehenge was once a Druidical work, although the people, whose local habitation and home have been unknown to us, are, by some gentleman, somewhat disdainfully priests, to the concurrent voice of all antiquity, which Mr. Wansey acknowledges...

Folio 177

The Druids Defended by the Testimony of Caesar

... been capable of calculating eclipses), were amongst the earliest inhabitants of this island, and fully competent to construct such a fabric as Stonehenge, ascribed to the principles of the science which they taught. "Stonehenge," says an eminent writer, "evinces that they exhibit its internal evidence as the work of that kind, though of a ruder description, of this body, who claim possession almost 30 centuries ago, without the light of arts or science, which their predecessors but illustrated by deductions from philosophy, and religious worship, which monopolized all law and all judging word."

But is it true that Caesar makes no mention of human sacrifices? I answer, no; in the section peculiarly appropriated to the description of the Druids. Having finished with the proposed section, he passes on to the 15th section; in which he describes the Gallic manners. "The Gauls," says he, "sacrifice human victims, upon religious emergencies." This occasional practice, even in ancient times, was peculiar alone; the ingenuity of modern authors has, by a sort of legerdemain, thus thereby confounded together two distinct bodies of character — and discorded characters. It is true Caesar adds, "Administratis ad ea sacrificia Druidibus," — "these sacrifices were conducted under the Druids" — a clause the Commentators of Rome, where every "sacrificium" required the presence of sacerdos. He, therefore, assimilated the practices of the people of Gaul to those observed at Rome. It ought, however, to be remarked, that the nominative case to all the principal verbs in this sentence, viz.: "immolant," "utuntur," &c.; is not "Druids," but "Gauls."

The pronoun is indeed inferred from "uti," as "se immolant," "utuntur" two clauses, and that the former served only as auxiliaries. The next sentence makes mention of "wicked repositories, in which living persons may have been suffocated by the combined operation of suffocation and combustion." Here again it is to be noted, the nominative case to the principal verbs in this sentence is also, "se immolant," as well as "suffocati," but confined to activities of the Gauls...

Folio 178

Defence of the Druids

But who were these unhappy wretches who suffered in this manner? They were condemned criminals. To such it must be immaterial how their lives are terminated, whether by strangulation, or combustion, or by the axe, or the spilling of, or by a leaden ball. The application of any one of these instruments of death cannot be then more terrible, or more barbarous, than that of another. Be it granted, that certain Druids attended on Gallic executions; and let the whole that is implied by the clause “Administratis ad ea sacrificia Druidibus utuntur.” So do the High-sheriff of every county in Great Britain attend upon the execution of condemned criminals. But does this office reflect disgrace upon the Civil Officers, the Gallic Druids, and those who administered justice on these melancholy occasions, for the same purpose?

It is here apparent, from Caesar, that not only condemned criminals were executed in the cruel rites of those periods, but among the Gauls it was received maxim, that any man’s life could be forfeited by one he has innocently wronged; but not the Gallic Druids were exempted from this institution. Where, then, is the reproach connected with the Druidical institution? Caesar at this time was describing, not the peculiarities of the Druids, but the manners of the Gauls. No evidence can be adduced from him to prove that the former maintained these doctrines, or entertained these opinions, or were implicated in the superstitious practices of the latter people. The truth is, the notion of vicarious oblations, from which originated sacrifices, was derived from patriarchal tradition, or from human invention, had at one time pervaded all nations of the earth, and was common to the polished Greeks and Romans, as well as to the less refined Gauls. But there is no proof from Caesar that the Gauls participated in this sentiment.

Having thus shewn that little or nothing can be gathered from the testimony of Caesar that is hostile to the cause of Druidism, let us next see what favourable impressions the same respected authority may produce.

In the first place, Caesar asserts, that “the important business of education was entrusted to the care of the Druids; that they delivered lectures in Astronomy, Geometry, Natural Philosophy, and Theology; and that they discoursed on the immortality of the human soul.” Now all these branches of knowledge, which even in the present enlightened age would be deemed great learning, and entitled to the praise of a consummate system of education, must have had a moral influence on the lives of the professor, restraining the depravity of nature, fostering noble impulses of passion, and by inspiring the mind with sentiments of tenderness and humanity.

Lastly, Caesar assigns to the Druids “a total exemption and immunity from all military services, and from all pecuniary contributions.” This distinguishing and constitutional privilege is an indisputable proof of the value assigned to their office, and their abhorrence of the shedding of human blood, and presupposes a strong disposition to cherish humane and brotherly feelings.

Yours, &c.
ARLIN, Mr.

Folio 179

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It is much to be regretted that the Druids should have considered these laws,⁸ like their religion, too

in the character of the invaders—for no sooner was the isle conquered, than they deprived its possessors of their territories, and reduced them to slavery. Nevertheless, it is not impossible that instances might have occurred of the propitiatory sacrifice of a single victim, offered when the public mind was darkened by the dread of or suffering under the infliction of some unusual occurrence, and if we find similar distortions of Divine will in Holy Writ: "Upon a lofty and high mountain hast thou set up thy bed: even thither wentest thou up to offer sacrifice.” “Enflaming yourself with idols under every green tree, slaying the children in the valleys under the clifts of the rocks.”—Isa. lvii. 5. 7. But the immolation of human sacrifices is not a proof of a deficiency in civilization—because, even the Greeks and Romans were guilty of like cruel customs. Aristomenes the Messenian sacrificed three hundred men, among whom was Theopompus, one of the kings of Sparta, to Jupiter of gods against the Persians, sacrificed some captives of that nation. Bacchus had an altar in Arcadia, upon which young damsels were beaten to death with rods. Such sacrifices were frequently offered to the manes and infernal gods. Hence Achilles slew twelve Trojan captives at the funeral of Patroclus. Aeneas is another example of the same practice. Authors cited by Suetonius, affirm that Augustus, in honor of his uncle Julius Caesar, (who was by this time deified by the Romans), sacrificed three hundred Romans, partly senators and partly knights, upon an altar erected to the new deity. Degrading as this conduct seems to us, we must nevertheless remember, that the All-Wise Being who rules this earth permitted it to order, that it might hereafter exhibit His works, and shew, how wilfully, weak men "changed the glory of the uncorruptible God."

⁸ According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Molmutius Dunwallo was the first cœn who wore a golden crown, and primarily collected and digested the laws previously obeyed in this realm. His code was termed the Molmutian. Guetholine, who reigned nearly a century afterwards, married a lady named Martina, who was deeply "accomplished in all kinds of learning.” This queen undertook the task of...

Folio 180

Page 76

... sacred for committal to writing.⁹ But it is clear, from the special ordinance against any other mode than memory, for the transmission of their knowledge in these points, that they were acquainted with written arbitrary characters. The normal alphabet they used, was originally imported from the Phoenicians, and consisted of about fourteen letters. During the lapse of ages that swept over the Druid schools, gathered to their fathers successive professors of learning and literature, the characters and the orthography imperceptibly varied; the latter particularly in the substitution of the vowels, insomuch, that at Caesar’s era, that general was enabled to correspond with Cicero at Rome, in Greek; avoiding, had his missives been intercepted, the danger of his intentions and future operations being exposed to his foes.

The Bards have been supposed to rank the lowest amongst the Druid orders. But this fanciful division we are inclined to include amongst popular fallacies.

... remodelling the code, which was called after her the Martian law. These laws subsequently amalgamated still form the basis of the common law, “far excelling the statute law both in theoretical and practical wisdom.”

Unfortunately not only the Druids, but the Magi of Persia, the Brahmins of India, the Chaldeans of Assyria, the Sabas of the Mexicans, the Priests of Egypt, in fact, we may say, with one exception, the whole of the priests of antiquity, alike refused to commit any of their secret doctrines to writing. Their intention was to hide the truth, so that it should not be lost, but yet concealed from the multitude. They had, moreover, two sets of doctrines, which effectually differed from the other, and still more tended to veil their craft. One system they communicated to members of their own order alone, which, on admission into the sacerdotal fraternity the neophytes were sworn, in the most impressive manner, to keep ...

Folio 181

The Druidical Temples of the County of Wilts.

By the Rev. E. Duke. Smith.

The Celtic tumuli of the Wiltshire Downs, together with Stonehenge and Abury, were probably antiquities in the days of Caesar. At the excavation of one of these barrows by Sir R. C. Hoare, at which Mr. Duke, the author of this work, was present, not a single Roman coin or fragment of pottery was discovered. The skeletons found in them were immured in stone urns, of a remarkably bizarre style, altogether unknown to the Celt—and therefore of the still earlier era. The bones were those of very aged men, when compared with the next explorers. Their growth and structure, in whatever they showed, exceeded not the machinery of man. The ancient tumuli and Druidical monuments of Wiltshire and its neighbouring temples were not erected by the Saxons, Britons, or their architects according to tradition.

The Druidical order in Wiltshire was a coalition of priests—priests of a religion coeval with that of the Persian Magi, the Indian Brahmans, and the Chaldeans of Babylon and Chaldea.

Mr. Duke believes that the Druids were Phoenician priests—and innocent of the savage atrocities which have been charged on them by the Romans. They were probably Pythagoreans—or rather the predecessors of the disciples of Pythagoras; which latter sage, visiting Egypt and the neighbouring states, received from them the principles contained in his "golden verses."

"The Druids were indubitably the wisest of the wise, the most learned of their time; they were intimately skilled in astronomy and astrology; they were well versed in the mechanic powers, mathematics, and jurisprudence; and by their superior influence, they held an omnipotent sway over the minds and actions of the nations around them. They were deeply versed in Natural History, and the medicinal properties of plants, which, it is said, they used as remedies for all the ailments of the body."

In the opinion of Mr. Duke, the Druidical temples of Stonehenge and Abury, under the able superintendence of the British Druids, rivalled the Pyramids of Egypt, and the caves of Ellora in Asia. He supposes, too, that many other important relics have escaped modern discovery, and thus his work is written with elegance, and his ingenuity is at least amusing.

Resemblance betwixt the Patriarchs and Druids

... a time when the usages of the latter form the subject of so much discussion and debate in your pages, beg to transmit you the result of my labours.

1. The ancients sacrificed on altars of stone, reared apparently at pleasure, and but little indebted to art. Hence we read in Exodus, xx. 25, “If thou wilt make me an altar of stone, thou shalt not make it of hewn stone, for if thou lift up thy tool upon it, thou hast polluted it.” When this command is infringed in Exodus xxvii., the same terms are used: “an altar of whole stones, over which no man hath lift up any iron.” (Josh. viii. 31.)

2. The “altar of testimony” was erected not for burnt offerings, not for sacrifices, but as a witness between man and his maker (Josh. xxiv. 27), or sometimes between men and men (Gen. xxxi. 44).

3. Instances of a single stone, as in the case of the ancients, are still met with. Thus Jacob in Gen. xxviii. 18, “took the stone which he had put for his pillow, and poured oil upon the top of it, and said this stone shall be God’s house.” The word altar is also analogous to our English word “Cromlech,” a heap of stones, or great stone. Joshua also “took a great stone, and set it up under an oak, that was by the sanctuary of the Lord.” And Joshua said unto all the people, “behold, this stone shall be a witness unto us, for it hath heard all the words of the Lord which he spake unto us: it shall therefore be a witness unto you, lest ye deny your God.” (Josh. xxiv., 26, 27.) This altar, at other times, consisted of a heap, as in Genesis xxxi., 45, “Jacob took a stone and set it up for a pillar, and Jacob said unto his brethren, gather stones, and they gathered stones and made a heap.”

4. The altar of thanksgiving was similar, “Samuel took a stone and set it between Mizpeh and Shen, and called the name of it Ebenezer, saying, ‘hitherto the Lord hath helped us.’”

5. A third kind of altar is noticed in 1 Kings, xviii. 31; it consisted in that instance of “twelve stones, according to the number of the tribes of Israel.” The situation of these altars was commonly upon the tops of rocks (Judges vi., 26), and on high mountains and hills (Deut. xii. 23).

6. The Patriarchs held groves in veneration, and either had a partiality for oaks, or for some tree rendered by that word in our bibles.

“Abraham planted a grove in Beersheba” (Gen. xxi. 33). We find, however, the erection of altars in such places forbidden elsewhere in Holy writ, consequent probably on the impurities and wicked abuses prosecuted there by the idolaters. And these groves the Israelites are frequently enjoined, by way of punishment, to “cut down” (Judges vi. 25; 2 Kings xxiii. 14; 2 Chron. xv. 3; Deut. vii. 5) or “burn with fire” (Deut. xii. 23; 2 Kings xxiii. 11).

7. There is an interesting passage of Abraham regarding a staff used by one of the angels who came to visit him. So did the Druids introduce a sacred notion: this may indeed be the reason why the staves and rods of the prophets were kept by them. The altar was reared “beneath the oak, which was in Shechem.” (Gen. xxiii.) A custom common with the Druids seems here copied, who took care to bury oaks and their altars together. The authority I have not been able to substantiate: the Druids borrowed this from the ancients. What better proof of this than burying them and the fire?

D. A. Briton

Mr. Urban,
April 13

The benevolent Society of Friends need hardly remind the public of the support of the Committee for managing a fund raised for the purpose of opening an African Institution. The object of their exertion will operate, as aid to the African Institution, in one of the most effectual means of carrying on the civilization of Africa. Hannah Killian, one of the friends’ society, who commenced the meditated course of instruction of the poor, recommended the medium of their own language, as she said, “suitably attended and provided with the necessary accommodations, and safely arrived in January last, in the British Colony on the river Gambia.”

The Friends’ settlement on this river is at Birrow. She devoted her attention to the study of the Wool-of-Manding language, and at an elementary school has been enabled to teach several letters, corresponding with their words in Woolf. Two native teachers have been emancipated from Goree, were engaged to assist her; and no small progress has been made...

Hannah

Folio 189

The Bards, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, lib. xv., c. 9, “celebrated the noble actions of illustrious persons in heroic poems to the sweet sounds of the lyre.” Diodorus Siculus likewise says, lib. v., c. 31., that they “are excellent and melodious poets, and sing their poems, in which they praise some, and satirize others to the music of an instrument resembling a lyre.” The same authority also states that even when contending armies were on the point of battling, the presence of a bard singing “sweet and melodious songs” has “calmed the rage of the warriors and prevented the shedding of blood.”

The weight of evidence furnished by the classic authors causes the beam to preponderate, on the side of the bards constituting one of the chief orders amongst the Druids. Even the most warlike of the clans esteemed them profoundly apart from all the rest of mankind. In the Irish translation of the Scriptures, the Magicians of Egypt are called the Druids of Egypt; and the same appellation is given to the Magi, or Wise Men of the East mentioned in the Gospel of St. Matthew. “Sons of Jubal; the father of all such as handle the harp.” (Gen. iv. 21.)

The Bards were the professors of oratory,—and they educated the British ceans and warriors who were “famous for their eloquence.” Tacitus says, “the British chieftains before a battle fly from rank to rank, and address their men with animating speeches, tending to inflame their courage, increase their hopes, and dispel their fears.” The arts of oratory were much studied, and the harangues of the chieftains possessed much energy, sweetness and elegance. Great attention was paid to purity of language, for the ears of their critical auditory would neither permit the employment of a coarse term, nor the vicious construction of a sentence. Their addresses abounded with metaphors derived from their eastern origin. They compounded the primitive particles to a great extent, instances will be seen in their etymologies, p. 42, 51, etc., ante.

Folio 190

...teemed it a privilege to be enrolled in the order of the Bards, as it bestowed upon them powers they otherwise would not have possessed.

The Druids were richly clad in long robes agreeably to the regulations of their order; the priests wore long beards, and the hair of their heads short while other people kept the hair of their heads long and shaved off their beards with the exception of the upper lip. When religiously officiating they wore white surplices, breast plates of gems, crimson hoods and gold chains around their necks. ⁵ They were limited to six colours in their bracæ. ⁶

The costume of the ceans was most magnificent and ostentatious; they wore golden torques as emblems of ...

The Bards too composed the triplicated sentences called The Triads, which were used to perpetuate tradition, and in which, they set forth every thing relating to their religion, history and science, that the same might be committed to memory and handed down with the greater ease. The theological triads are as follows:

1.—There are three primeval Unities, and more than one of each cannot exist, All One: Of God, all One Truth; and All One Point of Liberty, where all opposites equilibrate.
II.—Three things proceed from the three primeval unities, All Power, All Knowledge; All that is Good; and these are God.
III.—God contains necessarily of three things: The Greatest of Life; The Greatest of Knowledge; and The Greatest of Power—and of what is the greatest there can be no more of anything.

Richardson in his Travels, vol. i., says in describing the tombs of Egypt:—“Intermixed with the figures we frequently meet with the more agreeable pictures of entertainments, with music and dancing, and well-dressed people listening to the sound of the harp, played by a priest with his head shaved, and dressed in a loose, flowing, white robe, shot with red stripes.” The dress of the Druids.

Toland’s Specimens of the Critical History of the Celtic Religion and Learning.

⁶ The Druids certainly allowed the ceans to wear seven colours in their bracæ, whilst they contented themselves with six. Indivi...

Folio 191

Folio 192

...power, and their long flowing scarlet robes were embroidered with pearls and precious metals. Their defensive instruments of war, helmets, shields, breast-plates, &c., were inlaid with gold and embossed with curious workmanship. Their male subjects were garbed in the quality of the substances which composed their dress according to their respective grades, but the gaudiest colours were generally selected. In the field they were habited in tight-fitting jackets of plaid cloth which midway closed up and left the arms bare, with bracæ which reached nearly to the knee. Their feet were enveloped in a species of boot, made of leather laced up to the calf with thongs.

The females paid that attention to dress they invariably exhibit. They formed their tunics of plaids of contrasting tints, so cut and contrived in shape as to expose the bosom, neck and forearm. They were decorated with gold necklaces, armlets and bracelets. Strings of glass beads and pearls were woven amidst their long hair. They were particularly attentive to the cleanliness of their persons, bathing daily summer and winter. The majority of the men were tall and finely proportioned; warlike, and haughty, yet merciful; with ruddy cheeks and curled hair; their air and action exhibiting magnanimity and independence; and Strabo says, the Britons he saw in Rome, were half a foot higher than the tallest Romans. The women were modest and affectionate; fair and comely; ⁷ with splendidly-formed sy...

⁷ The principal employment of the women was to prepare wool, ...

Folio 193

...metrical limbs, and very beautiful features;—tenderly attached to their offspring, they artlessly lived in the constant exercise of moral virtues.

It has been affirmed, that the Britons of the era we are describing, “had their wives in common.” Fortunately the proofs we possess of their general habits demonstrate the absurdity of such an accusation, which entirely originated in the imperfect knowledge obtained by the Roman invaders of the language and customs of the natives. The Triads expressly inculcate the sanctity of the nuptial vow, and teach the happiness of family society. Nay, in contradistinction to Cæsar’s libellous statements upon the chastity of the British females, we have much indirect, but nevertheless analogous testimony—that the fair sex enjoyed amongst the Celtic tribes “a rank, and an attention utterly unknown in all the self-styled civilized world of antiquity; and which the spirit of Christianity has since matured and completed.” That morals were regarded, is evident from Cæsar’s own observation, that amongst the youth it was considered shameful to be connected with women before twenty years of age; and the reason assigned is similar to that furnished by Tacitus in regard to their motives for late marriages.

“He watch’d her nimble fingers thread the woof.”

... and spinning and weaving it in looms for clothing. The looms were formed by a list of three yards long, to which at one end the threads of the warp were affixed, and at the opposite a roller of the same length; the weight of which being suspended, kept them stretched. The threads of the warp were so placed as to be readily intersected. Shuttles were not used as the women conducted the threads of the woof of the warp with their fingers, and with an iron comb, having a handle press the woof to give a body to their cloth.

Folio 194

The warlike habits of the Belgae combining with the mechanical tastes of the Britons, led to a conversion of the vehicles used by the aborigines into engines of war by the addition of scythes to the axletrees. Some of these war-chariots were manufactured in a most ornamental and gorgeous form—those in which their ceans combated being constructed of solid silver or burnished brass, others were built with sonorous sides. The horses were defended by metal plates and their trappings profusely decorated with ivory and brass furniture. Cæsar describes the tactics of the warrior drivers of these vehicles, and declares that his legions were intimidated at a mode of warfare so superior to that practised in Gaul. ⁸

⁸ At the first soirée for the season of the Herefordshire Philosophical Institution, held October 28, 1844, the President of the Institution, Rev. C. Bird, stated that he had brought with him that evening a relic, and an exact representation of a ring, from a tumuli lately opened, in which also a most curious discovery took place, particularly interesting to the excavators, as it tended to illustrate a portion of early English history, which described the British warriors as contending with their enemies in chariots, with scythes, hooks, or sharp cutting instruments affixed to their wheels. The manner in which the Britons fought with their chariots was this: First, they drove violently up and down, flinging their darts at the foe; the very terror and noise of their horses and chariots frequently breaking the enemy's ranks. Then, one of the fighting men who accompanied the charioteer jumped down and fought on foot. Upon this, the driver left the battle for a little distance, placing himself in such a position that should the warrior be overpressed by the enemy, an effort could be made to remove him. Thus they actually possessed the activity of cavalry, and with it the steadiness of infantry, and withal were so expert by daily training, that even when galloping down a steep hill they would run along the pole, rest on the harness, stop and turn, and throw themselves again...

Folio 195

The peculiar custom of throwing away their habiliments in action, probably gave rise to the report that some of the Britons went in a state of nudity. A statement extremely questionable, even if the climate would have permitted it. The report, doubtless, originated from the circumstance of warriors, in the excitement of fighting, hurling away their tartan garments. When Britain in later periods was better known to the Romans, this calumny is not repeated.

In accordance with the strategical views of the Belgic Britons, the centre of a wood with heights was ge-

...into their chariots with the greatest dexterity. Cicero, writing to Trebatius, while the latter was here with Cæsar, playfully exhorts his friend as there is neither gold nor silver in Britain, to get hold of one of the essedæ, or war chariots, and make his way back to Rome with all speed. In another sense, he cautions Trebatius to take care that he be not snatched up and carried off before he knows where he is, by some driver of these rapid vehicles. The reverend gentleman then observed, with respect to these chariots, the fact of their use has not obtained general credit,—many have doubted, and some even ventured to deny their existence altogether; but one of the Yorkshire barrows under consideration proves most undeniably that such modes of warfare did certainly prevail among the ancient warriors of Britain. In opening that barrow, about the centre thereof, was exposed the skeleton of a person recumbent, with his iron chariot on the one side of him, and the skeleton of his horse on the other. ^* I have been favoured, continued the President, with an inspection of these interesting relics; the iron wheels were much corroded by age, and were rapidly crumbling to dust after their exposure to air.

^* The barrows in question were opened in 1817. They are situated on the Yorkshire Wolds, on a line between Beverly and Market Weighton, about three miles above the latter market town. A slight sketch (with a plate of some of the articles) will be found in Oliver's History of Beverley, quarto, page 4, from the pen of Dr. Hull, of Beverley, in a "Letter to Mr. Hendrewell, of Scarborough." There is also some short notice in Poulson’s "Beverley." On this transaction, see A. J. Dunkin's "Rep. of the Proceedings of the First Session, Brit. Archaeological Association."

Folio 196

...nerally selected for the site of their towns, because it presented the materials required for fortification, and a good position for defence in those aggressive wars the Belgae were perpetually waging. At one of the extremities, upon an elevated mount or dún, around which ran terraces, dwelt, isolated from his people, the cean or governor of the locality; whose power depended upon the martial efficiency of his tribe, since the Druids retained the control of the people during peace.

The appointment of these local rulers was vested in the chief cean, who himself succeeded to the sovereignty by hereditary descent, which, however, was not limited to the male sex. ⁸ Arbitrary as was the appointment of the provincial governors—after all, they little regarded the pleasure or paid attention to the behests of their lord; and instead of maintaining the mildness of the general laws, were continually committing infractions of them and trespassing upon their neighbour’s property, who, when sufficiently strong made reprisals.

The neighbourhood of Dartford presents an admirable specimen of this kind of fortress residence... It is now called Green Hill, a corruption of Cruvan its original name. The terraces by which it was antiently surrounded are still visible on the south-western side. It commanded the road by which Cæsar marched from the coast to attack Caswallon, and is within a short distance of the farthermost spot the Roman forces reached in their second invasion. Up to the year 1845 it was...

⁸ Striking examples of this circumstance are furnished us by Bodua and Cartismandua.

Folio 197

...in a large forest, when, from the depreciated value of woodland, it was then cut down and grubbed up, developing, during the process, numbers of the subterranean residences of the aboriginal Britons, but which the subsequent more refined inhabitants used for storehouses.

The residences of the richer inhabitants were built partly of stone and timber, and principally of a circular form. At Aylesford in this county, some of the houses still stand, says Mr. Allport, ⁹ upon the circular foundations of the primitive British houses. The upper parts were of richly carved wood, “a material peculiarly susceptible of ornament,” curiously painted with brilliant oil colours. The dwellings of the poorer classes were almost invariably constructed in a circular form of logs and wattles, plastered over with clay of various hues, red, blue, yellow, and white, to give them a gaudy appearance. The roof rose in a kind of cone or dome to a great height, and was covered with skins or straw. In the centre of these erections, which were very capacious, was a kind of wattled funnel, supported on four pillars of wood, which, plastered with clay or a gaily coloured cement, (according to the means of the occupant,) served the purpose of a chimney, and carried the smoke through the conical point of the roof. This tube, which was very wide below, also lighted the hall. The sleeping apartments were lighted by small apertures, and divided from the great hall by partitions of elaborately ornamented planks, or hurdles plastered with mud. In the winter the dwellings of...

⁹ Allport's Maidstone.

Folio 198

The Progress of the Nation

Mr. Blencowe, in a lecture at Lowes last week, afforded, perhaps, as adequate an idea as can now be given of the earlier periods of our history. He commenced with contrasting "merrie England," as she may now be seen from the hills overhanging the far-famed woods of Hagley, in Worcestershire, with all her rich farms and populous towns, with the same district in the tenth century, when vast tracts of forest, tenanted by the wild ox, the roe, the stag, and the wolf, with a village or two of wretched cabins, formed the picture; some wooden mansion—scarcely equal in comfort to a modern cottage—forming the residence of the Saxon Lord. Such was England when the Norman conquest led to a wholesale transfer of its soil, and to such desolation that in the north, the child might well run to its mother, to tell her when it had seen a man. It was then that the Saxons sought the Greek court, and there, known as the Varangians, formed the safest guard of the eastern emperors. Oppression was at its height; land was let and sub-let to the highest bidders, the king being "reckless, as the Saxon Chronicle tells us, how sinfully the stewards got it of wretched men." Famine and pestilence, 17 times in 70 years, attested Saxon misery.

After describing the horrors of 1096 and 1131, in the language of the old Chronicles, Mr. Blencowe turned to the happier years of Henry the First's reign, when the Flemish immigration laid the foundation of our woollen manufactures. Located, first, in Pembroke, their descendants are still distinguishable from their Welsh neighbors, almost equalling that indestructibility of race which characterises Cornwall, colonised by the Phœnicians, where a few years since the lecturer was told by Sir Charles Fellowes, the Lycean traveller, that a Phœnician friend, with whom he visited that county, was astonished to find some of the peculiar dishes of his native land.

Small progress, however, made the Flemings during the stormy period closing with the death of Richard Cœur-de-Lion. Then it was that Norman strongholds were raised over the land, and at Hastings, Lewes, Arundel, and Bramber, superseded the rude buildings of the Saxon lords. Monasteries, too, rose in the rich, quiet, well-watered valleys. Not a Saxon cathedral, and very few parish churches, are now standing, but many a grander Norman church has risen on their foundations; and those who are interested in architecture, will never fail to detect and to appropriate these buildings to this their proper period, by observing the massive shafts and the simple capitals of their pillars, crowned with semi-circular arches, fretted profusely with zig-zag ornaments, deeply and boldly cut. The churches of Old and New Shoreham are fine specimens of this style of architecture.

Mr. Blencowe then turned to the condition of the peasant for the first century and a half of Norman rule, quoting the well-known opening of Ivanhoe as the most graphic sketch that could be...

Given of the dress and bearing of the English peasant. Gurth, it will be remembered, bore round his neck the brass ring, bearing the inscription that he was “the born thrall (or villein) of Cedric of Rotherwood.” The peasants, slaves under the Saxons, remained so under Norman rule. Describing particularly the character of serfdom, Mr. Blencowe proceeded to the next three centuries, during which a happier state of things arose. The races became indistinguishably intermingled, and, in breeders’ language, the cross was a very good one. Highly eulogising the Saxon race as the determined promoters of free institutions, and steady industrial progress, Mr. Blencowe diverged into the great question of “races,” assigning a Celtic origin to the Irish, the Highlanders, the Welsh, and the French, and claiming for the English and Lowland Scots an Anglo-Saxon descent.

An amusing anecdote from an old Spanish Chronicle furnished a description of the English soldier in 1486, of which our Peninsular veterans could hardly deny the correctness in the 19th century:

“They were a comely race of men, but too fair and fresh for soldiers, not having the sunburnt, martial hue of our old Castilian soldiery; they were huge feeders also, and deep carousers, and could not accommodate themselves to the sober diet of our troops, but must fain eat and drink after the manner of their country. They were often noisy and unruly in their wassail, and their quarter of the camp was prone to be a scene of loud revels and sudden brawls. They were withal of great pride, yet it was not like our inflammable Spanish pride. They stood not much upon a point of honor and high punctilio, and rarely drew the stiletto in their disputes, but their pride was silent and contemptuous. Though from a remote and somewhat barbarous island, they yet believed themselves the most perfect men on earth, and magnified their chieftain, Lord Scales, beyond the greatest of our grandees. With all this, it must be said of them that they were marvellous good men in the field, dexterous archers, and powerful with the battle axes. In their great pride and self-will, they always sought to press in advance, and take the post of danger, trying to outvie our Spanish chivalry.”

Our space prevents us from noticing old Fuller’s record of Edward the Third’s invitation to the Flemish manufacturers, but, “such,” they were told, “were the English beauties that the most envious foreigners could not but commend them.” Weavers, fullers, and dyers flocked over; our fine woollens sprung into repute, and no less than 45 places take their name from this great staple of our trade, amongst them Woolbeding and Woolavington.

It was in this reign that Winchelsea and Shoreham were the great seats of our naval greatness, and that kings discovered the advantages of consorting with rich citizens, amusing the audience with a curious law cause from Selden, showing the wealth of our merchants, but certainly not very creditable to the morale of our ancient chancellors. He then traced the rising fortunes of the collared peasants, until, in the teeth of all parties leading in that direction, the villeins refused to become laborers and tenants, and depended...

...merged into the sturdy struggles of the Saxon peasantry, which even threatened the safety of the throne itself. A capital account of a night spent by a Popish legate in Northumberland, during this period, where the lower classes were utterly innocent of the merits of white bread and wine, closed the lecture; the audience greatly enjoying the nonchalance with which the Northumbrians left their wives and daughters—and the Popish legate of course—to the tender mercies of their Scottish neighbors.

Folio 199

Amongst themselves, That the Phœnicians visited Britain more may be instanced the discovery of a Greek Athenian tetradrachm.

Mr. Hawkins (Silver Coins of England, p. 9) thinks, "That either from commercial visits of the Phœnicians or through the communications which must have taken place between Britain and Gaul, Greece could become known in this island. It was coarsely imitated by the native artists, the border of the bossy ornament, called Brooch, has a Greek origin to its decoration. It seems possible that the Gaulish money, copied from the Macedonian, may have been the prototypes of the British coinage."

Folio 200

...the lower orders were sometimes transferred to the excavations of their predecessors, which also served for storehouses and hiding places from their foes. ¹

Those who could afford it had elegantly carved and painted household furniture and articles of luxury. The fictile ware in the majority of instances was but rudely finished; the drinking cups of the higher orders being either carved out of wood, or formed of shell or bone, ² whilst the most luxurious possessed goblets of the precious metals. Basket-work especially entered into the ornamental composition of the bedsteads, tables, and chairs. The wicker-work of the Britons was particularly celebrated, and specimens of this fabrication in a variety of pleasing, graceful and useful forms were exported. Fishing boats or coracles were likewise made of the same material.

¹ Solet ad subterraneos specus aperire, eosque multo insuper fimo onerant, suffugium hiemi et receptaculum fructibus: quia rigorem rigorum ejusmodi locis molliunt: et si quando hostis advenit, aperta populatur: abdita autem et defossa aut ignorantur, aut eo ipso fallunt quod, fallunt quod quaerenda sunt.—Taciti., cap xvi.

² Vinum poculis corneis ao ligneis.—Diod. Sic.

Handwritten note: The remains found over more than 20 towns among eastern only when the Romans moved in the island. White House. 1.3. (illegible text).

Folio 201

Chapter VI.

Caesar's First Invasion

“And deem ye that an easy booty lies Before your floodsmen's arms? or they that throng To hear your fabled legends, think ye they have come With idle vows to gaze, or buy their task, Their prize, for terms of truce? Ye built their craft With oars more bold, betide their wheels with fire; Deck’d bodies, and bristling spears, and steeds of war, And shafts and rushing arrows. Along the coast Swift chariots hurled the flying foe; A mighty steel-bearing car of war; its wheels white Mighty blade streaming far o'er rocks and hills The Britons rose, and dared not these, Each place his line defended; o'er the field showed great Defiance, heroes who feared not to die Or failed, and knew how bravely they met Duty's fated bounds, to die or die in doing sure Of all. Ye, Romans, see, the native tribes swept Freed or enslaved, in rising spirits fled, Preserved their birthright, sons and daughters. The foe in tribulations’ might, regard far Is ever to resist despair, fighting for Its shield and hearths; each spirit bleed upon wall And from women to a free roof. Each noble broke not their bonds but lives who grasp'd On or betray our edge to the foe; Tis on for Rome and Caesar."
— Cambridge Prize Poem, 1845.

The epoch we now arrive at, was one fatal to Caesar’s fortunes; it is one however which for political reasons, he most studiously mis-represented. For instead of his schemes being crowned with success they were signally defeated, and his armies were almost annihilated,—as we shall endeavour satisfactorily to demonstrate in this and the subsequent chapter.

Under pretence of providing for the security of their own frontiers or extending their institutions, the Romans undertook enterprises against the independent populations of countries they pleased to call barbarous.

Folio 202

Britain Two Thousand Years Ago and Now.—When the standard-bearer of the Roman legion who accompanied Cæsar in his invasion, first leaped from his galley into the sea, and called aloud to his panic-stricken comrades, “Follow me, my fellow soldiers, I will never betray my country or my general,” the Britons were “a nation of savages as wild as the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, and apparently as untamable as these are now supposed to be.” Indeed, some time after the Romans had possessed the island, they themselves doubted the capacity of the Britons to receive improvement; and a letter is said to have been written by a senator at Rome to his friend in the country, containing this memorable picture: “By the way, it begins to be doubted whether the island was ever worth the trouble and expense of conquering it. For, besides being enveloped in fogs throughout the year, the natives are almost too stupid to be dangerous. As navigators, their ships, impelled by innumerable short oars, the natives are so incorrigibly stupid as to have adopted a model which is likely to remain unaltered to the end of time.” So wrote a senator to his friend at Rome.

This letter, could be landed now on the same spot where Cæsar’s galley first struck the strand, how different would the reply of its receiver be! From a district so barbarous, it is true, its nearest portion may be reached in less than three and a half hours by the South Eastern Railway to Linton; yet the improvement visible in all this district is so marked that a Roman could hardly believe his own observation. Linton has attained to its present size and industry as we see it, by a continuous stream on which Boadicea, ploughing the Lea; and her fifty battle men in Roman galleons checking them on the shores of Kentish. The same soil, in time, has seen those on which Victoria rules. Her majesty's influence—uniting all the dignity of a monarch, all the endurance of a wife, and the highest of noble respect.

Yet so it is—in the same shore where Cæsar landed—the same Kent and Surrey groups. Within such close range, with the blood of stations having undergone material change.

Folio 203

Although much has been said of the rude and savage habits of these barbarians, and notwithstanding some advantages were actually introduced by their after subjection, it is certain that our sympathies are at variance with our judgment, and we instinctively rejoice in the hardy valour with which the Belgic Britons encountered and defeated the civilised invaders of their land.

They had in their favour the rights of freemen, and the virtues which belong to a patriarchal form of society and an independent life. They were opposed by the formidable power of disciplined armies and by the persevering policy of the Roman Senate, which was ready to sacrifice its wealth and legions for the attainment of a chimerical object. Fighting for all that is dearest to man, defeat, they knew, must be followed by the loss of liberty, perhaps by the gradual extinction of their race; whilst their civilised assailants could boast of no such exalted or heart-stirring motives, and the courage displayed on their side was only the result of that discipline which made them instruments of the caprices of ambition of a chief like Cæsar. ¹

¹ Julius Cæsar was born 100 B.C., of the ancient Julian family. In youth he was a fop, a debauchee, and a spendthrift; afterwards, an intriguer. Marius was his uncle, and he married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, and on her death, Pompeia. Julia, Cæsar’s daughter by his first wife, married Pompey the Great, with whom and Crassus he formed in 60 a triumvirate, opposed by Cato, Cicero, and the republicans. In 58, Pompey became pro-consul in Spain, &c., Crassus in the east, and Cæsar in Gaul and Germany. In his eight years’ wars against the Gauls, Germans, Helvetians, and Britons, three millions of men were slain. On the Senate ordering the disbanding of his army in 49, he marched into Italy...

Folio 205

It is evident not only from our previous statements, but also from Cæsar’s Commentaries, that, at the time the Romans first invaded Britain, the inhabitants were in a highly civilised condition, and in constant communication with the most polished cities in the East. The plausible reason assigned by the Roman general in his autobiographical pretext for the invasion is, because the Islanders furnished naval assistance to their allies the Veneti. A cause much more probable than the supposition mooted by Suetonius, which, in some cases, has found adherents, that Cæsar came over for the sordid purpose of gathering pearls, one of the chief items of British export. (See note below.)

Having resolved upon the subjection of the Island, Cæsar commenced the construction of transports for his troops in Gaul. Upon the 25th of August, B.C. 55, his preparations being completed, he embarked his men at (illegible) and departed from the continent.

Handwritten note: "A worn luminaire abroad — ?center attracted to Caesar in the Triads. 'Gilded' — wood? The use of pearls(?) Extent."

Folio 206

Dear Sir,

Accept my best thanks for the kind Paper containing your observations on Spring Head. I hope this will not be the last communication with which you may favour me. Though a stranger to your County, I consider it as the primary source of Roman and Saxon Antiquities in Britain, and as such deserving of particular attention. I wish I had any information to give in...

...repayment of your kindness. For that however, fortune may yet come.

I am Dear Sir, Your obedient Servant, J. H. Salkeld

Salisbury, Sept. 10, 1845

Folio 207

...into a hostile country without a clear knowledge of its principal features. His preceding enterprise had taught him caution, and among the partisans he had found means to gain, especially Mandubratius, he could not have wanted superior avenues to procure him accurate information. His account of his approach to the position of Cassivellaun behind the Thames, in itself appears well agreed with the character of the war, especially his remark “Numina loco prodites,” as you have again so justly stated, was chief initiator.

I should suppose the supposition that the struggle took place within the limits of these three people as McCaesar’s forces are placed by Richard between the Catuvellauni and the Bibroci (61 B.C. 182), and their chief cities at least in the Roman time were Verulamium, Durocobrivae, and Calleva Atrebatum. Near to them it is added (E.G.) where the river Thames approaches the ocean was the region of the Trinobantes. This latter tribe must have been in the rear of Caesar on his advance...

Folio 208

Dear Sir,

I duly received your former interesting Chronicles of Kent. I have read them with great interest, and admire your zeal and ingenuity. Roman remains appear to abound so much within certain parts of the County of Kent, as to interest, instead of limiting the identity of fixing on particular points of historic stations.

Being unacquainted with the county, I must depend on local knowledge and research. I will, however, candidly say, that I cannot quite enter into your conclusions respecting Caesar's marches and his two invasions of Britain. The first was so completely tentative as scarcely to repay the trouble of examination. Both, as far as the record, I cannot persuade myself had any military merit and were of the highest embarrassment to his smaller crews for the Thames. However, he must be actuated by the vigilance of his skilful antagonists, he would not have ventured so far...

Folio 209

Folio 210

...and last on his flank, and this will account for their prompt submission. From this and the caution of it, it seems probable to me that the site of Cassivellaun was beyond the Thames. Where Caesar passed I cannot pretend to decide, though I am inclined to suppose that it may not have been far from Kingston. Having made this circuit, many have found many remarkable accounts of barrows, beginning Walnut or Watling Street.

I should consider it a real advantage if my associations would permit me leisure to be at Kent to discuss some of these matters with you on the spot. There is little reliance to be placed on deductions made in the closet. Perhaps in the present operations, any expedition is most uncomfortable during the long day in summer, especially frying for limited food exploration within narrow official professions in your neighborhood.

I have nothing with which to make a return for your communication, but I shall hospitably be grateful to you if you would take the...

Folio 211

...trouble to favour me with an account, however brief, of your researches. I shall flatter myself that I shall be able to give a complete and satisfactory Epitome of Richmond.

I am Dear Sir, Your faithful Servant, J. H. Salkeld

Salisbury, Sept. 11, 1845

Folio 212

Handwritten note (top): To plunder & lay waste the fields. Caesar book V. 15.

Although much has been said of the rude and savage habits of these “barbarians,” and, notwithstanding some advantages were actually introduced by their after subjection, it is nevertheless certain, that our sympathies are at variance with our judgment, and we instinctively rejoice in the hardy valour with which the Belgic Britons encountered and defeated the civilised invaders of their land.

They had in their favour the rights of freemen, and the virtues which belong to a patriarchal form of society and an independent life. They were opposed by the formidable power of disciplined cohorts and by the persevering policy of the Roman Senate, ever ready to sacrifice its wealth and legions for the attainment of a chimerical object. Fighting for all that is dearest to man, defeat, they knew, must be followed by the loss of liberty, perhaps by the gradual extinction of their race; whilst their civilised assailants could boast of no such exalted or heart-stirring motives, and whose courage was only the result of that discipline which made them blind instruments of the ambitious caprices of a chief like Cæsar. ¹

¹ Julius Cæsar was born 100 B.C., of the ancient Julian family. In youth he was a fop, a debauchee, and a spendthrift; afterwards, an intriguer. Marius was his uncle, and he married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, and on her death, Pompeia. Julia, Cæsar’s daughter by his first wife, married Pompey the Great, with whom and Crassus he formed in 60 a triumvirate, opposed by Cato, Cicero, and the republicans. In 58, Pompey became pro-consul in Spain, &c., Crassus in the East, and Cæsar in Gaul and Germany. In his eight years’ wars against the Gauls, Germans, Helvetians, and Britons, three millions of men were slain. On the Senate ordering the disbanding of his army in 49, he marched into Italy...

Folio 213

Were not the statements in the preceding pages sufficiently demonstrative of the fact—that, at the period the Romans first invaded Britain, its inhabitants were in a highly civilized condition, and in constant communication with the most polished states in the East, it would be fully evidenced from the partial descriptions given in Cæsar’s autobiographical Commentaries. The plausible pretext assigned by the Roman general for the invasion is,—because the Islanders furnished naval assistance to their allies the Veneti. Bitterly, does he complain, that during his arduous campaigns in Gaul, the Islanders aided their kinsmen on the continent with ships and men. His details infer, that the Kentish men were celebrated for their skill in maritime matters.

He followed Pompey and the senate into Greece, and at Pharsalia, in 48, defeated them; pursued Pompey into Egypt, where he had been assassinated; Cato, Scipio, and others into Africa, where Cato in despair killed himself; and then defeated Pompey’s sons in Spain. In 45, he took the title of Imperator and Perpetual Dictator, but the republicans Brutus, Cassius, Cimber, Casca, Scipio, and about sixty others united to destroy him as a public enemy, and in five months, March, 44, he was slain in the senate house, receiving twenty-three wounds, and being pronounced by Cassius “the worst of men.” Mark Antony, his confederate, however, availed himself of Cæsar’s popularity with the soldiers and the mob, to whom Cæsar had been very prodigal, and obliged the patriotic senators to leave Rome. When civil war ensued, which ended in Cæsar’s nephew, Augustus Octavius, obtaining in 29, the power of Cæsar, which descended in a line called Cæsars, by far the most odious monsters, that ever disgraced and afflicted humanity.

^* It is obvious from the following passage in Lucretius, that Britain was, at least in the recollection of the Romans, before Cæsar:

Nam quid Britannum cœlum differre putamus, Et quod in Ægypto est, quà mundi claudicat axis.

Handwritten note (left margin): Picts and Bregs?

Folio 214

Herbert’s Cyclops Christianus.

Fact, which would not have failed to have been recorded in the Chronicles of the Church of Tours had such been the case; but also from the circumstance that, so far back as the age of Cæsar, the Armoricans were a much more highly civilized nation than their kindred tribes of this island, and perfectly equal, by the possession of skill and labour, and tools of iron, to have handled the obelisks of Lockermariaker, or to have finished (for they did not begin) the lines of Carnac.

This stupendous temple, reaching from Daroing (Lockermariaker), the capital of the Veneti, to Erdevan, a distance of twelve or thirteen miles, and consisting of eleven rows of upright stones (many of them as large as those of the great circle at Abury), could not have been erected in a few years nor by rude people, but in the course of their history. It is, however, sufficient to show that the tribes of Brittany and the Britons had an intimate connection at the period of Cæsar. Among the Celts, the Veneti held the first rank as a naval power; and, for the use of their battle, says: “Hujus civitatis erant longe amplissima auctoritas omnis ora maritima tenebatur eorum, quod et naves habent Veneti plurimas, quibus in Britanniam navigare consuerunt; et scientiam rei nauticae, cæteros antecedunt: et magno impetu manus, atque potentia pacis habent jactatas, quos tenent in potestatem: et reliquum marii consuetudo nobis retuleret elegitiles.” —De Bell. Gall., lib. 3, §15.

We see then, that the Veneti had a fleet of “ships,” as in the present day, “accustomed” to sail them to Britain; that they excelled all the other nations in the science and experience of navigation; that they had harbours of refuge, by means of which they not only sheltered themselves from storms, but also made all other nations, who used those seas, tributary to themselves.

But this may be a mere figment de parler—ships, commerce, tribute, are relative terms, and the “ships” of the Veneti may have been like the wooden-framed and basket-sided skin-covered coracles of the Britons. Nor should this—“Naves autem factæ ex robore, ad quamvis vim et contumeliam ferendam: transstra pedabilibus in lati...” (sentence cutoff).

Strabo further informs us that the Veneti excelled the seams of their ships with sea-weed.

Folio 215

Herbert’s Cyclops Christianus.

All the traditions of Bretagne represent British missionaries to have instructed their countrymen in the Christian religion. This, which tells one way for the Britons and their ability to conquer, tells another way against Mr. Herbert’s theory—for it intimates that the majority of the Britons who went over to Armorica were Christians; and therefore not likely to have built the Temple of Carnac. The pagan Britons might remain at home, to be overcome by the Saxons, without any other fear than that of being made subject to their conquerors. There was no fear of being massacred without mercy for their religion. The fugitives were accompanied by Armoricans and Clarians, who had been resisting Clovis and would have incurred double risk. A large proportion of the fugitives are to be found at Dartmoor, and the greater table land of Brittany was never mixed with English settlers. Those who refused British laws, fled westward before the black wave of Domesday Book, until they were overrun by Saxons. The Christian Britons desired their country; the Pagans, being driven from their temples in the low country of the south, restricted to the mountainous territories of the west, and there, in imitation of Abury and Stanton-Drew, have erected smaller circles, as at Yule, Glenshee, Stafford Tor, and Rugglesmede. These small temples indicate better the poverty of which Mr. Herbert speaks, but which he misapplies when he uses it to explain places near Stanton-Drew and Rollright which are not trivial like Stonehenge.

We agree with many who cannot agree with Mr. Herbert in considering the British Temples as representations of “Groves of Oak Trees.” We may add that allowing those circles as avenues which have no architraves to have been imaginary representations of Savernake Forest, Stonehenge assuredly no more represents a grove of trees than the late colonnade in Regent Street represented the Birdcage Walk in St. James’s Park.

It is much more like the Temple of Cœlus, which Jingo Jones believed it to be; and still more like Gerasa, in Palestine, which we know was a Temple of the Sun.

The only rational idea of the dedication of a circular temple is to be found in Heliocidaria, from which the Romans took their temple of Vesta. Selene-Hadaria may have given rise to the lunar-shaped ellipse so often seen in Brittany, and of which the bell-shaped inclosure near the village of Stanton may be an example: while a combination of both the circular and arc areas in Stonehenge may indicate the imitation of that temple dedicated to joint worship of the Sun and Moon.

The circles of Abury, as recognized by the luminaries—the Moon being full: the Sun and his rays appearing at the inclination of a certain eclipse—point to the sacred use as universal in the British Isles.

Every historical evidence proves that the Veneti were a highly civilized race, and were in their current ages superior to the century preceding the Christian era. They might have been inferior to them in the fifth century; but there is no proof of this, for families were equally settled in both countries at that time, and both must have acquired some tincture of Roman manners.

We leave Mr. Herbert’s arguments from the Bardic Poems untouched at the present; not because they are unanswerable, but because we cannot...

Folio 216

"...and their allies"—especially the Veneti:

Ἕτοιμοι γὰρ ἦσαν κωλύειν τὸν εἰς τὴν Βρεττανικήν πλοῦν, χρῶμ ἐν τῷ ἐμπορίῳ.
Strabo, bk. iv. ep. 271. Conf.
Bell. Gall. IV.20

Folio 217

...affairs, of which he admits his countrymen were helplessly ignorant. ³ Cæsar relates that immediately prior to his invasion of Kent, the combined fleets of the Veneti, and their allies the British, hazarded an engagement off the coast of Armorica, now Bretagne or Brittany, against the Romans. In this unfortunate combat, which lasted from nine in the morning till sunset, two hundred and twenty large ships were destroyed, and the naval power of Gaul and Britain utterly annihilated. Now, this cause is much more probable than the supposition of Suetonius, ⁴ which in some cases...

³ Auxilia ex Britannia, quæ contra eas regiones posita est, spe summi. Gen., lib iii., § 9. Thus, from Cæsar’s narrative, it appears that the Britons had frequently lent auxiliaries to Gaul, a measure to which they might have been induced by the connexion subsisting between the two countries in religion, or for the sake of honour; there has been no other motive; but at this time there was another, to which the Triads attribute the hostilities of Cæsar against this country. "Cassibellan, enamoured of Flur, the daughter of Augnach Gort, finding that she had been carried off by a prince of Gascony, called Mwrcan, and presented to Julius Cæsar, made a descent on Gaul; and having slaughtered six thousand of the Cæsarians, rescued and brought her back. Cæsar, to avenge himself, came into Britain." —Triad 102 and 124. Cæsar, in his account of the battle between the Romans and the Veneti, with their allies, the Britons (B.C. 56), pathetically laments the disproportionate size of his vessels, and the unacquaintance of sailors. The tactics amongst his men. He admits (lib iii., 14) "neither young Brutus, to whom he gave the command of the fleet, nor the centurions and military tribunes, who had the charge of particular ships, knew what course to take, or in what manner to conduct the fight." Vide also p. 69. ante.

Pliny relates that Cæsar offered at the shrine of Venus, whom he once stated to be the ancestor of one of his aunts (Suet. c. vi.) a breast plate gorgeously studded with British pearls. Other...

Folio 218

Folio 219

...has found adherents, that Cæsar came over for the sordid purpose of gathering pearls, one of the chief items of British export.

Cæsar having finally determined upon the subjugation of the island, early in the spring of 55 B.C., commenced in Gaul, the construction of transports for his troops. Upon the 25th of August, B.C. 55, his preparations being completed, he embarked his men at Wissant and departed from the continent “about the third watch of the night with a good gale to the sea.” Fortunately for him, his galleys escaped or passed through the British fleet without being attacked.

The next point to be considered is the place of Cæsar’s landing; which has for many years been one of the vexed questions of Kentish History. We are inclined to agree with the Rev. Beale Post, who furnished a paper upon the subject, for the first Congress of the...

Authorities acquaint us, that the Romans placed a high value upon pearls, esteeming them more precious than gems. Solinus affirms that the fact of the pearls being British was attested by an inscription on the shield. Pomponius Mela also asserts that the seas of Britain generate pearls. So also Aelian in his History of Animals, and Origen in his Commentary on St. Matthew. Marcellinus too and the poet Ausonius prettily describe them as “white shell beads.” These pearls have been since repeatedly mentioned by different historians, but their fishery has of late years been neglected. Swainson, the eminent naturalist, has recently expressed much surprise that the regular fisheries which once existed for this native production should have been abandoned. There is little doubt but that it is owing to the pearl not being considered so ornamental as it formerly was. The British pearls are found in the Duck Fresh-water pearl mussel (Anodon Anatinus) and in the swan ditto (Anodon Cygnus).

Handwritten notes (top): "Var. orthog. Portus Itius. Secens portus. Iterum Galliae. Itius. Sitnus portus. Cæsar Itius [Geoffrey Monumenta Britannica, Essay of Port Itius.]"

Folio 220

British Archaeological Association, holden at Canterbury, in 1844; and which, with the after-remarks by the Dean of Hereford, and the Rev. R. H. Barham, with confirmatory letters by Captain Martin, will be found in the Report of the Proceedings, edited by Alfred John Dunkin.

The due ascertaining of the place where the Roman army disembarked, is most important, since, on it depends much of our correct knowledge of Cæsar’s subsequent proceedings. As many of our readers may not be acquainted with the book, we unhesitatingly lay some copious extracts before them:—

From the great alteration of the outline of the Kentish coast since this invasion, some little difficulty at first appears; but there is nothing which cannot be satisfactorily explained, sufficient data still existing to enable us to form correct conclusions.

Rather more than a century and a half ago, Dr. Halley afforded very important illustrations as to Cæsar’s landing, by the astronomical calculations he applied; and to that eminent man may be assigned the merit of placing several points on the basis of certainty. Nevertheless, his researches were not afterwards sufficiently followed out with local examinations and a due consideration of the antient form of the coast. From preconceived notions, certain conclusions were supposed to result from his discoveries, which by no means necessarily followed; hence, as well as illustrating, they also obscured the subject.

Dr. Halley ascertained that Cæsar’s landing took place in the year of Rome 696, in the consulships of Pompey and Crassus, or fifty-five years before Christ:

Folio 221

...and that sixty-eight years afterwards, A.D. 14, at the death of Augustus, a remarkable eclipse of the moon occurred, which was made use of by the unfortunate Drusus, son of Tiberius, to quell a mutiny of the Pannonian army. Combining these materials, and making them the basis of astronomical calculations, he was enabled to trace back the moons through all the intervening interval, and to fix the exact time of night at which Cæsar’s full moon occurred, and consequently the precise day of reaching Britain,—the state of the tide at the time he lifted his anchors to proceed along the shore, and the probable hour of his landing, which he considered to have been between five and six in the evening.

It remains to add, that he regarded Dover as his first place of arrival, and, as he must have proceeded with a rising tide, he maintained that his course was up the coast, and Deal his ultimate place of landing.

His observations on Cæsar’s expeditions will be found in the seventeenth volume of the Philosophical Transactions. ⁹ Although science was so successfully applied to a portion of this subject, it was soon discovered that Halley’s place of landing did not correspond in other respects with Cæsar’s narrative; first, as to the distance to the Stour, the river afterwards mentioned; and, secondly, as to the landing place which Cæsar describes as being so muddy and slippery that his soldiers could not stand firmly upon the shore, which but ill resembled Deal beach. To obviate this, Archdeacon Batteley endeavoured to shew, that the old Richborough Bay, nearly in the same direction, but much further on, was the actual landing place; but...

Folio 222

...which increases the distance to eighteen Roman miles and upwards, and suits still less in its position in regard to the river. To account for Cæsar having proceeded so far, Dr. Batteley supposed he was unaware of the effect of the tide, which, with the wind, assisted his progress. Notwithstanding these inconsistencies, Dr. Batteley’s ideas, from the want of a better hypothesis, were considered the most feasible carrying out of those of Halley; and as such, were most usually adopted. Dr. Halley’s discoveries in this instance seem to have checked all subsequent enquiries, except those, which merely suggested modifications of his opinions.

Still, however, Halley’s discoveries must be the basis of our correctly understanding this point; but the great source of error appears to be the supposing that Dover was the place where Cæsar first made the land, and that he necessarily proceeded up the coast or towards Deal. These two particulars being set right, Halley still furnishes us with most important information.

In respect to the first, Folkstone is offered by Mr. Post, as a correction of the usually received opinion, and whoever examines the features of that locality, will perceive that the antient harbour there, winding inland for some little distance between the hills, would very perfectly make good Cæsar’s words, that darts could be cast down on the shore from the heights, and thus we have a point of correspondence, which has been very generally overlooked.

In addition to the situation of Folkstone, there is another peculiarity which has also escaped notice. Whilst the original form of the coast subsisted, the...

Folio 223

...tide flowed up an antient estuary of the Rother near this town, which has, long since, been completely choked up. Near Folkstone, too, the tide was divided into two branches; and, while the major part followed the impulse up the British Channel, the other was directed to the adjoining estuary. However, before proceeding further, we will devote a few lines to the material changes the form of the coast, in this part, has undergone during the last eighteen centuries. ⁵

The alteration of the course of the river Rother, is a fact too strongly evidenced for any doubt to be entertained. It is known to have flowed out formerly by Lympne or Lemannus Portus⁶ towards Folkstone. The agents in changing its direction are reputed to have been violent storms, which obstructed its outlet with vast quantities of beach and silt cast up from the “depths of the sea;” joined certainly, to its natural channel being impeded in various places by embankments, for agricultural purposes. Under these circumstances, excessive land-floods, when they occurred, tended to cause the waters to force a freer passage to the sea, where no insuperable barriers prevented. In the Middle Ages, either the Rother or its principal...

⁵ In the Archaeological Album, edited by T. Wright, esq., will be found (p. 202), a sketch, by F. W. Fairholt, esq., of some Saxon barrows near Folkstone. On the summit of the steep hill to the left, is a strongly entrenched camp or fortress, popularly called Caesar’s camp.

⁶ The etymology of Lemannus Portus is from the Celtic word leam, a river, and aman, river; two words emblematical of its being an old Celtic port and moreover expressive of its use.

Folio 224

Gold British, or Gallic Coins, Found at Bognor and Alfriston in Sussex

Plate VII

The whole of those found at Bognor were picked up on the sea-coast: most of them were possessed by Mr. R. Elliott, of Chichester, and exhibited by him to the Numismatic Society.*

Excepting figs. 12 and 13, the types are common to England, France, Germany, and Belgium; and, from the vast numbers continually occurring, must have formed no inconsiderable portion of the currency in these parts of Europe. So abundant are they along the coast of France, as to be sold for little more than their weight in gold.

Fig. 10 is an uncommon variety; fig. 12, also rare, is engraved in Plate VIII. of Lelewel’s Types Gaulois. In this excellent work p. 244, will be found a list of many varieties of this type, reading COM. COMF. EPF. COM., and others with the word EPILLVS and its abbreviations, often connected with the former, which had been published in Camden, Conbreuse, Taylor Combe, Mionnet, Akerman, M. de Lagoy, &c. To these may be added, figs. 7, Plate V., and fig. 2, Plate VII. Fig. 13, hitherto unpublished. The letters within the label on the obverse, although more visible than they are represented in the etching, are too indistinct to be identified; but, from the resemblance of the obverse to that of fig. 12, as well as from accordance with...

* Proceedings of the Numismatic Society, 1842, p. 383. These coins are now in Mr. Cuff’s cabinet.

Folio 225

Gold British, or Gallic Coins

...in weight, it would seem to be of the same class. On the reverse, a winged head of Medusa, of good workmanship.

The four gold coins found at Alfriston, were made public, for the first time, at a meeting of the Numismatic Society, in December 1841.*

Three of them, figs. 1, 2, and 3, are types previously unknown. In the spring of the present year, a specimen in brass, resembling fig. 1, was found in the immediate vicinity of Winchester.†

The comparative late epoch of the various coins of the COM type, may be inferred from the usual good fabrication they exhibit, combined with considerable elegance and variety of design. In examining the coins under consideration, it will be perceived, that figs. 1 and 2 come under this general rule; but that figs. 3 and 4 are of the rude and primitive type of the disjointed horse. The letters TIN beneath the horseman in the first two are associated with the badly executed type of fig. 3; but it is not thence to be inferred that this specimen was fabricated at an earlier period. The fact of the coins having been found together, proves their coeval circulation in Britain; and their equal weight, and similarity of inscription, determine them to be of one and the same class. The apparent anomaly of the letters TIN appearing on specimens of such unequal workmanship of type, may be explained, by considering, that, at whatever period they were minted, it was probably during a transition from a rude imitation of Greek models, to an improved style, generated perhaps by intercourse with the Romans; and convenience may have been consulted, in adding this new distinctive inscription to old dies.

* Proceedings Num. Soc. 1841, p. 38. These coins were then the property of Mr. C. Brooker.
† In the possession of Mr. W. B. Bradfield.

Folio 226

Gallo-Roman Altar

Reinesius* gives the following inscription, found at Rome:

IOVI.OPTIMO.MAXIMO.DOLYCHENO.
UBI.FERRVM.NASCITVR.C.SEMPRO.
NIVS.RECTVS.CENT.VII.FRUMENTARIIVS
D.D.

The Doliche, which gives the name of Dolychenus to Jupiter, was most probably the town of that name in Macedonia, a country which, Strabo says, abounded in iron; and to this Doliche, the words in the last inscription, “Ubi Ferrum Nascitur?,” “where iron is produced,” seem more applicable, than to Dolichene, a city of Commagene, in Asia; whence, according to Stephanus,† this name was derived.

The name of Dolichus, it is not improbable, may have been introduced into Gaul by some Greek migratory tribe, who, in the rough and sterile tract of hill country between Montreuil and Boulogne, may have been reminded of their native country, and from some features of resemblance, thus named their new settlement.

There was a Vicus Dolens in the province of Biturica, mentioned repeatedly by Gregory of Tours;‡ but it is not probable it could be identical with that in the inscription, which most likely refers to some settlement in the neighbourhood of the present village of Halinghen.

There is a discrepancy in my reading of the last line with that of M. de Givenchy, who reads it PRES. C, Preses curavit. I copied it with care: a friend who was with me...

* Syntagma Inscript. Antiq. Cl. I. n. xv.
† ΠΕΡΙ ΠΟΛΕΩΝ, edit. Tho. de Pinedo, p. 242.
‡ “Britanni de Biturica a Gothis expulsi sunt, multis apud Dolensem vicum peremptis.” — Hist. Francorum, Lib. II. cap. xviii. The commentator of Gregory says, the name can be traced in that of the monastery, commonly called Bourg de Deols.

Folio 227

Gallo-Roman Altar

... made also a drawing, and we agree in reading the third letter an I. I was more than ordinarily careful, being aware that M. de Givenchy had questioned Millin's accuracy. If I am correct, the word is Priscus, the surname of the person under whose superintendence this altar was erected.

The word Halinghen, signifying "a consecrated place," strengthens the supposition that the altar remains on the site for which it was originally destined, having supplanted, it may be, some Celtic object of adoration, as, in turn, itself has been adapted to the usages of a new faith; being at the present day a baptismal font.

The altar, a cube of sandstone of about two feet, supported by masonry, stands on the west side of the church; a building of small size and unattractive appearance, but evidently of considerable antiquity, although recent reparations and whitewashing give it a modern air, and almost conceal the remains of sculptures which are there, and which may with difficulty be traced.

* Syntagma Inscript. Cl. I. n. xv.

Folio 228

... branch, made its exit at New Romney;—at a subsequent period, that is, since the year 1248, it has directed its course entirely to Rye, where it has successively formed two harbours, the Rye old harbour and the new one. This affords a species of evidence that it was a large estuary; which seems further established, from its being authentically known that a great portion of what is called Romney marsh, with which its course was connected, has at different times, been inned from the sea, much of which must have been on the borders of this estuary. The flowing of the tide from near Folkstone in this direction,—that is, a portion of it being diverted this way from its main course up the channel, would only have been the natural indraught which it would have had from the sea, on the rising of the tide, like other estuaries.

So, Caesar, when he made the land, anchored off Folkstone, and was just at the spot whence he might have proceeded, with a rising tide in his favour, in two directions. This fact being shown, a very great difficulty in describing his movements is explained. Thence, he proceeded westward instead of north east. Eight miles in this direction doubtless brought him to the neighbourhood of Lympne, where he landed; and, there it was the native proprietors of the soil.

"'Gainst the war-proof Roman stood;
Spurned the polish of transgressors,
And sold their freedom with their blood,
Whelmed in the darksome stream of time,
Roman, Briton, now repose;
Oaks and firs thick weaving climb,
Where the bristling pine arose;
And childhood plucks a harmless wreath
Of broom and wild flowers from the mound,
Where erst the laureled meed of Death
From Honour's hand was welcome found."

—Knapp—Vide J. Dunkin's History of Bromley

Folio 229

Page 96:

It will be seen, that in thus explaining Caesar’s movements, nothing clashes with Halley; and there is every reason to suppose, had that celebrated astronomer’s attention been directed to the three circumstances, and the change which the coast has sustained, he would have advocated the opinion Mr. Post advanced, and so ably established.

Upon nearing Britain, the Romans were surprised to find not only the shores protected with strong fortifications, but an enormous and well-arrayed army assembled to oppose their disembarkation. For the intercourse the Britons maintained with the Continent had furnished them with every information relative to Caesar’s intended invasion. Determined not to submit tamely, they levied forces and gave the supreme command...

There are additional handwritten annotations in the margins. Let me know if you’d like these included or clarified further.

Folio 230

Folio 231

Caswallon: Mr. Barry observes upon this portion of Caesar's writings, that the opinion in Barry 134 to Landry p. 136. [illegible word] or...

Folio 232

The command to the experienced chief Caswallon. The landing in face of these obstacles, was a task of great danger and difficulty; nor was it till after various repulses, that the Roman army finally succeeded at a late hour, of the 26th of August. Wearied by their mutual exertions, the two armies reposed for the night nearly opposite each other; the next day the engagement was renewed, and terminated after a sanguinary engagement, slightly to the advantage of the Romans.

Consequent upon this partial success, some of the frightened ceans withdrew from the British confederacy, and endeavoured to make terms for themselves with Caesar. Three days afterwards, the vessels containing the cavalry of the Roman army, were seen off the harbour, followed by the British fleet, the latter unhesitatingly attacked the Roman transports, and not only routed, but utterly prevented even one of them landing their freight. Successful in this attempt, the Britons next destroyed, in the face of the foe, the galleys the Romans had carefully drawn upon the beach for safety. Caesar however, attributed this untoward affair to the effect of a storm. ^[1]

The British ceans, who had joined the Romans on their first flush of success, now experiencing that the cohorts were not invincible, were so animated by this victory, that they withdrew from the camp the Romans had constructed upon the sea coast, and having ascertained how small was the number of their opponents and noted their deficiencies in military stores, again joined their confederated countrymen, whose spirits they exhilarated by their representations of the miserable condition of their boastful enemy. Caesar, on September 18th, as his...

Handwritten Note:

... the landings... [text unclear] observed that [annotation on Roman actions]

Folio 233

...supply of provisions was extremely insufficient, sent a portion of his troops upon a foraging expedition to a field two miles distant³, where he had been informed the corn was unreaped.

Had not Caesar for once fairly admitted that the county of Kent was densely populated and highly cultivated, it would, nevertheless, have been evident from his narrative, since he describes the field his army plundered as furnishing sufficient forage for its sustenance. It is difficult to consider otherwise than that this field had been left as a bait, to attract the Romans into an ambuscade. Whether such was or not a portion of Caswallon’s strategical plans, it is certain that it answered that purpose, and the Romans were ensnared by it, and if not nearly annihilated, were most disgracefully beaten, after a bloody slaughter. It is clear, too, that the corn reaped from the other lands must have been hoarded at no great distance, or else the commissariat department of the Britons was most ably managed; otherwise, how could the British chief have provisioned the vast troops of horses necessary to draw the chariots, which accompanied, or formed but a part of his immense army, before the first battle?

Anticipating an attack upon the foraging party, one half the Roman army was actually employed in the excursion. Undeterred by the superior discipline of the invaders, the Britons surrounded them and made a desperate and sanguinary attack. Clouds of dust gave Caesar an inkling of the battle, to which he hurried...

Footnotes:

³ This could not have been at a greater distance, because these foragers were on foot, and had to carry their plunder on their backs.

Handwritten Note:

The Britons' strategy plain ... [text unclear]

Folio 234

Borlace Story "The Britons were in the habit of securing their retreats in strong places from the enemy in their vicinity."

Folio 235

With the two cohorts who were on duty in the camp, ordering the remainder of his forces to arm and follow. Arrived at the scene of action, he found the defeat of the Romans decisive, hardly a man of the seventh legion escaping to relate the disastrous tale. The field was covered with the dying and dead, and over-run with the chariots and cavalry of the victorious Britons. Having rescued the few exhausted survivors, he retraced his steps, and, pursued by his unrelenting foes, with difficulty attained the refuge of his camp. Quite aware after this battle, that his position in Britain was no longer tenable, he embarked the miserable skeleton of his army (three hundred men), in two transports, and sailed away at midnight!

Thus terminated, after three weeks' stay, Caesar's first and much-vaunted expedition into Britain; which, though highly extolled in Rome as a glorious and wonderful exploit, was only the discovery of a landing place, together with the certain knowledge that the islanders would not basely surrender their freedom without a struggle. The first battle was fought on the sea shore at Caesar’s landing, August 26th; his second great battle within sight of his camp, about September 7th; and his third when he escaped to the camp, say September the 18th, after which, defeated, he fled. The daily harassing skirmishes have not been enumerated, but even in the majority of these, the Romans were worsted, and even when successful, necessarily weakened. It is, therefore, clear that Caesar was never more than six miles in the interior of Britain in this expedition. The topography of the country at the period of this campaign is so imperfectly known, and...

Folio 236

100

The details which have reached us are so incomplete, that a connected or accurate account of the operations of the Romans is impossible. But there can be no doubt as to the result of the campaign; Caesar’s army everywhere encountered the fiercest resistance. It subdued no more than the ground it stood upon, and after vainly attempting to attain the British sanctuary on the Stour, and fighting several engagements, was compelled to seek the shelter of the camp; and finally, after suffering enormous losses of men, and sacrificing the whole of the materiel, its truly wretched remnant was happy to re-embark for Gaul under cover of night.

This invasion however exercised no influence on the manners and customs of the Belgic Cantians in the neighbourhood of Southfleet. They had sent their contingent of men to aid Caswallon in repelling the Roman legions; who, after satisfactorily performing their duties, returned to their homes rejoicing. Caesar drew up a flaming version of his proceedings in this British campaign, which he forwarded to Rome; for he certainly possessed one advantage, viz: the art of speciously dressing and glozing his despatches, so that it may readily be credited that the Roman senate...

Dio, fairly enough says of this expedition, that Caesar “obtained from it nothing, either for himself, or his country, but the glory of having fought in it, and as he stated this very powerfully, the people at Rome wondered and extolled him.” (lib. xxxix, p. 128). The Saxon Chronicle says: “there he (Caesar) was first beaten in a dreadful fight, and lost part of his army.” Quintillian (de Orat. Dialog., c. 17) says he met with one Aper, a Briton, who averred that he was one who fought with Caswallon against the Romans when they drove Caesar from the Kentish shore.

Folio 237

1844.] Extraordinary Female Eccentric. 599

chief, who married Elizabeth, daughter and sole heiress of Sir Frederick Tilney; and they had issue John Bourchier, who married Harpreye died in the lyfe to the said, and after the death of her the right honourable the Lord Bourchier, Lord Barnes; after the death of John Harold, Duke of Norfolk; and said, that Barnes and Katherine had issue another Barnes, who married Jane, their daughter, married James, their sole Knight; and they had issue Sir Hugh their grandchild, who lived in the time of Henry the Eighth; and they had issue Sir Thomas Barnes, knight, that lived in the time of the time of Edward; and the Lord Thomas Bowes; after that the year of Queen another knight called Andrew Cooke, his child married Cooke, after that knight, that lived in the time of another General to King James; after that, another knight General died in the life of his father, his general’s body, begotten two children, his grandchild and Ardiacy seven children, of all infants. November 16, 1602.

MR. URBAN, IN a French work now I believe in a few families in France, and not all England, called “Lettres Historiques par Madame du Noyer,” a published in 1760, and second article, presents the following account; which remarkable woman; it was a few incidents and very singular; and read the appendix ... (article continued).

Folio 238

600

On Caesar's Passage of the Thames. [June]

Caesar's account of his invasion (not invasions).

It is a most astounding position, assumed or asserted by Mr. Dunkin, that many of the kingdoms or states of the Britons were within the limits of Kent, namely, the Cantii, the Cassii, the Segontiaci, and the Trinobantes; and from this premise he seems to include the Regni. All this is incredible, and his reasoning, even if subtile, fails to substantiate his assertion in this modern view.

After such extraordinary notions, one cannot be expected to attach importance to any of Mr. Dunkin's communication (conjectural at best) that relates to the subject of any legitimate controversy or argument.

The antiquaries acquainted with ancient history much better address than these bold assertions of Mr. Dunkin the ideas about Caesar’s passage on the Medway, or rather at Coway Stakes.*

* How could Caesar's own words apply to the Medway? A mari citerior mediocris altitudine exstitit. Thames, unless ... (article continues).

MR. URBAN, April 9.

AS I have paid some attention to the matters which form the subject of Mr. Dunkin’s communication to you, contained in your Magazine for this month, I cannot refrain from making a few remarks upon it, nor from saying it greatly surprised me.

Your correspondent seems to have forgotten, or he suppresses the fact, that Caesar twice invaded this island. On the first of these occasions it has been computed he was here only twenty-five days, during which period his operations were unquestionably confined to a portion of Kent. When he came here, in the ensuing year with an increased force, he was, according to the best authorities, in the island about four months. Mr. Dunkin says that Caesar could not have been more than thirty-two days in Britain; yet he asserts he has closely examined ... (article continues).

Folio 239

THE CONTEST OF CÆSAR AND CASWALLON.

(Extracted from the Gentleman's Magazine for April, 1844.)

MR. URBAN,

DURING some late researches I have been making into the druidical vestiges in the kingdom, I have necessarily closely examined Cæsar's account of his invasion of Britain, and I am now convinced that he never crossed the Thames at "Coway Stakes," nor marched to St. Alban's. Perhaps the following remarks may lead to further research, and incline some of your able correspondents to investigate the subject. My opinion is, that Cæsar, by some confusion of his details, or by a perchance mistake, the Medway, in place of the Thames, was rushed into the account.

After the retreat of the British forces at Charlton Downs, Cæsar proceeded to the Ford which led to the grand Druid altar, at present vulgarly called Kit's Coty-house.*

* It is now a well-ascertained fact, that long prior to the advent of the Romans the Britons had good roads intersecting the country from one Druid temple to another; these roads were not constructed straight, like those that superseded them some two centuries after, but, contrariwise, frequently diverged to the towns contiguous.

The Druidical erections on the banks of the Medway are magnificent and imposing as any in the world; there the Celt found every appliance and tool to be used for religious demand, and awe and alarm in superstitious ceremonies. Prominently, on the brow of the hill stands the altar from whence the Arch-Druid, whilst offering to heaven, declared the decrees of fate. Near the side of this cromlech stood a menhir, a stone used as a gorsedd, to explain the law to the assembled thousands. At the foot of the hill, in the deep recesses of the sacred grove, was reared the most sacred of huts, with the lustrating springs dedicated to a rhiwfan.

Arrived at the ford, Cæsar found...

References:

Camden, Horsfield's Hist. of Lewes.
Thorpe, Custumale Rot. 68; et Colebrook, Archæol. ii.

Folio 240

The British History of Kent

The Britons in great force determined to dispute his passage, to render which more difficult, they had driven sharp stakes into the bed of the river.⁴ Here Cæsar was necessitated to fight a terrific battle, and at length his legions, wading through water up to their necks, forced the ford. Adjoining was the town⁵ where dwelt Cennimagni, in whose territories were comprised the holy rites just enumerated. An immediate consequence of the victory was, that the tribes yielded allegiance to the conqueror, and sent in their adhesion to his standard.⁶

Caswallon, the British leader, in consequence of the desertion of some of his allies, then retreated to his own town and fortress, the remains of which still exist in the shape of an oval near Dartford, in the centre of his tribe’s territories (the Cassii), where he was followed by Cæsar, and again defeated. For this defeat, "Treason, like an old and eating sore, consumed the bones and sinews of his strength."

This British town was extremely large, as its boundaries may be traced at its present indications by five parishes, Wilmington,⁷ Dartford, Bexley, Sutton-at-Hone, North Cray.

Cæsar then, c. xxi., says that from hence (the Cennimagni) he marched into the capital of Caswallon, which was defended with woods and marshes, and where all their flocks and plunder were retired. This description matches with what is found at this spot, which is still in existence, and partly used to this day, as a meadow of great area, covered with trees and shrubs, and over which tradition to this day alludes as admirably defended both by nature and art.

⁴ "Felisforde, the ford of Eccles, an alleged synonym for Aylesford, called so in Domesday Book. Tradition still speaks of its having been a strong and populous town, the cottages occupying its site being chiefly built of stones from the foundation of its primitive houses."—Aldborough Maidstone, p. 11. As its waters, although very muddy, there was little more than a wood with a number of straggling villages in its neighborhood erected with logs and earthenware. Cæsar, lib. v. c. xvi.

⁵ The British road by Cold Harbour Farm points toward it.
⁶ Cæsar.
⁷ Hasted, i. 234.

Folio 241

Contest of Caesar and Caswallon

...between the houses of York and Lancaster." Had this hypothesis been at all founded in fact, tradition would most certainly have handed down some legend or record as the wars of the roses. But Hasted has himself, in the same page, utterly disproved the proceeding position, by stating that the word of Ruehill or "Rowhill" is as found as recently as the reign of King Edward IV. In this reign of Henry VI., "gyse," the materials...for bricks and each other Roman point of the place just after an expedition.

Ruehill is evidently a corruption of the Saxon word Tyrru, which is, in turn, a heap, an accumulation. Thus the "great Roman" bricks and certain other pits stated further from these woods into the time of work became continuously discovered.

However, after the fall of his fortress of Tyrru, Caswallon, like a skilful strategist, changed his tactics, and directed the entire of Caesar's rear to attack the camp on the sea coast. Caesar was now compelled to retrace his steps, besides, not only had to review invading operations but to sustain the fleet entirely abandoned.

According to the best expositors of Caesar’s text, he is said to have not been more than thirty-two days in Britain. Two days after his sudden for the visible retreat.

Folio 242

Contest of Caesar and Caswallon

A camp, which, although only an earthwork, yet was necessary to be done by his wearied legions during daylight, otherwise they would have been subjected to a night attack similar to that Q. Laberius Durus met his death endeavoring to repel.

"Sed eos fugientes longius Caesar persequi vetuit, quod loci naturam ignorabat, et quod magna parte diei consumpta, munitioni castrorum tempus relinqui volebat."
Lib. v. c. viii.

Q. Laberius Durus was buried at Chartham. When Mr. Fagg in the eighteenth century opened the barrows, and was rewarded by finding many relics (Douglas, Nenia Brit.). To die Q. Laberius Durus tribunus mil. interficitur illi, pluribus submissis cohortibus, repellunt.

I also think it most probable that the state of the Trinobantes was in the hundred of Hoo, because how otherwise could it have been possible for Caesar during his advance into the country to have received ambassadors, who had then to return and offer forty hostages, and procure from peace north, east, west, and south sufficient corn for the subsistence of so many troops, if it had been situated a greater distance, and across the Roman fort of the Thames. Now it is quite clear that the extremely brief stay of Caesar utterly precluded the formation of larger scale requests for supplies. The road by which the supplies even reached Caesar is still in existence near Higham.

Yours, &c., A. J. Dunkin.

London: J. B. Nichols and Son, Printers, 25, Parliament Street.

Folio 243

The Roman Iter from London to Canterbury

[1844]

As connected with this subject, there is one point which I am desirous of observing, namely, the confusion of iteraries, which seems to me to have existed for a very long period among our antiquaries, as expressed in their itineraries, from London to Canterbury. This may not, as I know, have been explained as it ought to be, and yet it is, as is so obvious; it may be plain that the existence of such as seems readily to establish the communication which is as follows:

Antoninus
Londinium
Noviomagus
Vagniacae
Durobrovum
Durovernum

Richard
Londinum
Noviomagus
Vagniacae
Madus
Durolevum
Cantuopolis
"Que est Durovernum."

The only difference between them is, that in the way to Durolevum (Milton), via Noviomagus and Vagniacae, in the time of Antoninus, Durobrovum (Rochester) was passed through; but afterwards, as recorded by Richard, the road was, by avoiding Rochester (Madus) to Durolevum, and avoided thus the River Medway. It is, however, sufficiently curious to note that the very deviation was made to require a subsequent track in Roman maps.

It is observable that the second iter of Antoninus differs a little from the first iter of Richard in the route to Canterbury, as here shown.

Yours, &c., J. P.

Mr. Urban, May

I am so much interested by Mr. Dunkin’s account of Caesar’s march through Kent in your Magazine for March, that I beg to present him, through you, with the following topics: proper drawn up many months ago, proposing certain inquiries, the necessity of which, in order fully to elucidate this subject, may possibly have escaped him.

Yours, &c., Plantagenet

Although Julius Caesar’s history of his invasions of Britain has been diligently perused, it has not yet, I think, been sufficiently commented upon, especially in relation to Kent. I beg to suggest, therefore, that as may local investigations be instituted to discover whether any traces of Caesar took when pursuing the army of the Britons, as directed by the natives Tamisia, which led to the capital of Cassibellanus...

Folio 244

Caesar's Landing in Britain—Bernard and Barnard

[June]

...launus: and whether this capital was, as said to have been, on the site of St. Alban’s, or of some town not north of our Thames.

Unfortunately, however, Caesar’s account of these transactions—the only account from an eye-witness that has descended to us—cannot be implicitly relied on; for several historians, almost contemporary with him, have given us reason to believe that, either from want of correct information, or from mere jealousy of British bravery, he has not always told us “the whole truth.”

But in the investigation my chief object being to elicit some definite opinions on the subject, I shall couch my remarks in the form of definite questions, and proceed first to ask:

What is the precise locality where Caesar landed in his first expedition to Britain?

This at this spot must be calculated by its distance, thirty-eight miles from the Portus Itius, his place of embarkation. It is important to ascertain the point where his fleet disembarked; whether at Calais, or at some port formerly considered by Camden, and latterly by D’Anville, Boulogne, and his engineers, as the real Portus Itius.

But we should previously inquire whether the length of a Roman mile in Julius Caesar’s time was the same as it is in the later times of Strabo, which, compared with our English mile of 1760 statute yards, we estimated at 1635 yards. And here I might observe that this inquiry might perhaps be best determined by a careful study of the ancient Itineraries of Italy—the sites of ancient Roman towns being much better known in Italy than in Gaul or Britain.

My next question is,

At what river, twelve Roman miles from Caesar’s place of landing, did the Britons endeavour to stop his progress?

And this involves the inquiry of supposing Caesar not to have been resisted as he was, on which of these large British towns he would have marched; and whether he was previously acquainted with the situation of any such towns (or even their existence) than from the information of the young refugee British prince Manda... britains and of certain British merchants trading with Gaul—both who probably could only correctly inform him as to the southern coast of Britain.

The great question, however, and the only one which has been commented on with any kind of attention, although hitherto unsatisfactorily, is whether the river Tamesia, which in the Celtic language meant a long winding-water, be really our Thames, or whether it be not the Medway, as some suppose, or some river in Sussex or Surrey? and at what precise spot, sixty Roman miles from the coast, is said to be Caesar’s second encampment, passed such rivers; and whether these obstacles raised by him were not the same taken by the retreating Britons?

And, lastly, whether the remains of certain stakes placed in the river, as said by Bede to have existed at a place called “Coway Stakes,” were probably there placed for other than ancient purposes? Or did these account to that of Caesar’s invasion?

Folio 245

The Chronicles of Kent—Lib. II.

Cantiana Romana

[For the Dover Chronicle]

By Alfred John Dunkin.

We will now take leave of our friend Geoffrey, and quote from authors whose works are not considered quite so apocryphal.

[B.C. 54] Lucius Domitius and Ap. Claudius being consuls, Caesar, after placing his army in winter quarters agreeably to his practice, went to Italy, previously instructing his lieutenants during his absence to increase his navy, and make every preparation for the campaign he intended on Britain. He commanded that the new ships should be lower and broader than those used in the Mediterranean, in order that they might better brave the sea, as well as be more convenient for the number of horses he intended carrying in them, and to require them all for oars. He also ordered that the rigging and stores required for their equipment should be forwarded from Spain.

Folio 246

...and conquest, ever after attempted to extend their territories by making encroachments on the more inland parts. In this policy, they were opposed by Caswallon, the king of the upper country, whose capital was situated in the high land near Dartford, and protected in the front by the marshes, and the river Darenth, and in the rear by those of the Cray; and hence, we may account for the continual wars between them. Caesar describes Caswallon as possessed of a kingdom—"Cujus fines a maritimis civitatibus flumen dividit quod appellatur Tamesis, a mari circiter LXXX millia passuum." Caesar was, of course, anxious to maintain the merit of his invasion, as well as to point out the course he rose, and so we imagine was not very particular about the numeral lxxx, because, according to one calculation, the distance to Caswallon's capital was possibly more between 50 and 60 miles! Caesar certainly might have included the distance in a circuit (instead of the direct line) he had travelled. Nor is it in the least degree improbable that Caesar might have marched 80 miles, because we well know that the old British trackways did not keep a straight direction like the Roman roads. From the sea coast, he evidently marched to Crundal, and thence to Debling, to reach the ford across the Thames...

Folio 247

...were deceived, and from his representations, imagined that instead of suffering a reverse, he had achieved mighty results. "Therefore the triumphs of Rome were solemnly opened in his name, and after a proclamation, 'quod bene et feliciter rempublicam administrasset,' the people all went in procession, clothed in white garments, and crowned with garlands, and offered sacrifices, praises, and thanksgivings to the Gods for twenty days."

The Cantians, however, viewed Caesar's sudden departure after his three weeks' stay upon the coast, "because the equinox was approaching and his ships were leaky," as wholly the result of their victories; and Caswallon, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, "in joy for this triumph, returned sober thanks to the Gods, and calling the companions of his victory together, amply rewarded every one of them according as they had distinguished themselves."

Out upon time! it will leave no more
Of the things to come than the things before!
Out upon time! who for ever will prate—
But enough of the past for the future to grieve
O'er that which hath been and o'er that which must be.
What we have seen, our sons shall see;
Remnants of things that have passed away,
Fragments of stone, reared by creatures of clay!

Folio 248

Chapter IV

Caesar's Second Invasion

Remember, Sir, my liege,
The King your ancestors: together with
The natural bravery of your isle, which stands
As Neptune’s park, ribbed and paled in
With rocks unscalable and roaring waters;
With sands that will not bear your enemies’ boats,
But suck them up to the top mast. A kind of conquest
That made those glad whose mischief was their shame.
Of car, and bad revolted; who admired
As much as they did fear; the mistaking reared
From first goat towed, whose bark they had shipped
(Poor ignorant baubles!) on our terrible seas,
Like eagle’s mighty rocks, cragging, cracked.
- Shakespeare

Exasperated at the ill success of his first Cantian campaign, Caesar, immediately after his return to Gaul, directed his lieutenants to prepare a new armament for another expedition into Britain. He ordered the vessels to be constructed in a peculiar form, better adapted for conveying horses than those he had previously employed. We also gather from his details that in consequence of troubles in Kent, Mandac, or Mandubracius, the [eldest] son of Imanuentius, the cean of the Trinobantes, had been banished from his country, and revengefully sacrificing his patriotism, sought service as a spy or guide, in the Roman ranks.

Folio 249

Berry 160

The experience he had attained taught him that the craft must be made low, yet broad, so that they could be more steadily drawn upon shore, a manner of construction which obviated the danger of tempests, and still endangered the fleet exposed to an attack from the British flat ships. Berry 156 — to Plut[arch].

Folio 250

Folio 251

Page 104

About sunset he weighed anchor and advancing with a gentle wind, continued his course till midnight, when he found himself becalmed; but the tide still urging him on, at day-break he saw Britain on his left. Again following the return of the tide, he energetically rowed to reach that part of the island he had ascertained the preceding year to be the most convenient for landing; and, on this occasion, he commends exceedingly the diligence of the soldiers, who, labouring incessantly at the oar, enabled the transports to proceed as swiftly as the galleys. About noon, at the appearance of this amazing armament off the coast, the Britons, who had assembled in considerable force, withdrew from the strand into the interior. Caesar, having arrived off the same spot (Lympne) where he had encamped the preceding year, uninterruptedly disembarked his forces.

Becoming acquainted with the place whither “the Britons had retired,” through some prisoners he had captured, but, what is more probable, informed by the local inhabitants.

Notes

This wind was called Corvus, and blew from the north-west.
“Once more we plant our footsteps on these shores, And lift our eagles of dominion where Only the far-adventuring merchant-bark Has traded for base profit.—We are come To win the trophies of immortal fame, The soldier's glory and the Roman’s pride.”
How curious: “a littore discesserant, ac se in superiora loca abdiderant”; no battle is fought, and yet, Caesar prevaricatingly endeavours to make it appear that there had been, in which, too, he had been victorious, for, although, he says, the Britons “had retired from the shore, and hid themselves behind the mountains,” yet in the first line of the next section he speaks of his prisoners, “ubi ex captivis.”

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The loose way in which Caesar purposely used approximations prevents our assigning any time to the landing. However,

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...traitor Mandubratius of the situation of Dourwhern, — not only the largest town near the coast, but which, from being the site of a “celebrated sanctuary” was a spot almost certain to be protected or defended; — about midnight, the active and indefatigable Caesar departed in that direction in quest of the enemy, after leaving Q. Atrius with ten cohorts and three hundred horsemen to guard his ships, which rode at anchor off a smooth and open beach, apparently secure from any danger of surprise.

After a fatiguing night march of twelve hours, Caesar “came in sight of the British army, posted behind the river Stour, near Chartham,”† “from which strong position they attacked the foe,” who, desperately de- fended the passage of the river; “repulsed, however, by the Roman cavalry, they retired towards some woods, into a place strongly fortified by nature, the ap- adits being blocked up with an abattis of trees, which Caesar imagined had been prepared before, on occasion of some internal civil war;” “for all the avenues were secured by strong barricades of felled trees piled upon one another.” Strong as this fortress was, the soldiers of the seventh legion raised an earth-work, and ad- vancing under cover of their shields, carried the posi- tion and drove the Britons away. Caesar forbade pur- suit, the day (August 20) being too far gone, and em- ployed his men in rendering the entrenchment subser- vient to his use.

Early next morning, Caesar prepared to assume the offensive, and having divided his army into three divi- sions, sent them in search of the enemy. Scarcely had the eagles approached within sight of the Britons, than...

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A messenger arrived from the camp on the shore, with the untoward intelligence that during the night a terrific tempest had arisen, and totally wrecked the fleet. Re- calling his troops, Caesar returned to the sea coast with his legions. The misfortune he beheld there, was great indeed; forty vessels irretrievably lost, and the re- mainder so injured that they appeared useless. With his characteristic energy, he set all his carpenters to work, and sent despatches to Labienus, ordering him to build in Gaul as many ships as possible. De- termined, however, to suffer no more losses through his fleet continuing exposed to the action of the tides, he resolved, that all the ships should be drawn up on dry land, and enclosed within a naval camp. This laborious and difficult achievement, was accomplish- ed in ten days and nights, by the vigorous and ince- ssant toil of the whole army.¹

It is not our intention to follow Caesar step by step, from the moment he landed upon the Kentish shore.

The Romans knew nothing of tidal irregularities;—and Byron truthfully says of the Mediterranean, that:

            "There shrinks no ebb in that tideless sea,  
             Which changeless rolls eternally,  
             So that wildest of waves, in their angriest mood,  
             Scarce break on the bounds of the land for a rood;  
             And the powerless moon beholds them flow,  
             Heedless if she come or go.  
             Calm or high, in main or bay,  
             On their course she hath no sway.  
             The rock unworn its base doth bare,  
             And looks o’er the surf, but it comes not there;  
             And the fringe of the foam may be seen below  
             On the line that it left long ages ago;  
             A smooth short space of yellow sand  
             Between it and the greener land."  
             Siege of Corinth.

¹ Caesar says, § 9, "Ten days (dies x consumpti) were spent in the service, during which the soldiers had no intermission of fatigue, not even in the night."

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or Caledonia, or had emigrated across the sea, and joined that portion of their countrymen which had before taken refuge in Brittany. The arrival of fresh parties of the Saxons could have in nowise supplied these deficiencies. Hence there must have been suddenly a complete decay of the population. The part that remained must have con- sisted of the Saxon armed forces, some few tillers of the soil, and such as arrived as settlers from the native country of the invaders. To ask if the arts introduced by the Romans continued to be cultivated, is needless. Indeed, they were probably held in great abhorrence; as the Saxons seem to have entertained much aversion to the Romans. Thus, as well as an excessive falling off of population, a great change of tastes and manners ensued; and at this juncture it was that the villas in question were destroyed.

It does not appear necessary in this place to support the foregoing assertions by arguments or authorities, the great desolation of Britain at this period not being controverted. The above causes will account for the non-removal of a greater part of the structure of these edifices for building materials, and for the pavements and a portion of the em- bellishments remaining. This leaves it open for us to come to the main subject of our enquiry, in what way these relics, which were certainly above the ground in the times of the Romans, that is their floors and upper parts, have since become subterranean?

The villas may be divided into two classes: those in low situations, by rivers, streams, or rivulets,—believed to be by far the greater number; and those in more upland places.

As for the first. On their being left in ruins in the general depopulation and devastation of the country, the streams becoming obstructed from want of attention, and greater overflowings in periods of rain taking place than before were accustomed, the silt or alluvial deposit of the same reaching beyond the usual limits, would accumulate in the hypocausts and upon the floors, and gradually cover over the parts of the buildings which had escaped destruction.

During this process the thinness of the population, dis- regard for the arts, and perhaps superstitious notions, might prevent these relics from being materially disturbed. In a century or two, by the time population was somewhat

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On the Transmission of Objects

recruited, they would have become concealed from observation.

But how to account for their becoming in course of time not only out of sight, but covered with a depth of soil, three, four, or five feet in thickness? This results from the beds of the rivers, rivulets, and streams themselves being raised to a higher level in course of time, by fresh accessions of gravel and other materials which their own waters bring down—a circumstance rather overlooked by geologists, but capable of the fullest proof from observation and fact. Thus the waters in the rivers in their usual state being lifted up to a higher level than they before occupied, in consequence, when floods occur they attain a higher elevation, and a thicker stratum of deposit ensues than could have taken place in their former condition.

As to the upland villas—being similarly neglected, they would become overgrown with brakes and brambles. The fallen plaster and loam which had been used in the buildings, would form in the first instance the deposit on their floors. Afterwards much would be effected by the drifts from the adjacent ploughed lands, occurring about the time of the vernal equinoxes, or perhaps rather before. At this period of the year, the soil having been first frozen, becomes highly pulverized by the beams of the sun; when strong gales of wind acting on the surface, often occasion a drift of dust and small particles somewhat similar to a sand drift. An amount of deposit takes place, and the cause greater than might at first be supposed; and this effect would be increased from the former unionized state of arable lands, and consequently the greater extent to be acted upon, and the less obstruction to the winds. This process not perhaps taking place every year, but occurring more or less in the majority of years, and repeated from century to century, joined to a continual production of vegetable earth from a decay of plants, is the means we may most probably assign for so great a depth of soil being formed. We may consider that it is from the operation of these causes, that when the spot of ground containing the villa, after lying rough and neglected for a long succession of centuries, on being required for agriculture, is at last cleared of bushes and other incumbrances, no discovery is made, and that the plough can go without its

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Of Antiquity to Our Times

being suspected that there are buildings or parts of buildings underneath; the site, indeed, and adjacent ground, only appearing like other ploughed fields.

That the soil with which they are covered was brought to these places appears hardly probable. Had the land been sufficiently valuable to be made good at this expense, the building materials would have been so, to be removed. These places would be found more disturbed than they are, and it could scarcely happen that the ornamental parts would be still remaining.

In regard to the domestic buildings and other architectural remains of the Romans and Roman-British in such of our towns and cities as were formerly inhabited by them, they are buried at even still greater depths. In London there are instances of their being fallen in with as deep as eighteen feet. In Canterbury primeval remains have been found at fourteen feet. The London Roman houses retain very frequently their tessellated pavements, which are pretty much the same in their style, subjects, and workmanship as those of the country villas. From the immense number of ancient houses and streets, no entire Roman house of large dimensions has been excavated in London, or probably ever will be. They are usually discovered in forming sewers. The papers of Mr. C. Roach Smith, in the 29th volume of the “Archæologia,” at pages 145 and 267, make us better acquainted with this subject than we could otherwise have been; as well as informing us of the probable first nucleus of Roman London, and its progressive extent afterwards.

To account for these structures being buried to such a depth, it must be assumed that Roman London, after the departure of that people, was taken and destroyed at some period by the Saxons. They having a total disregard to the domestic embellishments of their predecessors, troubled themselves not either to remove or destroy their tessellated pavements; and merely spreading the rubbish of the former buildings, and making a smooth surface, erected their huts and slighter structures thereupon. As arts and civilization extended among the Saxons themselves, buildings of greater account and more enlarged would ensue, which now the former artificial soil would have become sufficiently consolidated to bear; and from the frequent build-

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On the Transmission of Objects

Rings and implements of the Romans who succeeded them, as well as of the earlier British, joined to those remaining in the present depth of soil over the ancient floor, may serve to throw further light on the subject.

Some of the buildings in ancient Britain, as huts in temporary use, were possibly removed by their possessors from the covered ground and concealed at their departure by the Saxons, who, being driven away by the Roman army, would probably suppose it opportunity to attempt returning to them.

Statues have occasionally, though few, been discovered in this country; as, for example, those found in the ruins of buildings at or near Bath, but other than these seem rare in occurrence.

It is singular how statues have reached us; their fragility and position might often have subjected them to destruction or dug up before the latter discovery of the public authorities in such cases. But the surfaces of idols vary; without doubt, frequently destroyed by fire, water, or human agency.

From the propriety displayed before, Mr. F. Smith seems to have managed an actual effort on part of the Thames. A smaller piece was ordered to be delivered at council, as once it was exhibited before at the Fleet.

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The Chronicles of Kent

Lib. II. (B.C. 54) Cantiana Romana

Published in the National Literary Chronicle

We shall now take leave of our friend Geoffrey, and quote from authors whose works are not considered quite so apocryphal.

[B.C. 54] Lucius Domitius and Ap. Claudius being consuls, Caesar, after placing his army in winter quarters agreeably to his practice, went to Italy, previously directing his lieutenants during his absence to increase his navy, and make every preparation for the campaign he intended on Britain. He commanded that the new ships should be lower and broader than those used in the Mediterranean, in order that they might better brave the sea, as well as be more convenient for the number of horses he intended carrying in them, and to procure them all for oars. He also ordered that the rigging and stores required for their equipment should be forwarded from Spain.

On receiving intelligence that the greater portion of the corn required for his army was ripening, and foreseeing, from the vast extent of country he intended to occupy, that the time was at hand for launching his expedition, Caesar collected his fleet at the Portus Itius, where he had previously determined on embarking. With this intent, he repaired to the rendezvous, and perceiving that of the ships of war ordered to join the fleet, those of the Veneti had not arrived, he commanded them to assemble immediately.

Although it was late in the season, Caesar was resolved to take every precaution to prevent the designs of the enemy in his absence, so leaving Titus Labienus with three legions and 2,000 horse to guard the shore of Gaul against any sudden incursion by the Britons, he set sail with two legions, and a proportionate number of cavalry in vessels built expressly for the purpose of transport. These ships were, however, too numerous to be carried over the narrow space of sea without inconvenience, nor could the ships of war keep in sight. The consequence was, that before they reached the British shore a storm arose, and separated them to so great a distance that many did not return for several days.

Caesar landed on the 20th of August, about the same spot as before, without resistance, the Britons having retired to an advantageous position inland, which they imagined they could defend with better advantage.

The Roman legions, on gaining the shore, proceeded at once to encamp, but Caesar, ascertaining that the enemy were in a state of confusion, immediately started in pursuit, with his whole force, leaving ten cohorts and 300 horse to guard the ships. Scarcely had he commenced his march, when a messenger from Q. Atrius informed him that a large number of his transports had been wrecked. He instantly returned, and having directed the fleet to be drawn on shore, and the encampment to be fortified, set out again in pursuit of the Britons, whom he discovered near the river Thames.

He advanced upon them immediately, but his cavalry being checked by the sharpened stakes placed in the river, the Britons found opportunity to retreat. Nevertheless, their flight was turned into a rout, and the Romans pursued them into their woods, capturing Mandubratius, one of their chiefs.

After this decisive engagement, Caesar continued his campaign, overrunning the southern part of the island, and collecting as much spoil as possible. At the close of his expedition, he again crossed the channel, leaving Britain in apparent subjugation, though the insular tribes speedily regained their independence.

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We will therefore content ourselves with indicating his route by briefly enumerating the modern names of the parishes he passed through, adding a few topographical comments; thus, after landing at Lympne, he proceeded to Dourwhern; there he received the account of that destruction of his vessels, which he has been pleased to attribute to the effects of a storm! Instead of a storm, it was really an attack by the British fleet, which had just recovered from the mishaps it had sustained whilst aiding the Veneti. A storm? Truly!

Why, if it had been a stormy night, it would have had some effect upon his land operations; and as he is apparently minutely explicit in his relation of non-important matters, he would hardly have omitted to record such a casualty. The truth, in fact, is that his galleys, being propelled by banks of oars, outstripped the slower sailing British vessels, precisely as steam vessels beat men-of-war; but when the tug of battle, and the trial of strength between the two came off, the lightly built Roman galleys were found no better able to cope with the heavier and better-navigated British vessels, than they had been off the coast of Armorica with the Veneti.

The weakest were therefore driven upon the shore, and it was only by the rapid retrogression of the Roman army, that Caesar was at all enabled to wrest even the remnants of his transports from his determined foemen. The only safe method left him to adopt was to draw the fragments into a land camp, and this took his whole force, after incredible labour, ten days. It cannot be imagined that even this was readily permitted by the Britons; on the contrary, they harassed him by every means in their power, alike by day and night.

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Having thus secured his fleet, he left it in the beginning of September, under the same guard as before, and again proceeded into the interior in search of Caswallon, who had employed the interval in strengthening the confederacy, and increasing his army. During this march along the great British trackway to Dour, the British cavalry, supported by their chariots, daringly attacked the Roman horse, who, to prevent a junction, had repeatedly to make sorties from the direct course.

At length the hostile armies approached, each under the British cavalry, being assisted by their chariots, after some skirmishing vigorously attacked the Roman cavalry. Pretending to be repulsed, they out-manoeuvred the Romans by the feint, who consequently received a serious check. Afterwards sallying forth from another point on the wearied soldiers, who were intent upon the construction of a night encampment, they utterly destroyed the advanced-guard. Caesar sent the two first cohorts of one of his legions to their aid; these "were not only more numerous than the others, but usually consisted of the bravest men." The Britons charged them in small bodies, broke through their ranks, and routed them, ere they recovered from the panic in which they had been thrown: it is novel made of fighting, and then retired without loss. Laberius Durus, a military tribune, was slain; and but for the opportune arrival of fresh cohorts, the conflict would have terminated in the utter defeat of the Roman forces.

Caesar, his own account, is here very obscure; and by a confused narrative, endeavors to make it appear, that the major part of his

(Notes and handwritten annotations appear to be additional marginalia on this page.)

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Having thus secured his fleet, he left it in the beginning of September, under the same guard as before...

Handwritten note: "Thus, even at this early period, the invincible fortitude of the Britons was so realized, as to earn an infinity of the future renown of the martial order, also of a poet's day: 'The first to take the last to quit the field!' - Henry of Huntington, Chronicle, 4th L., p. 35."

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Here very obscure; and by a confused narrative, endeavors to make it appear, that the major part of his army was not completely beaten...

"The load which a Roman soldier carried is almost incredible; victuals for fifteen days, sometimes more (usually corn as being lightest, sometimes dressed food), utensils, a saw, a bucket, a mattock, an axe, a hook, a leathern thong, a chain, a pot, etc.; their weight sometimes reached nearly sixty pounds."

Besides, the peculiar discipline of the Romans was adverse to their departure from their eagles; whilst the Britons never fought in a body, but hovering about in small detached parties, so skillfully placed, that fresh supplies were easily and without risk, added to assist an attack.

The next day, Caesar fancied that the Britons were... (continues).

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The text appears to continue the narrative about Roman activity and observations, focusing on their methods and strategies, as well as observations about the surrounding areas. Key topics seem to include:

Annotations regarding the geography and strategic positioning during campaigns.
Discussion about the environmental and logistical factors influencing military actions.

Handwritten note: "The cultural references in the adjoining paragraphs are noteworthy for historical contextualization. The geography of Kent, particularly its valleys and rivulets, made it a point of interest."

Another note appears rotated, discussing a specific village and its relevance to the Roman campaigns.

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British and Gaulish Coins

It is thus described: — Obv. LONBENAS FIT. Diademed head to the right. Rev. NONNITVS MON. A cross on a globe, in the lower quarters of which are the letters CG; below, VII.; weight, 26 grains.

This coin M. Fillon assigns to Lombez, a locality in the department of Gers.

Fig. 8. — Obv. PASENO FETO (?). Head to the right. Rev. + LEONARDO MONTAIRI. A rude figure of victory with wreath and palm branch marching to the right. Weight, 23 grains.

These Merovingian coins, it will be observed, are all obvious copies from the Roman, although the imitator is degraded and burlesque. They differ from specimens published by Conbrouse, Rollin, and by Monsieur Cartier, in the Revue Numismatique.

Our associates and correspondents in France will, no doubt, be highly acceptable as fresh and curious additions to the collections they have made of late years in this hitherto obscure and neglected series of their national currency.

Looped Merovingian coins, I believe, are not often discovered in France. In M. Rollin’s work there are only two given, which were from the Kentish barrows. They appear to have formed necklaces or decorations for persons of distinction, a custom common with the Greeks and Romans, and continued in the East down to the present day.

The site of St. Martin’s church, near which these valuable objects were exhumed, was pre-occupied by a Roman building, probably a small temple, which was presented by Ethelbert, king of Kent, to his queen Bertha, and her Frankish bishop.

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British and Gaulish Coins Found in Kent

"Chronicle," from which I extract my remarks on this interesting and unique group, premising that when I published figs. 1, 2, and 3, in plate xxiii., those now under consideration had not come to hand.

Fig. 6. — Obv. + IVEGIOVICO... A full-faced bust; on the right a short, on the left a long cross. Rev. LEVDVLFQ MONITAQ. Leudulfus Monetarius. A nimbed figure on horseback. Weight, 35 grains.

This piece is altogether extraordinary, both as regards the place at which it was minted, and the design upon the reverse, as well as its size and weight. The place of mintage will probably be found to be either Juvignieu, or Juisy, or Juges. The nimbed figure is not easily explained. The nimbus, it is well known, forms a conspicuous emblem in Pagan mythology, as well as in Christian works of art.

Fig. 7. — Obv. + LONBENAS FIT. A diademed head to the right. Rev. NONNITVS MONITARVS. A rude copy of the two victories making an inscribed "shield on a tree," upon coins of Decentius and others. This coin may be compared with one published in "Revue Numismatique," by Monsieur B. Fillon, which was discovered, many years since, with a large quantity of Merovingian coins, at "Beaulgisière," near Fontenay in Vendée. Three thousand of these, it is said, were melted by a goldsmith at La Rochelle, and the invaluable deposit would have been entirely lost to science, had not the blow from the plough, which broke the "vase" in which the coins were concealed, scattered a considerable number which were afterwards picked up. The specimen figured by M. Fillon differs, in many points, from ours; but the resemblance is sufficiently close to show the identity of place and—

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embankments of which may still be seen in the direction of Bredhurst, forming nearly a square with a double vallum on the north side.

Cozens and Hasted both agree that Caesar’s route from the sea shore is evident, from the considerable works which are remaining along the line; “for as he could not cross the great marshes to Great Mongeham, Northborne, or Ham, he must necessarily march to the spot where Upper Deal will now stand, and from thence to Ripple, in pursuit of the enemy.” We will now describe:

Ripple

“At a small distance northward from the Church, is an earthwork.” (This might have been the camp of Q. Atrius.) And from thence to

Little Mongeham

Sutton

Maimge

(Is situated at the northern extremity of Waldershare parish.)

Barville

The manors of Great and Little Barville are two estates, in the southern part of the parish of Tilmanstone.

These three last places are only noticed by Hasted as being in Caesar’s route.

Eythorne

“At the southern extremity of this parish, are several lines of a Roman entrenchment. There is also a large barrow or tumulus, about a quarter of a mile eastward from Eythorne Court wood, near the road leading to Waldershare.”

Barfreston

“At the southern extremity of the parish are a great number of Roman tumuli or barrows, which adjoin the lines of entrenchment at the end of Eythorne parish.”

Snowdowne

“From West coast house, which stands at a small distance westward, from the Place house, in the parish

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of Shebbertswell, the ground rises to an open uninclined down, at the extremity of which is Three-Barrow-Down, so called from three large Roman tumuli or barrows on it. On this down, the lines of entrenchment thrown up by the Romans appear exceedingly singular; for they are large, and the trenches deep and particularly adapted, and continued up to a great extent and variety of entrenchments, which possess all the hill between Denhill terrace, upon the edge of Barham Downs, and the site of the late house of Nethersole, under Snowdowne. Dr. Packe, in his Ankographia, says this was a place very properly the station of Caesar’s main corps, as by its situation it commanded all the opened conquered country behind him to the sea, where he had left his fleet, and the woody country before him, where the Britons harboured, and from thence frequently alarmed and annoyed his foragers. On the northern side of the parish is Long-lane farm, eastward of which are several more lines of entrenchment, and on each side of them a large heap of Roman tumuli. It is not in the least degree probable that these numerous entrenchments were made by Caesar. But the term “Caesar’s Camp” is indiscriminately applied by tradition to earthworks of every description.

From Snowdowne, says Cozens, there is a communication of fosses and vallums, interspersed with numerous tumuli, &c., with Caesar’s “grand encampment on Barham Downs.”

Barham Downs

Dr. Harris says, “’Tis not at all likely that the old camp here with three ditches was cast up by Julius Caesar; for though ’tis more than probable that he encamped here some time after his first landing, yet it doth not seem, by his own account of the matter, that he had time to make such an entrenchment; and yet, by the antiquities which have been found here, one would think that this is a Roman camp.”

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mentions a Roman urn dug up here by Sir Christopher Hales, then Master of the Rolls; and I have heard of several others. But, indeed, the Roman military way passing over this Down (on which are several tumuli, or barrows, which were cast up—probably on the bones of some Roman commanders)—will account for the urns, &c., found here, without forcing us to conclude the camp to have been a Roman one.”

Cozens says, in continuation of his theory of Caesar’s route, that “in the same direction, he (Caesar) appears to have advanced four miles, to Ifpin Wood, where, probably, he encamped.” Harris says—“Ifpin or Ivens wood lies partly in Thanington and partly in Nackington parishes. In the middle of it is a large camp or fortification, with a double vallum, or ditch. The outer ditch includes nearly eight acres of ground, and the inner about two. Dr. Plot thinks this place bids fair to be where Julius Caesar found the Britons strongly entrenched within a camp of their own, about twelve miles from the place of his landings; which camp, he says, was strongly fortified both by art and nature; and, indeed, the distance will agree very well, and its bearing from Caesar’s camp makes it not improbable, unless you will think that the place called Beaus Haven be more likely to have been it. This is a field situated on a hill, above the Broom Down, between Toniford and Harbledown; for this is indeed fortified well by nature, and seems formerly to have had the help of art to render it more strong, as appears pretty plainly on the Toniford side of it.” Ifpins wood was formerly the site of the manor of Ychting.

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The Chronicles of Kent—Lib. II.

By Alfred John Dunkin

Cantiana Romana

Caesar says, "Being informed of this," (we suppose, intended resistance at the ford), "by some prisoners and deserters, I sent the cavalry before, ordering the legions to follow close after, which they did with so much expedition and briskness, though nothing but their heads were above the water, that the enemy, unable to sustain the charge, quitted the battleground, and betook themselves to flight." Knowing what the Druidical tenets were, it is impossible wholly to credit this specious statement. It is not for a moment probable that the sacred shrines were so readily abandoned to destruction; nor is it feasible that the Druid priests—a warlike race—were so forgetful of the tenets they taught, and so cowardly as not to be excited, by all the means and appliances in their power, and the natives to make a stand for the rites of their faith and their temporal rights.

We have already, in preceding numbers, explained the ceremonies of the Druidical religion, and fully described Kit’s Coty-house, the great Druid altar in the county of Kent; therefore we need say no more than that the Druidical erections on the banks of the Medway were as magnificent and imposing as any in the world. There every appliance and ornament was found that their religion demanded to awe and alarm its superstitious votaries. Prominently, on the brow of the hill, stood the altar from whence the Arch-Druid, while offering to Heaven the victim’s reeking heart, declared the decrees of fate. By the side of this cromlech stood a meniwgwr, used at times as a gorsedd to explain the law to the assembled thousands. At the foot of the hill, in the deep recesses of the sacred grove, was reared the holy of holies; and, adjacent to a kist-vaen, were the lustrating springs.

By the road that led to this altar, Caesar marched—not only directed and guided by the prisoners he had taken, but more especially by the traitor Mandubratius—to Detling, (where he encamped the night before he crossed the Medway), the entrenched em...

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Generally was of the nature described by Mr. Poste. Mr. Snail thought it was altogether improbable that such inclosures as described could have been used by the Britons in travelling a marshy country like that which they occupied. He thought the representations made by persons who had minutely examined these remains have been placed on the wrong basis. Historically, we were told of antiquities; it could not be supposed that any vehicle having cothons attached to it, with articles of fire would ever be used as a means of defence for warfare. These rude fortifications of this kind would require more artistic knowledge than the people of the Britons to have possessed. The question was whether such impressions as have prevailed amongst those who had been led to look at these representations as being deliberate and serious, lie thoughts therefore of anything known to antiquity. Look at the representations of a city like that brought to the mind’s eye in a supposed military method. He thought they were more of a mysterious kind than anything of public origin; and this was strengthened by the fact that the district in which they lived being limited, moreover, and confining its operations within fixed boundaries. Accordingly, no kind had ever been disposed of those ancient remains which could be regarded as of military use. They undoubtedly had been spread over a marshy district, and were more for use of subsistence than for the field of battle, and could not have been used for any kind of military purpose whatsoever.

Folio 272

... the word Dour, a swift river, and Vern, a sanctuary. The site of the British town was on the heights near St. Martin’s Church. The Romans, when latinizing or adapting the British words to their own pronunciation, naturally transformed the name of the town into Durovernum, because they lengthened the sound, by way of paraphrase, upon the gutturals of the natives: thus, Dourwhern, Durovernum.

But we most decidedly differ with those learned antiquaries as to the route by which Caesar marched to it; unfortunately, they took Halley for their guide, and adopted his theories, that “Caesar first made to Dover, and then landed at Deal,” forgetting, or at least, not admitting, that the Kentish coast has undergone, nay, is even now undergoing, material alterations from the action of the sea, in despite of the skill of our most talented engineers.

Such, however, was not the case, as we have previously stated. The land Caesar first made was Folkstone, and his disembarkation was at Lympne.

Guided by Mandubratius, he next proceeded by the road now bearing the name of “Stone Street,” which, in after years, was quite straightened by the Romans, through the parishes at present called:

Stowting
Elmstead
Thannington
Dourwhern or Canterbury

See map in the Report of the Proceedings of the British Archaeological Association at the Canterbury Congress.

Folio 273

Caesar’s line of march was thence through the following places. The route is far from being straight; but then, we must recollect, that the British roads had been constructed by a commercial race, and were not so undeviating as those the Romans afterwards altered in accordance with their military views, but were continually diverging to the densely populated British towns—(then so numerous in both East and West Kent)—besides, they were formed to skirt the chain of hills, agreeably to the tastes of the natives. Much of the old roadway used by Caesar, is still in existence, as may be perceived by referring to a map of the county.

Wye
Charing
Lenham
Harrietsham
Hucking
Detling

In the parish of Detling, a few years since, some entrenched embankments were discovered near Bredhurst. They formed almost a square, with a double vallum on the north side. This was probably the spot Caesar selected for his encampment the night before he forced the passage of:

The Ford of the Medway, or Tam Ys [Tamesis]

Unconfined by barriers, the Medway then spread over the whole of the valley, being only fordable, with difficulty, at one place. To render this ford more dangerous, the Britons had driven sharp stakes into the bed of the river, and strongly entrenched themselves...

Folio 274

The Chronicles of Kent - Lib. II

By Alfred John Dunkin

Cantiana Romana

Continuation of Caesar’s March

It has been supposed that Caesar’s line of march might have been thence through the following places. The route is of course a long way off from being straight; but then we must bear in mind, that the British roads were not so undeviating as those the Romans afterwards constructed, but rather frequently diverged to the densely-populated British towns that were then so numerous in both East and West Kent.

Chartham

We have previously said so much of this place, in relation to Julaber’s Grave, that we need only refer our reader to the preceding details, and we entirely quote Archdeacon Battely’s opinion, who says in his Ruttupiae — “I cannot agree with Camden, as he thinks that the place was called Julham from its being the station or house of Julius, and the barrow Jul-laber, as being the grave of Laberius. Indeed, if the name of the tribune had been Julius Laberius, the conjecture would have been more probable, but it was Quintus Laberius Durus.”

Wye

Dr. Harris, in his Hist. of Kent, p. 343, says—“At Wye is a very high mount, I believe, artificially made in a conical form, and is called Barrow Hill; which may induce one to think, as it did Dr. Plott, that it was a tumulus, low, or barrow, cast up over some eminent Roman officer. Dr. Brett tells me he hath heard some old men say that they remembered it much more medial than it is now; for R. Thornhill, Esq., the grandfather of the present Mr. Thornhill (1719), took off the top to make a bowling-green on it; and the Rev. W. Forster, of Crundal, assures me that he hath been credibly informed, that when the top was taken...

Folio 275

Page 46

...off, bones, &c., were found in it. It is, indeed, a very large barrow. Dr. Brett also suggests to me, that before the building of Rochester Bridge, the high or common way from Dover to London was through this town; which, for other reasons, I judge not to be improbable.

Charing

Here Dr. Plot mentions his discovery of a Roman way. We have little doubt but that this road was an old British one. Mr. Talbot and Dr. Stukeley wanted to make out Charing to be the station mentioned by Antonine in his second tier by the name of Durolevum, corruptly for Dorolenum; and the latter founds his opinion on the Roman antiquities, which, he says, have been found all about here, which Horsley accounts for from a supposition of its having been a notitia way.

Lenham

Harris says he coincides with Dr. Brett, but “for other reasons,” in imagining that the high or common way from Dover to London was through this parish. Dr. Plot traced the road he discovered, also through this parish.

Harrietsham

Hucking

Detling

In the parish of Detling a few years since, some entrenched embankments were discovered at a distance of two miles, in the direction of Bredhurst. They formed nearly a square, with a double vallum on the north side. This was probably the spot Caesar selected for his encampment the night before he forced the passage of the ford. The discipline of the Romans was chiefly conspicuous in their marches and encampments. They never passed a night, even in the easiest marches, without pitching a camp, and fortifying it with a rampart and ditch.† Hasted writes of Bredhurst, that “it is situated in so unfrequented a part of this county, that it is hardly known to any one. Almost adjoining to the church-yard, eastward, there is a...

† Lampriere’s Maidstone.
‡ Adam’s Roman Antiq., who gives for authorities, Sall. Jug. 45, 101.

Folio 276

The Chronicles of Kent

By Alfred John Dunkin

[The main visible text contains annotations and corrections in handwriting, and some words appear reversed due to an overlapping page. Below is an attempt to transcribe what is visible.]

- “Maerh, Maerchen…”
- “Hirium, Plumb…”
- “Caver, Heiligh…”
- “Other fragments outside…”

Text below visible includes cut-out clippings pasted in, referring to:
- The etymology of the word Darent: "From Dour, water, and Cold Harbour..."
- Historical insights about Caesar's encampment locations.

Folio 277

The Chronicles of Kent

By Alfred John Dunkin

(Continued from No. 471.)

“On you rude pile, which haply once profan’d—

The bloody rite with human gore distain’d—

What sacrificial fires have blaz’d, and now

Flash’d o’er the hills, or lit the vale below!

What myriad deeds have dar’d the depths of night!

What myriad shouts have hail’d the expiring light!

Till, rent with boist’rous song, the redd’ning sky

Has caught the Babel din, and deign’d aloud reply!”

—ALLPORT.

Kit’s Coty House

Kit’s Coty House is composed of four large boulders. Three of them are set in the ground, nearly perpendicularly, and one is placed on the top, resting upon the others.

Geologically considered, these stones immediately press upon our attention: many conjectures have been hazarded as to their appearance in different parts of the country. Their being found scattered upon the surface, and near the chalk hills, has caused much speculation as to whence they came. They are of that form of hard stone called “boulders”, and were no doubt brought from their present site by some great action of water, and probably contemporaneous with the deluge that displaced the chalk in the same region. It has been supposed that they might have been developed in masses of ice, which, after floating for some time over various depressed portions of the earth’s surface, dissolved, and either scattered about, on or near the situations of their present occupation. However plausible this theory may be, it is not my intention to dwell upon it; but others who have made, which, in my humble opinion, goes far to establish the fact, that the site of these boulders, especially in Kent, and that the stones may even now be seen in situ, and resting upon their original formation.

Sometimes since, while walking along the shore from Herne Bay to Reculver, I was struck with the appearance of large masses of sandstone lying between the shore and marshes; and, on looking upwards, I observed that the cliffs were partly composed of sand, from which projected large blocks of silicious stone, of the same kind as that which had attracted my attention. This might account for their appearance there is very easy. As the sea is constantly undermining the supposed cliffs, and the loose parts being precipitated...

Folio 278

upright, and form as many sides of a square. The washed away, these masses are left, with all their large proportions fully developed. In the course of my examination I noticed a very remarkable coincidence in the appearance of such of them as had long been subject to the action of the waves, with those which are now upon the chalk hills, and which constitute "Kit's Coty House;" many of these stones have perforations in them, as even and smoothly rounded, as if done by a boring apparatus; and on closely inspecting them, I found that this was accomplished by very simple means. First, a pebble is thrown up by the waves and lodged in an indentation of the stone. Each succeeding wave causes it to revolve in this hollow, until, by the constant friction, it frets itself deeper and deeper into a surface. That these cavities are thus formed I cannot doubt, having observed them in the process of formation, and their similarity in every respect with those in the stones above alluded to, tends to strengthen and confirm the impression of their identity with those lying at Herne Bay.

Besides the stones constituting "Kit's Coty House," there are many of the same description scattered about the neighbourhood. Upon the brow of the hill immediately behind the public-house called "The Lower Bell," a considerable number may be seen, lying half embedded in the surface soil; the heap is so large that the conjecture might fairly arise of its having once formed a cairn of its kind. Farther down in the spring there stands another heap of stones just below the "Coffin Stone," which is 14 feet long by 7 feet broad, and 18 inches in height. Near another large specimen called "The White Horse Stone" (mostly within an ancient boundary), standing as gateways by the Pilgrim's Road—are all of the same kind; and it may be of notice that the far-famed Stonehenge is composed of huge masses of a precisely similar description. Dr. Mantell gives a very interesting account of the occurrence of these stones in Sussex. He mentions their having their edges rounded and even, and exhibiting incontestable proofs of long exposure to the action of the waves. This appears conformable to my conjecture, that the bed at Herne Bay is analogous to the formation originally containing the now scattered and dispersed remains of which I am treating.

Again, the above-named eminent geologist, in his work entitled "Geology of South-east of England," says: "This sandstone is perfectly analogous to that which occurs in Berkshire and Wiltshire, where it is distinguished by the term of 'Grey Weathers.' Of this substance it is composed (a circumstance that has given rise to its present geological appellation), it consists of a beautiful conglomerate or pudding stone of Hertfordshire, which agrees in its character with the 'Druid sandstone,' and from that breccia also occurring among the detached blocks of chalk; it is now generally supposed that they are both of contemporaneous origin; the silicious deposition, which it did not develop any foreign substance, forming the rock called the 'Grey Weathers,' and when it fell among pebbles..."

Folio 279

fourth, which is the largest, is laid transversely over, and serves as the altar slab. They are unhewn. Hasted writes, that these stones were wrought from the Kentish ragstone quarries in the neighbourhood; and many other authors have copied the statement. Herein they were wrong; for they are known as "Druid sandstone," and are termed boulders. Stones of the same description, and some also may be met near Dartford, as well as dispersed in various parts of the country, and upon nearly all chalk hills. When broken, they are found to be composed of fine silicious sand, the surface of which has become so indurated by exposure to the atmosphere, that few tools can make any impression.

Grose gives the dimensions of these stones thus: "The south side is nearly eight feet high, and composing a breccia, or pudding stone." This description is remarkable and has been connected to the stones at the spring head below at Cossington, and the two large specimens at Herne Bay—another strong reason to suppose that in no single instance have these boulders been discovered in their original chalk. A remarkable quantity of flints may be seen at the spring head below at Cossington, and the two large specimens near Herne Bay. I cannot otherwise account for its attractive and silicious texture of the stones, than by supposing it to have been deposited there by the rivers, or from ancient volcanoes.

This extract is from the "Rough Notes on the Geology of Maidstone and the Neighbourhood," by W. H. Bensted, to whom we have also to express our best thanks for the information on this subject.

"The Druids committed nothing to writing, and strictly adhered to the commandment, 'not to strike a tool upon their sacred things;' and hence their stones which still stand erect, whether they be standing pillars or cromlechs—are exactly of the nature commanded by Moses, viz., monuments of whole-stones, over which no man hath lifted up any iron."
—Josh. xx, 31.

Ex inform. Gul. H. Bensted.

Folio 280

and about seven and a half broad, and two thick; its weight is conjectured to be about eight tons. That on the north is nearly seven feet in height, and rather more in breadth, and about two thick; its weight is conjectured to be about eight tons and a half.

The middle stone between these is very irregular: its medium is more than five feet in length, as well as breadth, and in thickness fourteen inches, weighing about two tons. The transverse, or impost, is a very irregular hexagon: its greatest breadth from north to south is more than eleven feet, and from east to west nearly eight feet, and thickness two feet, and its weight about two tons seven hundreds.

Hasted says also that at about seventy yards distance from the cromlech, towards the north-west, there lies another stone of the same kind and form as those now standing. When we visited the spot in May, 1843, we do not, however, remember to have noticed it. Nay, a late publication says that "a free country, with millions of acres of waste land, would not admit its preservation."

Folio 281

DARENT, which was not the embanked Darent of the present day, but spread over the entire valley, rendering it a dangerous morass only fordable in certain parts. Within the last two years a very fine flint celt and a bronze belt have been discovered near the spot where we consider the river was crossed.

The final victory of Caesar’s second invasion is Colchester. But he also conducted the invasion against the tribes of the area with strategic brilliance. According to the route, Caesar made efforts to take control of Caswallon’s land and gather resources as he made his way inland. Caesar describes Caswallon as possessing a stronghold, “Civitas summis arx.” Caesar made no calculation of distance traveled and adjusted his strategy accordingly.

Caesar says the spoils of war of the city equated to vast numbers of cattle, "magnis in numeris pecoris partem reverti."

After this battle, Caesar retreated strategically while leaving instructions to his legions for defense against future rebellion, and established garrisons near vital routes such as the Old British road to North Cray. The neighborhood around this area displayed Roman fortifications, traces of which remain visible today. Among these were ramparts built to defend the key positions near settlements.

The old British road led to North Cray (not far distant from modern Dartford). Caesar’s aim was to protect his forces while advancing his tactical goals during an incursion into the region. Local historians have remarked upon the remnants of this infrastructure, which occasionally appear near woodland clearings.

Key Notes and Features:
1. It is no great distance from the Trinobantes.
2. The crossing areas displayed wooden stakes, creating dangerous defenses in the water.
3. Roman coin hoards from this campaign era are still being found in this valley.
4. This area also shows early traces of later Saxon influence.

Folio 282

"De la Saussaye remarks, Revue Numismatique, vol ii p 78 – 'All the uncertain Gaulish coins which have a legend only with or without a tablet in the middle of the field of the reverse are cited only by English authors and appear very two found in England.'" This appears to be a scholarly note on Gaulish coins referenced in the "Revue Numismatique" journal, discussing their attribution and rarity in England. Let me know if further context or formatting is needed.

Folio 283

"Besides, he had not only to procure day by day the materiel of his camp, which, although only an earthwork, was necessary to be done by his wearied legions during daylight, otherwise they would have been subjected to a night attack similar to that in which Q. Laberius Durus met his death in endeavouring to repel.

We have now brought Caesar's second campaign to a termination, and we may now remark that during his whole career in Britain, he became possessed of no advantages whatever. He planted no colonies. He retained no cities. The advance of an army in an unknown country is ever a service of danger and difficulty, but a retreat harassed by an armed and incensed population is one of the most disastrous necessities of such an aggressive war. Yet such a retreat Caesar found was inevitable, when the camp he had left upon the seashore was threatened. He discovered that the sustenance of his large forces could not be maintained in a country so bitterly hostile, as to have linked in arms against its invader hereditary foes, for the burden of such wars fall more heavily on those who carry it on for conquest, than on those who are fighting in their own defence."

Handwritten marginalia:

At the top: "fortified before nightfall."
At the right: "from what it is evident ... [text unclear] ... may safely deduce."
At the bottom right: "By that time."

Folio 284

"Caesar’s Invasion of Britain"

And deem ye that an easy booty lies
Before your bloodless arms? or they that throng
Their isle’s rock-ramparts, think ye they have come
With open arms to greet ye? But their chief,
First on the foremost galley, saw their ranks,
Death boding, and beheld their white cliffs crown’d
With shields and bristling spears, and steeds of war,
And chariots numberless. Along the coast
Swiftly they sail’d, if haply crags less stern
Might yield them fairer landing: swift the while
The Britons streaming o’er the rocks and hills
Kept pace beside, and vaunted death should greet
The tyrant and his legions, ere their foot
Polluted freedom’s soil. Then rose the din
Of battle: in the waves midway they met
Rome’s proudest warriors, and the foaming surge
Dash’d crimson-dy’d; and scythe-arm’d chariots swept
The shore in unresisted might, and darts
Fell ever in swift tempest: once again
In proud derision Britain shook her spear,
And bade them take, an’ if it liked them well
Such iron welcome to her freeborn hills.
And Rome a moment quailed; but one who grasp’d
An eagle in his left hand, in his right
A sword, cried, “Romans, down into the waves:
On! or betray our eagle to the foe;
I’ll on for Rome and Caesar!”

Folio 285

System of
The laws under which the Belgic Britons
had been governed previously to the invasion
underwent no alteration after the invasion
of Caesar. The chief ruler in the isle
was ruled hereditarily,
continued to claim his power through hereditary
descent.

Folio 286

Folio 287

Folio 288

Claudius
Beale Post, speaking/writing of, upon the
Barbarini inscription, gives the following as the
correct translation
Archæologia Brit. p. 186
"Inscribtor"

We regret, however, to differ with him in his further
statement: "that during the century succeeding the
Caesar invasions the same tribes which formerly
had resisted Caesar appear to have become consolidated
into a formidable kingdom, which had extended its body
from the Eastern to the Western shores of Britain, or nearly so,
comprising, in fact, the provincial lands of the southern
portion of the island." References Caesar
Bostinian writings. Abhorrently, insufficiently substantiated.

Folio 289

The historian Tacitus very happily explains
that the future destinies of Vespasian
were developed by his splendid camps in Britain.

Folio 290

The Chronicles of Kent — Lib. II.

By Alfred John Dunkin

Cantiana Romana

Continuation of Caesar's March

That Caesar was victorious in his passage of the ford we do not deny; and consequent upon his success was the submission of the Ceningmani, whose capital town was situate on the site of the present Aylesford, and in whose territories were comprised the Druidical fanes previously mentioned.

Thence Caesar marched to Snodland, and from thence, for the purpose of placing Mandubratius on his father's throne, to Higham.

Caesar tells us that during the preceding marches, the Trinobantes sent ambassadors to solicit peace, which he granted them, on condition that they accepted Mandubratius—who had before fled from Cassivellaunus' camp and guided him from the sea coast, and who was then serving in his army—as King, in the stead of his father, Imanuentius, whom Cassivellaunus had put to death, most probably for treasonous practices.

The grateful Mandubratius, therefore, speedily (celebratedly) after his installation, sent Caesar the required tribute of corn, which satisfactorily demonstrates that the Trinobantes could not have been far distant.

As Caesar required the Trinobantes "to furnish his army with corn" (frumentumque exercitui), which "they did without delay," it shows moreover that they were situated in a corn country, and is another proof that they were on the coast, and in the hundred of Hoo, and not in the inland part of the kingdom; because Caesar expressly says, "interiores plerique frumenta."

At Higham, about 2 miles from Gravesend, towards the East, remains of Roman earthworks appeared in much abundance, where the soil was excavated, in the year 1837, for the formation of the Thames and Medway canal, so as to induce a supposition that there had been a pottery on the spot.—Cruden's History of Gravesend.

Folio 291

The Chronicles of Kent — Lib. II.

By Alfred John Dunkin

Cantiana Romana

... non serunt, sed lacte et carne vivunt," which may thus freely be rendered—the inhabitants of the interior never sow their lands, but live on flesh and milk, i.e., by the chase and their flocks. Dr. Owen thinks Caesar actually marched through the territories of the Trinobantes, which is not at all improbable, and would fully account for his knowledge of the course of the Thames and its distance from the coast, as they are said to be "defensi, atque ab omni militiam injuria prohibiti."

Of these militiae, Owen says, "were evidently his own soldiers."

Therefore, for all these reasons, it is most probable that the state of the Trinobantes was in the hundred of Hoo; nay more, how otherwise could it have been possible for Caesar, during his advance into the country, to have received ambassadors, who had then to return and collect forty hostages, and procure from, perchance, north, east, west, and south, sufficient corn for the use of the Roman troops, if they had been stationed at a greater distance, or across the river?

After restoring to Mandubratius the government of the state of the Trinobantes, and receiving supplies and forty hostages, Caesar marched through Chalk to Southfleet.

Southfleet—All that Hasted, I. 271, 259 of the antiquities of Southfleet parish, is, "that some few years ago (his History of Kent was published in 1778) there was a Roman military or mile stone dug up, about a foot below the surface of the ground, on the remains of the Roman Watling street, northward from Betsham, at the western...

Folio 292

The Chronicles of Kent — Lib. II.

By Alfred John Dunkin

Cantiana Romana

...ing Springhead, in the parish of Southfleet, especially as it was the only fresh water which welled up to the surface on their line from the Medway to the British town in

Swanscombe Park Wood

... the only relic left in which, of the British town by which Caesar marched, is the cavern now called Clablabber's Hole!

This British excavation was this summer (1844) descended, and thoroughly examined. Its situation is just at the extremity of the wood, and is within a short distance of the Watling Street. It precisely resembles those primeval abodes, of which we shall hereafter describe in...

...wonderful cavern, divided into detached cells, or apartments, excavated from a hill of chalk facing the south, at the bottom of which you will find, as is probably the case here, a slight rill of water, merely to meet the natural thirst of its original denizens. It is also used in times like this of the highway's own wretched vagabonds, who make parties to go and reside there, taking lights that they may find their way out. One found it but the other day, after thirty years...

...and dates thirty years back. One of a traveller's eyes is very far-fetched, as he wrote at the time of its discovery, says, "it is very well ventilated and divided into chambers, some of them would have made very proper rooms." Old Roman coins have since been dug out there, probably from its continued use...

Folio 293

The Chronicles of Kent — Lib. II.

By Alfred John Dunkin

Cantiana Romana

... the city of Caswallon, saves that all round the sides of the interior were sculptured in the sand, in gigantic Roman capitals, the names of the different ambitious wights who had thus sought to immortalize themselves. We copied a few of the names of those who had climbed the highest in search of this fleeting fame; but for their sakes, we regret to state that we have mislaid the M.S., otherwise we would have lent our columns to the attainment of their object.

Tradition has brought the name to our times as Clablabber. The very pronunciation shows it at once to be of Celtic origin. All names of places being, to a certain extent, arbitrary, we can but trace the meanings of the separate syllables. The first is evidently from Cla, lock or shut in; which, again, is a compound of Can, an enclosure. Latter is less, from leis or les, the lower place. Ber, the final syllable, er, water; to which the letter b, signifying life, motion, &c., being prefixed, makes ber, spring water. Perhaps theoretically rendering as an explanation what it certainly is etymographically, an enclosure near the spring water in the lower place.

We now return to describe Springhead, from which the British city was not a quarter of a mile distant, and shall also take the opportunity of presenting to our readers an account of the discoveries that at various times have been made.

Springhead is at the northern extremity of Southfleet parish, and few spots have more puzzled antiquaries; the reason obviously being that the distances on the Iters could not be tortured into an admission of its being a Roman station. Conjectures have, however, been numerous. Dr. Thorpe makes it to be Vagniacæ; which station Somner and others place in the adjoining parish.

Folio 294

Lenham

Harris says he coincides with Dr. Plot, but “for other reasons,” in imagining that the high or common way from Dover to London was “through Wye to Lenham, and so to Aylesford, and pretty direct and straight.” Dr. Plot traced the road he discovered, also through this parish. We are not at all convinced whether this Lenham was not Durolenum. Dour, we have already said, meant river, and Lenum very much resembles in pronunciation Lenham. The position of the Roman stations does not, however, belong to this portion of this notice.

Charing

Here Dr. Plot mentions his discovery of a Roman way. We have little doubt but that this road was an old British one. Mr. Talbot and Dr. Stukeley wanted to make out Charing to be the station mentioned by Antonine in his second iter by the name of Durolevum, corruptly for Durolenum; and the latter founds his opinion on the Roman antiquities, which, he says, have been found all about here, which Horsley accounts for from a supposition of its having been a “notitia way.”

Folio 295

Folio 296

The Ford of the Medway

In Domesday Book, Blesford, the ford of Eccles, an ancient village near Aylesford, is called Alegedes. Tradition still speaks of it having been a strong and populous town, the cottages occupying its site being chiefly built of stone from the foundation of its primitive houses.

Now, the question here is, “Whether Caesar called that ‘the Thames’ which we do now?” Certainly not; and the reason is, our Thames does not correspond to Caesar’s river. The Medway divides naturally into two parts, and that, too, at the distance of about eighty miles from the sea (Dr. Woodward, speaking of Caesar's passage of the Thames, puts it at eighty miles); but if we reckon distances by marches and stages, eighty miles might be accomplished in the distance of only thirty in a direct line. The two parts of the Medway are, first, the lower tract called Aleyn, and secondly, the upper, at Maidstone. Caesar appears to have crossed at Aylesford, where remains of British encampments are found, and the Durobrivæ of Strabo appears to be Rochester, from which you ascend to the upper Medway.

Middlesex, Surrey, and Kent

Those parties who maintain that the present Thames was the Thames of Caesar, argue that he either crossed from the point of the Surrey hills, as he was seen from the south. Now, it must appear to any one who will examine the direct evidence respecting this matter, that it could not possibly have obstructed the passage of an army; indeed, to meet such purposes, they must have been driven from C to D.

Roman Stations

There was also a station upon the hill above the combe, Kits Coty House, near Maidstone, where several excavations of late signify the Roman residence. The alteration to be observed is, the station, to the bottom 6 feet deep. The pits were filled up with mud, and the gravelly order with broken stones appears indisputably Roman. In all cases near the Medway, the soil is peculiar; there are not like stations, and these all indicate proximity to the Medway, in Wrangling Street, where the Roman road passed near Burford, in Wainsborough, Sussex, and those of the Medway plain.

Folio 297

Strictures from Benvolio on the Character of Johnson

... but it is his inner man, and not his external roughness, at which the generous mind is indignant. The criminal upon the transference of his capital forfeiture, from the Protestant to the Athorist, is shrinking and dejected; and his appeal ... but does it stop here? There is no such thing as any reality or vitality in Dr. Johnson. He did not like what he was. He was altogether a creature of nature that taught ... taking off his hat in token of reverence. Who approaches the place on which the ashes of such persons are reposited?

... expressed abhorrence of recorded association, and his opinion was always at war ... who prayed for the dead; who defended a credulity that was the cause of shedding much guiltless blood; may, without malevolence, be pronounced superstitious.

... in correcting figures of speech in a former correspondent’s request, which he did not receive until a few days ago. I take up my pen to give you (and all the little information it can give, upon the obscure subject as the embankment of the Thames). We have writers ...

... to Woolwich, to Dartford, to Gravesend and to Sheerness; and, on the coast, range from Poplar and the Isle of Dogs ...

Folio 298

The Thames Embanked by the Romans — Note from Dr. Kippis

... is properly a part of St. George’s Fields. Yet Southwark is essentially understood as early as 1052; and though mentioned with the bridge, Dr. Gale’s discoveries in the late antiquities of London have been ...

... FOR SOME MILES extending across the gardens along the south side of Deptford, a little beyond Deptford Bath, &c. In my custody the hand of an ...

There were two stations with Roman remains, flat bricks, and other relics, at this early period along these points.

“If I have thus said, I can add only one thing more. There is, I recognize, in Wren’s Parentalia, a passage which very fully confirms all I predicate upon the subject, containing the opinion of Sir Christopher Wren respecting ... the overflow of the tide condensed more into the land.”

Correspondence — Mr. Urban

August 22

YOUR correspondent, Investigator, who, in your Magazine for June, has spoken so candidly concerning the Editor of the Biographia Britannica, will perhaps be glad to be informed that the article of Dr. William Coward is written as printed. The works mentioned by Investigator are not omitted; and the life is more full than there was reason at first to expect.

Yours, &c., A. K.

Further Notes

Mr. Urban, Aug. 30.

In your entertaining and informative Magazine of last month, S. W.’s article regarding ... I find not, nor do I think ...

... shall be demonstrated more plainly. Here, the plan of removing the Hotel Dieu and erecting four large hospitals at the outskirts of the city of Paris; and one for the reception ...

Folio 299

Further Particulars of the Visit of the French Commissioners

Had T. attended to the last paragraph of one of your correspondent's information, he must have seen that due justice was done to the manner in which the commissioners did their office of inspecting examiners; and if they minutely and exactly marked every observation necessary, they never would be charged with having followed a rapid mode of doing business, which though probably never occurred but to the officious T.'s own ideas, yet appears to be stated as fact. The commissioners visited one day, on the 6th of June, fourteen hospitals. What induced your correspondent to mention the names of the commissioners in company named the several hospitals on the 9th of June, and made this observation, that in visiting St. Luke’s, St. Thomas's, and St. George's, the fact then noted the hospitals, as also the French process of hospitals, near the Middlesex, highly dwelt their originally buildings, as the foundations, are found misplaced at such places, which your correspondents could not but affirmally notice.

... positively, that they did not just quit their excursion to proceed to the Gracious of Oxford and Ireland; your correspondent declares, that not only they repeated said T., but then mentioned eight additional hospitals and infirmaries of Manchester, Dublin, Edinburgh, York, Leeds, Cambridge, and Norwich; and in other literature from Oxford, Birmingham, Worcester, Gloucester, Bath, Bristol, Exeter, and Salisbury, and the two naval hospitals at Plymouth and Portsmouth, they lamented that they could not accomplish a further plan for want of time. And to satisfy T. of these facts, let him only inquire at the commissioners' lodgings, where they left word they were to be in six weeks, or more likely two months, on their return to France.

To caution on the sound of names is a painful indeed and an easy matter in conversation to misapprehend the difference between the names of the Marquis d'Herbouville, or d'Arbouville; Monsieur Coulomb, or Colomb; for, except the fabrications T. few escaped the mistake before they saw the names written. But to prove that T. is as little accurate as its neighbours, the Marquis d'Herbouville, Monsieur, is a very public well-known French nobleman, and understands the English language, and speaks it amazingly well, considering the approaches he has made in England, and devotedly confined the commissioners only to Oxford, and some public finality formalities for the royal government; that he named the hospitals to be immediately removed or repaired, should be pronounced to the commoner.

Yours, &c.

Mr. Urban

July 9.

I have been extremely surprised at an extraordinary historical mistake in Mr. Warton’s late Birth-Day Ode; ...

Folio 300

... on the opposite bank. But on this occasion, all the strategical science and skill of Caswallon and the bravery of his men, were unable to repel the Romish legions, so that Caesar, after a most sanguinary engagement succeeded in landing on the western side.

Higham

Caesar says, that during the preceding marches, the Trinobantes sent ambassadors to solicit peace, which he granted them, on condition that they accepted Mandubracius for their cæan. Immediately after this traitor to his country had received the reward of his treachery, he sent Caesar supplies of corn, which plainly shows that the “Trinobantes” could not have been far distant from the invading forces; and that their “state” comprised the present Hundred of Hoo.

Thong

In 1825, some labourers whilst grubbing up a piece of Clay Lane Wood, in the parish of Thong, came upon an intrenchment, in the centre of which, they desecrated three waggon-loads of human bones, mingled with leather, many metal celts, spear heads and armour. The latter in such perfect preservation, that a suit was actually put on by one of the labourers, who is now ...

* A brass coin of Comius, the commander of Caesar’s cavalry, was found in a tumulus near the British town above Kits Coty House. See Kentish Chron., and an impress. Arch. Jl. i. 302.

* Tam Ys two Celtic words—in English, winding river. Ys gives also Isis, the classical name of the present “Thames”—which, again, gives Tamesis.

* Interim Trinobantes, prope firmissima earum regnum civitas, etc. The Celtic word Trinobantes translated into English, is powerful people.

Folio 301

(1847) living. The bones were collected and thrown into the surrounding fosse, the earth which composed the vallum was then thrown over them, and the soil levelled. The celts, several portions of the armour, and pieces of the weapons are preserved in the museum of William Crafter, esq., of Gravesend. The armour was taken to Cobham Hall by the finders, who expected a handsome reward for their pains; but the then noble owner, being no archaeologist, ordered the men some refreshment, and told them “to take their rubbish away.” After this rebuff, and knowing no collectors of antiquities, they sorted out the metal, and after breaking it in pieces, sold it to Mr. Troughton, (lately Mayor of Gravesend,) who consigned it to the melting pot. So bright was the metal, that one of the celts was actually tested by fire to see if it was not gold, and it still bears the marks of this ill-usage.

The discovery of these relics, Roman and British, mingled together, clearly demonstrates that here an engagement took place, and that Thong was in Caesar’s line of march, because we know that the Romans, under Aulus Plautius, occupied this part of the county without opposition. “The mass of osseous fragments and British weapons with Roman armour, incontestibly prove, that after the battle, the slain were indiscriminately interred.” Here, too, Caesar awaited and received the supplies of corn and the hostages furnished him by the Trinobantes.

Following the road, Caesar marched to the British town on Wingfield-Bank, and, for the refreshment of his troops, halted at the ...

Folio 302

... at Thong as much land as could be enclosed by an ox hide; then, cutting the hide into thongs.

The Hindoos declare that we obtained possession of Calcutta by similar means.
In the classical tale of Dido & Byrsa.

Folio 303

Etymology of Cold Harbour

1849

RESPECTING the term “Cold Harbour,” your correspondent J. P. in your July Magazine (page 322) observes, that its etymology must be sought in the language of ancient Britain. With this opinion most antiquaries will concur. The derivation given by which he proposes for the word is, I think, less happy. At the same time I freely acknowledge that a uniform derivation does not remain in locality; whereas that derivation of “Cold Harbour” not only designates a particular part of an old road, but may be appropriated to that spot and others whereupon an equal characteristic has been placed. Careful and extensive archaeological research seems to have proved that the term is common to districts in Britain, terms similar in sound to “Cold Harbour,” though different in spelling. Its wide signification would equally apply to the various places accommodated, whether situated in hill or dale. In accordance with his suggestion the following attempt to explain the term is submitted to his consideration.

Caesar, in his description of Britain, mentions that it abounded in sheep. His words are “pecoris magnis numerus.” And when on a map we survey the long range of chalk downs and other hills which traverse the island, and whose herbage is peculiarly adapted to the grazing of sheep, we cannot but feel convinced that their flocks in very early days constituted an inseparable part of the wealth of its inhabitants. The wide heaths and extensive valleys would also yield additional pastures. Wherever there were flocks there would be folds. And from their number and diffusion the British name of a fold “a Cali” must have been prevalent, and, as it were, a household word throughout the island.

When the Romans had established their sway in South Britain, Tacitus informs us that the levying of the public tribute was committed to the sole charge of an officer called the procurator. Although his power was absolute and uncontrolled, yet he would act on a systematic plan. Now, the sheep-owners in those days must have paid their tribute in kind. And what readier method could be devised for collecting this tribute than the appointment of certain places where the flock-masters of the surrounding districts would be directed to bring at stated times the fixed stock of value (i.e., sheep). We may suppose that the localities thus fixed on would generally be suitable to the natural requirements, and that they must be numerous in the districts best suited to the pasturage of flocks. These were evidently the places from the common folds, they might have been called “Cali-ervawr,” pronounced overall, great, i.e., Cali-erwawr, the great fold.

Irrespective, however, of the Roman tribute, it might have been given by the neighbouring shepherds to the sites occupied in common, and where they might bring their flocks together for mutual shelter or defence. In either case the appellation continually used by the native inhabitants through successive generations would become identified with these spots, and unalterable.

When the Saxons in after ages possessed Britain, they would retain the name which they heard the natives give those places, and catching up the sound, regardless of the meaning, would pronounce it in their own language Cal-Herbour or Cold-Herbour. And yet if we suppose the Saxons, with a slight alteration, to have called the places “Cale-Hord.” Beorh, i.e., a Cald, Hleord, a flock, and Beorh, a refuge, i.e., the shelter of the flock in cold weather, are arrived at a derivation and meaning equally applicable to all those places. From thence, either way, would be derived the modern English term “Cold-Harbour.”

Such is the explanation of the term ...

Folio 304

The Protection of National Antiquities

Mr. Urban, Penzance, Oct. 8.

MANY of your readers will remember that the Men Skryfa, one of the most remarkable primeval monuments of this county, was restored to an erect position about twenty-four years ago, at the time Lanyon Cromlech, which had fallen ten years before, was again set up by means of the takings provided from an exhibition of the stones for the purpose of replacing the Logan Stone. At that period the act of restoration excited no little ridicule and severe censure, for, whether such operations interfere with an authentic record or not, is a point open to doubt, though the activity is now implied. The case is, however, widely different; not only because the erection destroyed an ancient material, but also because they are cheaper—leaving being readily obtained for their removal, which renders the land available for tillage—it is much to be feared that the rude objects of remote age, here distinguished by its upright position, will be treated with as little ceremony as the nameless ones amongst which it lies.

Being in its immediate neighbourhood the other day, I was surprised at missing it from its accustomed place in the view; for it was a very marked object, distinctly seen on a line connecting Lanyon Cromlech with one of the horns of Carn Galva, about a mile from the former, and perhaps half a mile from the latter; and, standing as it formerly did in the midst of furze and heath, its lighter colour rendered it still more conspicuous. On examination, I discovered it lying prostrate in the croft where it had stood, but which, having recently been broken up for tillage, has been cleared of all but this and a few other blocks too large to admit of their being easily carted away, except piecemeal. A respectable countryman, of whom I inquired the cause of its overthrow, informed me that the farmer, who is also the proprietor, had a few weeks since dug around and beneath it, in hope of finding buried treasure, and had of course succeeded in upsetting it.

Should no attempt be made to preserve it, it seems indeed more than probable that it will shortly share the fate of many of our ancient national antiquities whilst they lament the injuries done by uncivilized hands, and quietly suffer those yet remaining to be thus destroyed as a "cow or two worth" of crop. It may be not out of place here to ask, no public-spirited member of Parliament who, before every vestige of our ancient national monuments has been swept away by rustic ignorance or modern improvements, will urge on the Government the necessity for adopting the only effectual means of checking their destruction, i.e. a law which shall make every landholder responsible for the safety of those existing on his property?

The materials for such a registration as would be required of the objects of antiquity which the law here suggested is intended to protect, are in great part furnished by the Ordnance Survey, especially by the more extensive one now in hand. But, in order to render it more complete, local antiquaries might be invited to call the attention of the Government employed to any deficiencies in their maps and accompanying reports.

Yours, &c., H. P.

Folio 305

Capt. Short considered “Cold Harbour” to be derived from the Saxon “yld horebeorga”, the old station or resting place of the soldiers, with the Scandinavian prefix c; or, it might be from ceol yld hopeborga, the stage or cold old soldiers’ halting or resting place. Mr. Gould said he had hoped the discussion on this word had ceased; for his part, he thought it a pity to go away from that which was obvious and at hand to that which was abstruse and far fetched. He believed the word to be what it expressed, a harbour or shelter, in dwelling of some sort in a cold, exposed or barren situation; that it was acquainted with about a dozen Cold Harbours, and nearly all of them sufficiently established their names from their locality. In the analogy of before-known civilised times, all these stations were common to the two or three nations speaking a language of Teutonic origin. In the Dutch language herberg is a shelter, a cover, a public house; and the Germans have also herberge, now written Auberge for the same, and also in Italian albergo. Johnson, an authority he was very generally fond of, however, gives harbours and harbory as derived from the Dutch word. From the little he had acquired from the Gaelic language he did not believe that anything would be got from it without a stretch of imagination and the sound of the Dutch language. Mr. Windus considered that the term was derived from the burrowing of hares...

Folio 306

... only spring of fresh water they had passed since they left the Medway.

After reducing this large hill city, Caesar encamped upon the spot now known as

Col Arbhar

in the parish of Northfleet, an eminence overlooking Springhead. The following morning he crossed the valley, which on the western side was very woody. From the well-known bravery of the Druid priesthood, and their possession of a School and accompanying Sacred Groves, on the heights, now called Highfield, it can hardly be supposed otherwise than that he was here necessitated to fight a battle, which probably detained him till the ensuing day, and compelled him to encamp in the magnificent earthworks still remaining, in

Stone Park Wood

This camp consists of three nearly oval valla and fosses, even now in places eight feet high. In a subsequent invasion by the Danes, this camp was altered by that people in accordance with their views of castrametation. At the northernmost extremity of the wood, near the church of Swanscombe, on Mr. Russell’s farm, also still exists a mighty tumulus, called ...

⁷The primeval cities in this island were built on heights, similar to the “hill cities” in the East. “In Palestine, the land of the Phoenicians, we read of numerous fenced cities on the tops of mountains. ‘Now therefore give me,’ said Caleb to Joshua, ‘the mountain whereof the Lord spake in that day, for thou heardest in that day how the Anakims were there, and that the cities were great and fenced.’”

⁸Col Arbhar Celtic—An eminence, or height—a camp, English.

Folio 307

... "the Folly." The etymology of this word is evidently Celtic, and the final syllable is most probably a corruption of the word low, a barrow.

From thence Caesar marched to the

Ford of the Darent

The river not being embanked, spread over the entire valley, rendering it a dangerous swamp, only fordable in certain places when the tide was down. Within the last four years two fine celts, one of flint the other of bronze, have been discovered near the Dartford Gunpowder works, adjacent to the spot where we consider the river to have been crossed.

The next point to which the invader can be traced, is

Col Arbhar, Sutton-at-Hone

where Caesar encamped the night previously to his last and greatest battle in this island, when he attacked Caswallon’s capital, which was situated in the high lands between the rivers Darent and the Cray. Caesar describes Caswallon as possessed of a province “Cujus fines a maritimis, civitatibus flumen dividit, quod appellatur Tamesis, a mari circiter millia passuum lxxx.” Caesar was of course anxious in his despatches to Rome, to make the most of his invasion, and so readily credit was not very particular about the final xxx, because, according to the route we have conducted Caesar, the distance will not be more than seventy miles. Caesar certainly might have included the whole distance he had traversed, and not taken it in a direct line from the coast. Nor is it in the least degree improbable that Caesar might have marched eighty miles, as we well know that the old British trackways were not so straight as the subsequently reformed Roman roads.

Folio 308

At Farningham is also a round barrow—a tumulus—called the Folly.

The etymology of this term is uncertain. Wilmington is, however, more some portion of the old name Fenter. The final particle of Wilmington is the obscure appellation of ton.

The archeologist will not require embellished existences of these, perhaps the capital cities in the island.

Folio 309

Mr. Urban, June 6.

In your last Magazine, you have preserved a very interesting notice, from Mr. Palmer, respecting the early history of the town of Basingstoke. This town, as Mr. Palmer justly observes, is situated at the junction of several important roads. It has long been a place of great antiquity, and must have been a place of great importance in the Roman and Saxon periods. The name itself is probably derived from the Saxon word Basinga, the name of the family of the ancient Saxon kings of the region.

The town of Basingstoke, as it was known to the Saxons, had its share of peculiarities. The fortifications, constructed during the early Saxon period, were composed of an intricate system of walls and ditches. It is believed that the town was likely the center of trade and commerce in the area. As a key location at the crossing of roads, Basingstoke was a major hub for travelers and merchants alike.

One of the most notable features of Basingstoke was its role in the defense of the region. The town is situated at a strategic location, and the Romans, and later the Saxons, would have built fortifications to protect it. The remains of these structures can still be seen today in the form of earthworks and other archaeological evidence. Although the original purpose of the fortifications is not entirely clear, they likely served to protect the town from attacks by neighboring tribes or invading forces.

Another important aspect of the town’s history is its role in the development of the local economy. Basingstoke was a center of agriculture and trade, and evidence suggests that the town was involved in the production of wool and other goods. The market at Basingstoke was an important economic hub, and it is likely that the town’s residents were involved in various forms of manufacturing and trade.

Basingstoke's location near the major Roman roads also made it an important military post. The town would have been used as a base for the Roman army during their campaigns in the region. The presence of Roman artifacts, such as coins and pottery, suggests that the town was a significant site during the Roman period.

Today, the town of Basingstoke stands as a testament to the rich history and heritage of the region. The evidence of its past can be seen in the numerous archaeological sites and historical landmarks scattered throughout the town and its surroundings. It is a place where the ancient and the modern coexist, and where the stories of the past continue to inform our understanding of the present.

Folio 310

Folio 311

Mr. Urban

July 9

I have been extremely surprised at an extraordinary historical mistake in Mr. Warton’s late Birthday Ode; for he has assumed that the quotation from the “Georgics” of Virgil, “mene argis,” etc., to which the ode refers, was made by Virgil in the original Latin, when, in fact, it was an imitation of an earlier poem by the Roman poet Lucretius.

The misattribution is the more surprising, as it appears in no other edition of the poem. As a long-standing student of the works of Virgil, it seems an error which no one familiar with Latin texts would have overlooked. The confusion may have arisen from Virgil’s frequent use of similar language, which has led some readers to assume that he was the original author. However, a careful study of the passage in question would have revealed its true origin.

This is a perfect example of the pitfalls that await those who attempt to trace the classical influences upon modern poetry without first carefully examining the sources.

Folio 312

Mr. Urban, July 18

I have been much interested in the various contributions you have lately received, as well as in the discussions upon the ancient names of places in the vicinity of London. The elucidation of the etymology of Cold Harbour is, in my opinion, of much value, though I believe that the word “harbour” as applied to these localities, should be viewed in a somewhat different light. The term, as we know, is derived from the Saxon word herberga, meaning a shelter or dwelling place. It has often been misunderstood as implying a seaport or haven, but in fact, it refers to a temporary resting place or refuge.

In this context, the use of “Cold” may be connected with the situation of the locality. It is well known that many of these “Cold Harbour” sites are found in exposed or desolate areas, such as on high ground, in the open fields, or near marshes, where travelers would be particularly exposed to the elements.

One of the most important points to note in this discussion is the frequent occurrence of “Cold Harbour” names in connection with ancient Roman roads and stations. This suggests that these sites were, indeed, used as resting places for Roman soldiers or travelers along the roads leading to London. The presence of Roman artifacts, as reported by some antiquaries, further supports this theory.

As regards the specific Cold Harbour of which Mr. Palmer writes, I believe the evidence points to its location near the present town of Woking, on the old Roman road that leads towards Chichester. This area, known for its Roman connections, would have made an ideal site for such a resting place.

I look forward to further correspondence on this subject, as I believe there is still much to learn about these enigmatic places and their role in our national history.

Yours faithfully, J. F.

Folio 313

Etymology of Druid—Kit's Cotty House, &c.

May

Groves, but Cerrig, Carnau, and Cromlechau, that is, stones and stone structures.” Now it certainly did not require a conjuror to tell us that the Britons did not call stones and stone structures woods and groves, but what will this Merlin say to the following passage from Rowland’s Mona Antiqua? “To this day here are places retaining the antient name of Llwynau or groves, as Llwyn Llwyd, Llwyn Moel, Llwyn On, Llwyn Goch, and Llwyn y coed, in or near every one of which may be found visible remains of Druidish worship, either broken altars, pillars, or remains of a cromlech; and no doubt there were many more, whose names are lost and quite forgotten.”

He observes “that the two practices of the heathens, raising their altars on hills and in trees, were blended also of the British Druids, where it seems to have arisen from necessity, because the case with the antient practice of Palestine and Greece; but trees were adopted as the place termed Nemi or Port of Pembrokeshire, Cromlech, dolmens, &c. trees were not to be found; in other counties they are connected with all the Druidical temples as in Caernarvon.”

It is to be added, “These structures of stone, usually denominated Druidical temples, are ever found in the most open and campaign country,” and I shall attempt presently to shew why such places were selected; having, at first, proved that it was for the purpose of sacrifice, or some other rite of the “the Druids resorted to woods and groves.” The Rev. Mr. Davies in his Mythology of the Druids, gives very satisfactory reasons for presuming that “the antient British religion did not simply originate from simplicity of mythology, prevalent after became united Sabæan worship before the emblems adopted by the Phœnicians. When this union had taken place, they had hitherto selected the groves near streams and sacredly enshrined as they hitherto believed.”

How curious is the observation, “Woodlands are suitable for its solemnity and the effect.” These were sacred to raising stones upon these plains, &c. If you read such allusion, you will discover the derivations of Llwynau, woodlands, &c. and derivations of Llwyn Moel. The etymology of such worship is undeniable for their sacred character. Without attempting further to occupy the pages of your Magazine, I conclude by observing that the ceremonies are realised in the Druidic temples, and no occasion of ill, but not in mere necessities, will be found in Meyrick and Smith’s Costume. Therefore, I conclude in the hope that Mr. Duke will now feel more inclined to reconcile the rest of the remarks to your Magazine.” The fact that these structures of stone, usually denoted as Druidical temples, are always found in the most open and campaign countries.”

S.R.M.

Folio 314

Ranks and Costume of the Druids

Costume of the Druids

In our last, p. 316, our Correspondent Merlin gives a new derivation of the name Druid, and supposes that it is descriptive of a magnificent gown descending to the heels. This description agrees exactly with the annexed figures of an Archdruid and Druid, copied from Montfaucon:

In the last-published Number of the “Encyclopedia of Antiquities,” p. 696, Mr. Fosbrooke first notices the Ranks and Costume of the Druids.

“Seldom very properly observes, that he cannot reconcile the habits of the described Druids of Scotland Celts with the portrayed Druids from Rome and Gaul; that they had various costumes, turbans, and jackets, resembling field garments worn braceleted, and so far distinct, from those in Strabo. Montfaucon describes light clothing, such as the priests and brothers, light coenaus, their hair very long, the right shoulder and its band loose, and the robes richly adorned in white. Those of the ranks and dignities wore those who resisted robes also green and yellow under vests, to assign roles they often adapted. The figure in Montfaucon, called Archdruid, is distinguished by many garlands and is said to have worn crowns and branches, and flowing robes. An inferior Druid made no crown wearing and staff.”

Further noted distinctions indicate several types of figures, with their standing with rings or circles round their feet, are marks of different classes, till they arrived at the highest of their dignities. This, or plain priest’s garment, was also recognized by rank of the laity by the colour, shape, and practical without any ornaments. The Archdruid, however, usually sat on the decorated high shoulders, across the body, broad sash assigned some lines for followers.

The summary is described later cross leadership where stripes were on final layout or insignia between cultural ideas via glowing upon purpose of stripe.

-- concludes towards.

Folio 315

The Chronicles of Kent—Lib. II.

By Alfred John Dunkin

Cantiana Romana

Oh! who shall chain the wings of Thought?
Oh! who shall bind the free?
Where shall the iron links be wrought,
To fetter Fantasie?
The weary frame may wear away,
The aching eye grow dim;
But there is that which still will stray
Amid the cherubim.
Silenus* strayed away, you know,
And we have strayed with him.

Most certainly we have strayed, and advanced ever so much farther up the country than we ought, as the following will pretty evidently show; for Cæsar will there be found twelve miles only from the sea, instead of eight.

Early next morning Cæsar prepared to assume the offensive, and having divided his army into three bodies, sent them in pursuit of the enemy. Scarcely had the eagles advanced within sight of the rear of the—

* Silenus—of course you have heard of the man—
Was a jolly old rascal, or lord of his clan,
With a belly as big
As Lord Spencer's prize pig,
And a nose which proclaimed the fellow to swig.
They say—how they prove it is more than I know—
That he was a philosopher too;
Philosopher as he was, Silenus got drunk, and then wandered away from Elysium, and fell into the hands of Midas, King of the Phrygians who—

—it was a jolly king;
He should be living now;
He knew the trick of every thing,
And what to do, and how.
His divine will King Midas knew;
And knowing, soon perfected his cue.
They tried his gold, he’d turn to rouse;
Come, let it solid ride across.
You’re a jolly trump, I see,
If glory is new, champagne’s plenty;
If you and I were spirit now.

As a reward for this touching of royalty, the Nysæan god granted to King Midas his request, that whatever he touched should turn into gold.**—Vide Juvenal, Mag. Aug.

**Postretis ejus diei, mane, imperator. —9

Folio 316

The Chronicles of Kent

Page 34

Britons, than dispatches arrived from Q. Atrius with the astounding intelligence that during the night a terrific tempest had arisen, and totally wrecked the fleet.† Recalling his troops, Cæsar flew to the sea coast, where he was followed by the legions in full retreat. The misfortune he there beheld was great: forty vessels were irretrievably lost, and the rest so damaged that they seemed hardly reparable. With his characteristic energy, he set all the carpenters in his army to work, and ordered Labienus to build in Gaul as many ships as possible. Determined, however, to suffer no more losses by allowing his fleet to continue riding at anchor, he resolved that all his ships should be drawn up on dry land, and inclosed within his fortified camp. This laborious and difficult achievement, by the vigorous and incessant† toil of the whole army, was accomplished in ten days and nights.

Having thus secured his fleet, and left it in the same guard as before, in the beginning of September he again departed in pursuit of the enemy, who had employed the interval in strengthening their confederacy, and increasing their army. During this march, the British cavalry, supported by their chariots, vigorously and daringly attacked the Roman horse, who more than once, to protect the infantry, had to make sorties from their direct line. Caswallon retained the supreme command.

As soon as the hostile armies drew near to each other, they began to skirmish. The British horse, supported by their chariots, vigorously attacked the Roman cavalry. Pretending to be repulsed, they led the Romans into a trap, and gave them a serious check.‖ Sallying from another point on the wearied soldiers, whilst intent upon making secure their night encampment, they utterly destroyed the advance guard. Cæsar...

† Cæsar himself writes, § 9, "that a dreadful storm arising the night before, had fallen violently on the fleet, and had driven about and upset the ships, neither anchorage nor cables, nor all the address of the mariners and pilots, had been able to resist the fury of the tempest, which had done unspeakable damage to the best by the rest of the wrecks running foul of one another."

† Cæsar says, § 6, "Ten days (dies X continui) were spent in the service, during which the soldiers had no intermission of fatigue, not even in the night."

‖ Cæsar says he "lost some men." § xi.

Folio 317

The Chronicles of Kent

Page 35

Sent the two first cohorts of his legions to their aid. (These¶ were not only more numerous than the others, but usually consisted of the bravest men.) The Britons charged these in several parties, broke through them, routed the Roman soldiers, who were astonished at this new mode of fighting, and then retired without loss. Quintus Laberius Durus, a military tribune, was slain; and but for the opportune arrival of some fresh cohorts, the conflict would have terminated in the utter rout of the Roman forces. Cæsar, his own historian, is here rather partial; and by a confused narrative, endeavours to cloak the fact that the major part of his army was thoroughly beaten. Thus, even in this early period, the warlike pursuits of the Cantii were so great, as to give an inkling of the future renown of the Kentish men, who are, as poets sing:

"The first to take, the last to quit the field."

Henry of Huntingdon, lib. ii., p. 301, says that the tribune and his battalion were encompassed by the Britons and annihilated; and that Cæsar, perceiving the day was lost, and that henceforth less coercive measures must be adopted, saved himself by a retreat; and that even in this the Britons, pursuing the Romans, made great havoc. So also Bede, lib. i. cap. 2, says the Britons were victorious.

This battle was fought within sight of the camp, and the whole of the Roman army were spectators, who then, Cæsar acknowledges, perceived that the legionary soldiers were too heavily armed** to combat with any...

¶ Vegetius, lib. II., c. 6.
** The load which a Roman soldier carried is almost incredible: it consisted of three days’ provisions, more (usually corn as being lighter), sometimes for fifteen days, sometimes, a saw, a basket, a mattock, an axe, a hook and leather thong, a chain, a pot, &c.; stakes (usually three or four, sometimes twelve); the whole amounting to sixty pounds weight, besides arms. If a Roman soldier considered these the impedimenta or hurdles for a regular camp fortified according to strict Roman law. Vegetius mentions as idealizing both certain laws like; VI., 12.

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Chance of success the agile Britons.†† Besides, the peculiar discipline of the Romans was adverse to their departure from their eagles. The Britons, too, never fought in a body, but in small detached parties, who were so skillfully placed, that fresh supplies were easily, and without risk, added.

The next day, Cæsar fancied that the Britons were rather more fearful of encountering his legions; because, he says, they stationed themselves far off upon the hills, and appeared but sparingly, and did not skirmish with the Roman horse so forwardly as before. So about noon, Cæsar sent out three legions and all the cavalry under the command of C. Trebonius, to forage. Hardly had they commenced plundering, when the Britons furiously fell upon them, and attacked them from all quarters; and Cæsar, quite astonished at their effrontery, says “they even attacked the legions and standards.” The Roman legions, now finding that:

“They must do or die,”

returned to the charge, and repulsed them; and they fought so desperately, that they routed the Britons with great slaughter,†† “and continued the pursuit till they had utterly broken them, insomuch that great numbers being slain, they could neither find an opportunity to rally, descend from their chariots, or face about to make resistance.”

Dr. Plot considers Caioci-hill, in Newington parish, to have been the spot where the battle was fought with Caius Trebonius. There is a tradition that on Standard-hill, an elevated place lying to the southward of Newington, a Roman eagle was displayed during Cæsar’s invasion.

†† Cæsar (§ 12) writes—“It evidently appeared that our heavy armed legions, who could neither pursue those that retired, nor durst venture to forsake their standards, were by no means a fit match for such an enemy; nor could we engage the cavalry without great damage, it being usual for the Britons to counterfeit a retreat until they had drawn them a considerable way from the legions, when suddenly, quitting their chariots, they charged them on foot, and by this unequal mode of fighting made it dangerous to pursue or retreat.”—Lib. v., § 12.

†† Henry of Huntingdon and Bede also confirm this inequality by stating that it was not without severe loss on the part of the Romans.

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Mr. Urban,

In the Sept. Number of your Magazine, your correspondent H. L. L., in his article upon Cæsar’s Invasion of Britain, protested “against the Conway Stakes theory, and all the hypothetical passages of the Thames at that fanciful locality;” but not for the reasons advanced in the letter I addressed to you upon the subject of Cæsar and Caswallon (inserted in April 1844).

Notices of these discoveries (as portions of this subject) have at various times appeared in the Dover Chronicle, Kentish Observer, and Maidstone Journal; the paragraphs have been collected, and the incidents are placed in consecutive order before the readers of the Gent. Mag.

As the various modern discoveries of Kentish aboriginal remains, invariably corroboratory of the opinions I have formerly expressed on the subject, it is now admitted that all the injured relics of Cæsar’s invasion of the county of Kent, by none as yet, save the savage barbarism represented in his Commentaries. By maintaining, here in a highly civilized and ancient well-polished state, among the most polished of Cantii, in opposition to modern refinements.

No matter what were the motives, Cæsar resolved to revisit the subjects of his landed attempt in the autumn of 55 b.c., he commenced the construction of transports for his troops. Upon the 26th of August of that year, his preparations being completed, he embarked his men at Wissant, (the port so ably described by H. L. L. in your September Magazine), and departed from the continent “about the third watch of the night, with a good gale, to the sea.” Fortunately for him, his vessels escaped or passed through the British fleet without being attacked.

I fully agree with the Rev. Beale Post that Cæsar first reached the land of Folkestone, where he found not only the shores strongly protected by fortifications, but a formidable and well-disciplined army assembled to dispute the disembarkation of his forces. The Britons, informed of Cæsar’s projected invasion, had levied forces and given the command to the experienced Cassivellaunus. To advance in face of these obstacles was a task of great difficulty, and it was not accomplished without loss. The Romans, however, finally attacked the Britons at their camp and took it.

The next day the engagement was renewed, and terminated, after a sanguinary encounter, slightly to the advantage of the Romans. Convinced upon this partial success, some of the Cantians withdrew from the British confederacy, and endeavored to make terms for themselves with Cæsar. Three days afterwards, the remainder of the Roman army, consisting of the cavalry, was sent off the harbor, followed by the British fleet. The latter unabatedly not only outnumbered the transports and attacked them, but finally prevented even one of them landing their freights. Successful in this attempt, and continuing the advantage in face of the foe, the galleys to the Roman fleet gradually driven towards land.

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Military stores, again joined their confederated countrymen. As the supply of provisions was insufficient, Cæsar, on September the 18th, sent a portion of his troops upon a foraging expedition to a field two miles distant, where he had been informed the corn was unreaped.

Had not Cæsar fairly admitted that the county of Kent was densely populated and highly cultivated, it would, nevertheless, have been apparent from his narration, since he describes the field his army plundered as furnishing sufficient forage for its sustenance. It is difficult to consider otherwise than that this field had been left as a bait, to attract the Romans into an ambuscade. Whether such was or was not one of Caswallon’s strategical plans, it is evident that it served that purpose, and the Romans were trapped therein and if not nearly destroyed most disgracefully beaten, after a severe slaughter. It is clear, too, that the corn reaped from the old lands must have been left there as a lure to the invader, or else the commissariat department of the Britons was most satisfactorily provided.

Anticipating an attack upon the foraging party, one half the Roman army was actually employed in the expedition. Undeterred by the superior discipline of the invaders, the Britons surrounded and nearly annihilated them in a desperate and sanguinary attack. Clouds of dust gave Cæsar an inkling of the battle, to which he hurried, with the two cohorts on duty in the camp, ordering the remainder of his forces to follow in hot pursuit. Arrived at the scene of action, he found the defeat of the Romans decisive, hardly a man of the seventh legion escaping to relate the disastrous tale. The field was covered with the dying and dead, and overrun with the chariots and cavalry of the victorious Britons. Having rescued the few exhausted survivors, he retraced his steps; and, pursued by his unrelenting foes, with difficulty reached the shelter of his camp. Quite aware after this battle that his position in Britain was no longer tenable, he embarked the miserable skeleton of his army (300 men) in two transports, and sailed away at midnight.

Thus terminated, after three weeks’ stay, Cæsar’s first and much vaunted expedition into Britain, which, though extolled most highly in Rome as a glorious and wonderful exploit, was no more than the seizure of a landing-place, and the certain knowledge that the islanders would for a moment surrender their freedom. The topography of the country at the period is obscure and only imperfectly known, and the details which have reached us are so incomplete, that a correct account of the operations of the Romans is impossible. But the earnest account of the result of the expedition—Cæsar’s army everywhere encountered the greatest resistance. It must be noted that he returned to Rome, and, after having arranged matters, set out once more with a second armament, determined to achieve an enterprise he found enormous difficulty in completing.

Before his departure, three months after the success of his first Cantian Campaign, Cæsar, immediately upon his return to Gaul, directed his lieutenants to prepare a new armament for the subjugation of Britain. He ordered the vessels to be constructed in a peculiar form, better adapted for covering horses than those he had previously used. We also gather from his details that, in consequence of troubles in Kent, Mandubratius, the Cean of the Trinobantes, had, sacrificing his patriotism, sought service as a spy or guide in the Roman ranks. The arrangements being concluded, Cæsar, Aug. 1st, embarked at the Portus Itius a force of 82,000 men in 800 vessels. About midnight, he weighed anchor, and, advancing with a gentle wind, continued his course steadily onward, when he found himself becalmed; but the tide still urging him on, at daybreak he saw Britain on his left. When again following the motion of the tide, he rounded all the shoals, and approached the part of the island he had marked out the preceding year as the most convenient for landing; and on this occasion he commenced...

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...mends exceedingly the diligence of the soldiers, who, labouring incessantly at the oar, urged the transports so swiftly that they equalled the course of the triremes. At length, Cæsar, having arrived at Lynne, was permitted by the natives to uninterruptedly disembark.

Becoming acquainted, through some prisoners he captured, with the plans of concealing the Britons, or what were more likely, being informed by the traitor Mandubratius, he set out for Durovernum, the largest city nearest to Cæsar's landing, as being also the site of a celebrated sanctuary, was a place likely to be protected. Leaving under the fleet adequate guards in charge to defend, about midnight the active general set his army in quest of the site of his bivouac in the early campaigns, a smooth road and no surprise.

After a fatiguing night march of twelve hours, Cæsar came in sight of the Britons' army posted behind the river Stour, near Chartham, from which position they attacked the foe, and endeavoured to prevent their crossing the river; but, being routed by the Roman cavalry, they retired towards some woods, into a place strongly fortified by nature and art, the entry being blocked up with an abatis of trees, which Cæsar imagined had been prepared before on signal lands.

"All the avenues were secured by strong barricades of felled trees piled upon one another." Strong as was this fortress, the soldiers of the seventh legion made an earthwork, and, advancing under cover of their shields, carried the position, and drove the Britons to the camp of Caswallon.

Early next morning Cæsar prepared to dislodge the Britons' forces. He divided his army into three divisions, sent them in search of the enemy. Within sight of the Britons, Cæsar received intelligence from the coast regarding the navy. He, as well, built immediate barracks, succeeding heavily defending Roman chase into British secure navigations advantages vessel fleet crossing conclusions.

DOVERBYREN: Context settlement maps defensive explanations lead total. further roman highlight . advisors views tactical combat campaign's system . west opp of field restoration .

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Coast of Armorica with the Veneti. The weakest were therefore driven upon the shore, and it was only by the rapid retrogression of the Roman army that Cæsar was at all enabled to wrest the advantages of his craft from his determined foe. The only safe method left him to adopt was to draw the fragments into a land camp, and this took his whole force, after incredible labour, ten days. It is not to be imagined that even this was tamely allowed by the Britons, on the contrary, they harassed him by every means in their power alike by day and night.

Having thus secured his fleet, and left it under secure guard as before, in the beginning of September he again proceeded inland, in pursuit of Caswallon, who had employed the interval in strengthening the confederacy and increasing his army. During this march along the British tracks to Durovernum, the British cavalry, supported by infantry, had more than once attacked the Roman horse, who more than once to make sorties from their direct line.

As soon as the hostile armies approached each other they began to skirmish. The British horse and chariots vigorously attacked the Roman cavalry, but, pretending to be repulsed, the feint deceived the Romans, who, being out-manoeuvred, received a serious check. Sallying from another point on the wearied soldiers, while intent upon making secure their night encampment, they utterly destroyed the advance guard. Cæsar sent the two first cohorts of the legions to their aid. (These were not only more numerous than the others, but usually consisted of the bravest men.) The Britons charged them in several bodies, broke through their ranks, and routed them ere they recovered from the panic in which they were thrown by so novel a mode of fighting, and then retired without loss. Quintus Laberius Durus, a military tribune, was slain; and, but for the opportune arrival of some fresh cohorts, the conflict would have terminated in the utter rout of the Roman forces. Cæsar, his own despatch writer, is here rather partial, and, by a confused narrative, endeavours to gloss over the truth, and cloak from the public eye the fact that the major part of his army was thoroughly beaten.

The next day Cæsar fancied that the Britons were rather more fearful of encountering his legions, because, he says, they stationed themselves far off, upon the hills, and appeared but sparingly, not skirmishing with the Roman horse as heretofore. So about noon Cæsar sent out three legions and all the cavalry under the command of Trebonius. Hardly had they commenced than the Britons furiously fell upon them, attacking from all quarters; and Cæsar, apparently astonished at their effrontery, naively says, “they even attacked the legions and standards.” The Romans, now finding themselves supported by the foot, returned to the charge, and repulsed them. The cavalry, finding themselves supported by the infantry, pursued the enemy with great slaughter, and continued the pursuit till they had utterly broken them, insomuch that great numbers being slain, they could neither find an opportunity to rally, descend from their chariots, or face about to make resistance.

Dr. Plot and the Rev. Mr. Harris, that the spot where Quintus Laberius Durus was slain was at Chartham Downs.

Canterbury was then a town of magnitude, of which the “Dún Joigh” is an imperishable record. Dún is a Celtic word signifying a “height.” The final syllable is expressive of a fortification, rendering the whole the fortified mound of the Brit. It had been erected by the Belgae after their seizure of this part of Kent, to become a centre of their operations. The town was afterwards, from the superiority of its advantages, presented, as stated by Ausonius Plautius for the site of a Roman station.

But I could decidedly differ with those learned antiquaries as to the route by which Cæsar marched into Kent. Unfortunately they depended too efficiently for these grounds upon existing roads that have developed during even the last thousand years, and took for granted Cæsar first made Dover.

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...and then proceeded to Deal, where he landed.

Such, however, was not the case, as I have previously stated. The land he first made was Folkestone, and his disembarkation was at Lynne; and thence, under the guidance of Mandubratius, by the Stone-street, passing through the parishes now called Stowting, Elmstead, Hastinglinton, and Canterbury.

In every one of these parishes can be traced still the track, and Cæsar’s route can be likewise traced through the following places: Wye, Charing, Lenham, Harrietsham, Hucking, and Detling. The route is far from being straight; but we must bear in mind that the British roads were not as advanced as they are now. The Romans’ alterations, though more systematic, were forced to adapt to the natural landscape of the time.

Now the question here is, whether Cæsar called the river Thames what we do now? I answer, No; and the reason is, our Thames does not correspond to Cæsar’s Thames, whereas the Medway agrees with his description. The Medway divides the county into two parts, and that, too, at the distance of about 80 miles from the sea (Dr. Owen says), following the course of the river; but I would rather maintain that Cæsar recorded his marchings and counter-marchings, and so, by an approximation, made the distance about 80 miles. In this view the account is clear, and conformable to fact; but the Conway Stakes rendering of Camden is absurd, and contradicts fact. For to say that the river Thames, at the distance of 80 miles from the sea, over the London, divides Middlesex from the maritime states of Kent, sounds no more rational than it would to be saying Blackheath is a promontory. Besides, the Thames of Cæsar does not look Kent."

With these observations, I perfectly align.

Again, had Cæsar crossed over Thames he could not have totally omitted the subject; more likely, the passage error size conclusion highlight careful entry; **positive Romans relay advances** For ensuring basis the debate, was clears itself safe — only gradual...

More historical relevant evidences hints-readable density depth..

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All parts, returned severally to their homes, nor did the enemy appear any more against us with their whole forces." In confirmation of this plain unvarnished sentence, Cæsar goes on to state, after a most curious confusion of paragraphs, which he doubtless did purposely with a view of mystifying his readers, "That Caswallon disbanded the remainder of his forces, with the exception of about four thousand essedarii, or chariots, which he retained with him to watch Cæsar’s proceedings, and to prevent his foraging parties making successful excursions."

Cæsar’s version here treats the group as “disbanded to have written Caswallon’s men had deserted.” But I do not consider this correct, because it is refuted by the actual preceding paragraph that the Britons had already moved to protect the ford. The astonishing number of chariots indisputably proves the density of the population, and equally their riches and civilization; it is also clearly shown that good roads must have existed to allow the rapid movements of such vehicles, as they traveled to secure the river and thus harassed Cæsar’s troops during the march, leaving the Roman legions? It also shows that Caswallon rightly imagined that Cæsar would endeavour to make an excursion into the country of Kent, by what was, par excellence, the Great Road (the Watling-street), that being the road leading over Cæsar’s Temple, near the demolished area of Kits Coty House, to counteract which Caswallon detached the forces he could spare to assist in making obstacles to the passage of the ford, through which the road lay to the interior.

Cæsar goes on to state, § 14, "That he persevered crossing; the Britons, I suppose, but he does not deign to specify what their design was; neither can I infer,) marched towards the Thames from Durovernum, to penetrate into the kingdom of Caswallon."

Arrived on that river’s brink, which, confined by barriers, spread over the whole face of the valley, and was only fordable with difficulty at one point, found the army of Caswallon strongly posted on the opposite side, determined to oppose the invaders of their country, and bravely die adjoining their holy places. They had likewise secured the banks with sharp stakes. That this was the place is most probable, and that the Druid priesthood, moreover, lent all their aid to influence the combatants, may easily be conceived. The Druids most likely, too, were the instigators of securing the banks with sharp stakes, as well as the driving many of the same kind into the bed of the river, so as to be covered with the water.

“Being informed of this by some prisoners and deserters,” Cæsar “sent the cavalry before, expecting that they would cross either by hiding tactics or otherwise with most expedition,” but briskness here, knowledge, Britons enabled the locals counter tackle. Knowing what Druids recalled were original accounts, still probable strategies below firm odds imperial evaluation themselves, stand the values **near lead priesthood teach logic strikes known somewhat...**

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For their king; and, as a pledge of their future good conduct, promised to send supplies of provisions and forty hostages.

Higham

Cæsar tells us that during the preceding marches the Trinobantes sent ambassadors to solicit peace, which he granted them, on condition that they supported Mandubratius for their king, which they consented. Mandubratius was then conducted to his elevation. Cæsar supplies the corn, which plainly shows that the Trinobantes had never been far distant from the invading forces (§ xvi).

In the state of the Trinobantes and their attitude of Hoo is evidence where it could not be possible to host such supplies at the time. This showed how adequate the sites and communication were, as found later in areas rich for further supply without prolonged scarcity.

In 1825, laborers, while grubbing up a piece of Clay-lane Wood, came upon an interment, in the center of which they discovered near thirty stone-wagon loads of human bones, mingled with leather, many war implements, helmets, and armour, the latter in such preservation that a suit was actually put on by one of the laborers, who was living in 1845. The bones were collected and thrown into a hole, but the metal of the war-gear excited such value that it was soon thrown out and sold to local dealers.

However, the armor, the helmets of the Celts, several provisions, coins, and preserved in a museum of Trinobantic records; the finders, expected handsomely for salvage and deeper historical note belonged."

The discovery of these relics, Roman and British, mixed together, clearly demonstrates that there an engagement took place, and that Thong, was in Cæsar’s line of march; because we know that the Romans under Aulus Plautius occupied this country without opposition, and that an engagement between the Romans and the Britons occurred near Aylesford. The armor found also supports alignment that the British weapons, with Roman tact, adapted during era transition inferred. Records distinctly help gauge both postulate where-through *(Medias)*-->

instructions details confirm

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From the well-known bravery of the Druid priesthood, and their possession of a school, and accompanying sacred groves, on these heights, now called Highfield, it can be hardly supposed otherwise than that he was here necessitated to fight a battle, which it is probable detained him here till the ensuing day, and compelled him to encamp in the magnificent still existing earthworks in Stonepark Wood.

This camp consists of three nearly oval walls and fosses, even now in places eight feet high. In a subsequent campaign the British camp was altered by later peoples in accordance with their ideas of castrametation.

At the northernmost extremity of this British town, near the church of Swanscombe, on Mr. Russell's farm, remains a mighty earthwork, called the British Folly. The nature of this earthwork is evidently Celtic, and the final syllable is most probably a corruption of the Welsh word Ffôl, "a hill fort." Mr. Russell has kindly given me permission to see this landmark, and I am most happy to be enabled to state that the earthworks are in better preservation than throughout Kent. There is a mound at the entrance, resembling a stone chair, undoubtedly the seat of presiding Druids at their sacrifices.

At the point near the Ford of the Darent, which was not the embanked Darent of the present day, but spread over the entire valley, and rendered it a dangerous morass, fortified defensive places exist. Within the last year was a fine flint celt, and some bones, here discovered near the Dartford Gunpowder Works, adjacent to the site where I suppose the river must have been forded.

The next point to which the invader can be traced is Col. Arbuthnot’s Sutton at Hone, where Cæsar encamped the night previously to his last and greatest battle on the island, which ended Caswallon’s capital being situated in the Highlands between the rivers Thames and Medway. Cæsar describes Caswallon as possessed of a province, “quos fines naturali civibus flumine dividit, quod appellatur Tamesis, a mare circiter mille passuum lxxx.” Cæsar’s accounts of the events in the last days of his invasion in his dispatches to Rome are notable.

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The route to which he has been connected, the distance will not be more than seventy miles.* Cæsar certainly might have included the whole distance he had traversed, and not taken it in a direct line from the coast. Nor is it in the least degree improbable that Cæsar might have marched eighty miles; it is a notorious fact that the old British trackways were not so straight as the subsequent reconstructed roads.

Agreeably to preliminary arrangements, Cæsar attacked in two places of the enemy of Caswallon.† The Britons, owing to superiority of discipline, were forced to retreat to another part of the city, “ex alia parte oppidi.” This part of the city, I conceive to have been Cawdren’s Wood, the most western part of the same town; or else it was Stankey, its most northern point. By either way, the Britons had other towns to fall back upon. I am the more inclined to give the preference to the western, because there, supposing the Romans had still further advanced into the country, they would have had the most difficult march over the marshes and morasses of the Cray; and Caswallon’s 4,000 chariots would again have been employed to harass the wearied centurions. In Cawdren’s Wood still remain an immense number of subterraneous residences, or pits.

After the successful storming of this city, Cæsar felt himself compelled to rest. He must have reflected on the chiefs having been forced from all of their fortifications, and driven to a rapid succession to it.‡ While these things passed beyond the river Tam, Caswallon despatched messengers to Kent (the eastern division of course), which, as we have before observed, was situated along the sea-coast. Its governors were four Cæsars—Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus, and Segonax. Agreeably to the orders forwarded them, they directly drew their forces together and attacked the Roman camp. Even after the Britons lost their leader, they continued to harass and delay the legions. The Romans might have been victorious, but it is an inference we question, because Cæsar says “that he was not inclined to produce steps,” and, like the preceding campaign, was in such haste to embark his men (nothing lofty) that he omitted all “necessary augments and additions” to what ships he had, and sailed away at ten o’clock at night, after inflicting a tribute upon the conquered islanders.

The Britons were acquainted with the use of money.

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Now it is hardly possible that Cæsar would have thought of demanding a tribute, which he says he did, together with hostages, had not the Britons possessed and known the use of money. The Rev. Beale Post says, the resemblance of the British and Gaulish coins to Grecian coins, particularly those of Macedon, cannot be much wondered at, it being considered that Marseilles was founded by a colony of Phocæans from Asia Minor, and that a great commercial intercourse was maintained between that city and the different parts of the Mediterranean. As Britain was, however, in a higher state of civilization than Gaul, it is more probable that the coins indiscriminately termed British or Gaulish were all struck in Britain.

In plate xvi. in C. R. Smith’s Collectanea Antiqua are delineated some coins which he presumes are of British origin; figs. 9 and 10 were found in the field above the encampment at Wingfield Banks, mentioned above—the field abounds in foundations, Roman urns, &c., and from the immediate neighbourhood some of the coins now forming Mr. Sylvester’s collection at the Springhead Gardens, near Gravesend, have been picked up.

Thus ended Cæsar’s Cantian campaigns, and how little they affected the inhabitants of Kent may easily be conceived.

Alfred John Dunkin.

Extracted from the Gentleman’s Magazine for December, 1846.

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By Alfred John Dunkin

(Continued from No. 175.)

The position of the stones adjoining the “Holy of Holies” in the Sacred Grove clearly demonstrate that there, at least, was a kistvaen. Adjoining, too:

“Beneath the shadow of a mighty oak,
Whose giant bulk long, long hath ceased to be.”

The Druid priests held their schools, and there, their professors delivered lectures to their pupils in verse.* To us this practice may appear strange and difficult.

* Mela, lib. 3, cap. iii.

“There is not any one circumstance in the history of the ancient Britons more surprising than that of their early and admirable taste for poetry. This feature they had in common with the other Celtic nations, who excelled in this art in a very conspicuous manner, long before they had made any considerable progress in the most necessary arts. At a time when they were almost naked, and without tolerable lodgings—when they chiefly depended for what they eatched in hunting for their subsistence—they composed the most sublime and beautiful compositions of this kind, on many different subjects. The cause was probably more natural than useless, since the mother of many of the most useful human inventions. More to occupy leisure and to soften the misery which attended the state of humanity. Writing introduced into a country, it is impossible for any person but himself to engage the public attention to his works; as such, he conveys the circular melody among contemporaries, and transmits it to posterity, but by clothing them in melodious numbers, and adorning them with the charms of poetry.”—Henry’s Brit., v. 2, c. 5.

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But it was easy and familiar in those poetic ages, when prose was only used in common conversation.

A Druidical course of education† comprehended the whole circle of the sciences‡ which were then taught, and is said to have consisted of twenty thousand verses.§

The following is a specimen:

An lavar koth yu lavar guir
Bedh durn të ver, dhan tavaz rêhir
Mez dën heb davaz a galiaz ë dir.¶

That the mythology of the Druids was most decidedly founded upon a corruption of the patriarchal religion, is evident. The sixth verse of the twelfth chapter of Genesis affords us the earliest instance of the veneration for woods or groves. “And Abraham passed through the land unto the plain of Secham, and Moreh, to the oak grove (not to the plain, as in our translation) of Moreh, and there builded an altar.” So again when the apostatizing Jews forsook the practices of the Heathens, “they sacrificed (says Hosen, ch. iv., v. 13) upon the tops of mountains, and burnt incense upon the hills,” one Druidic practice, and “under oaks, and poplars, and elms,” another Druidic practice. Ezekiel, ch. vi., v. 13, alludes to the same—“Their altars upon every high hill, in all the tops of mountains, and under every green tree, and under every thick oak, the place where they did offer sweet savour to all their idols.” In Genesis xxi., 33, “Abraham planted a grove in Beersheba,” and subsequently...

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...subsequently we find the erection of altars forbidden in such places in Holy Writ, probably consequent on the impurities and wicked abuses prosecuted there by the idolaters. And these groves the Israelites are frequently exhorted, by way of punishment, to “cut down.”* Judges vi. 25; 2 Kings xxiii. 14; 2 Chron. xiv. 3; Deut. vii. 5; or “burn with fire,” Deut. xii. 23; 2 Kings xxiii. 15.

The Druids now, while arms are heard no more,
Mysteries and barbarous rites restore;
A tribe, who singular religion love,
And haunt the lonely coverts of the grove.

In the heart of the sacred grove were the three sacred springs now called Cosington, for the Druids required the limpid stream to purify, by repeated ablutions, the acolytes and officiates at the holy rites. This was a type of the flood, if the waters of which were a lustration to purify the polluted globe.

Mr. Thorpe† says, in 1770, when he visited Cosington, that its situation is very pleasant, and finely watered by strong springs which issue from the chalky strata.

Seneca, writing to Lucilius, says, “If you come to a grove thickly planted with ancient trees which have outgrown the usual altitude, and which shut out the view of the heavens with interwoven boughs, the vast height of the wood and the retired scenery of the place, and the wonder and awe inspired by so dense and unbroken a gloom in the midst of the open day, impress you with the conviction of a present deity.”—Seneca, Epist. 41.

‡‡ The reverence for springs and wells is also one of the most deeply rooted superstitions.

“There is a fountain in the forest call’d
The Fountain of the Fairies: when a child,
With a delightful wonder I have heard
Tales of the elfin tribe, who on its banks
Hold midnight revelry. An ancient oak,
The goodliest of the forest, grows beside;
Alone it stands, upon a green grass-plat,
By the woods bounded, like some little isle,
Fancy had cast a spell upon the place,
Which made it holy; and the villagers
Would say, that never evil thing approach’d
Or tempul’d there.”—Joan of Arc.

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Cæsar's Cantian Campaigns

Page 32

...banks, and form a little cascade by the east house near the yard. At the corner of a field above the hop-ground, north of the house, between two hills, is a deep hollow, almost perpendicular, except at the bay-like entrance, which is very wet to approach. The sides are covered with bushes and coppice wood, evidently the remains of the Sacred Grove. “At the bottom issue several springs, which are so cold and sharp that the water is said to cramp and kill young ducks; and the flints which lie in it are tinged red as blood; and to try the experiment stones have been marked and put in, which, in less than a year’s time, were of the same colour. When they have been out of the water a short time, and are dry, they become pale, and are very beautiful. Some of these flints I brought away with me, which to this time retain the colour. This quality certainly proceeds from some mineral in the strata of earth through which the springs pass.”§§

Folio 333

After the death of Julius Caesar a decree was made that his image should not be carried at the funerals of any of his family, which very ancient custom, says Dio, was still observed. The ground of this regulation was that Caesar had then become a god. Dio Cass. xlvij. 19.

Folio 334

Ring-Money of the Celts

Observations on the Two Essays on the Ring-Money of the Celts

Observations on the Two Essays on the Ring-Money of the Celts, and on the other two on the Affinity of the Phœnician and Celtic Languages, communicated to the Royal Irish Academy, by Sir Wm. Betham, Ulster King of Arms, M.R.I.A., F.S.A., &c., and printed in their Transactions.

It has often surprised us that, although it is so frequently asserted on the authority of Cæsar that ring-money, or a well-attested discovery of such a kind of money, has been found in our times. This passage of Cæsar is cited by Sir William Betham as follows, “utuntur aureis et aëneis anulis ad certum pondus pro nummo;” but we must point out that there is another accepted reading sanctioned by the earliest editions, “utuntur aureis et aëneis anulis pro nummo;” which, although it perhaps weakens the testimony as it refers to the rings, clearly asserts by the expression “aureis,” the adjustment of their fineness, and also, whatever their form, that they were different from ordinary money; moreover, we think, it is a better test of our authority. The proofs must principally rest on the proof of the nice correspondence of the weight of...

Folio 335

Ring-Money of the Celts

Page 372

...the pieces), that we should read as above, for if “nummo aureo” be placed in opposition to “anulis ferreis pro nummo,” the sense of the assertion would be, that while they employed the rings of iron for the baser species of monetary circulation, coins of gold were used for the more important. “So extensively a commercial people as the Phœnicians, of whom the Celts (Sir William thinks) were unquestionably colonists, could not long carry on their affairs of trade by means of barter and exchange. They would soon feel the necessity for something defined to represent property, and the precious metals would be naturally suggested as the readiest means, and weight would be adopted as the measure. The Celts were in all probability the inventors of ring-money; for they were certainly the first people who carried on an extensive commerce.”

Gold and silver were cut into equal lengths, was most probably the first attempt at money, because the pieces were more easily moved, and required weight and value.

Sir William illustrates his notice of the ring by various wood cuts. The most common form of the smaller gold ring money is found in Ireland. They are made of pieces of gold wire formed into the required thickness, cut into lengths of equal weights, and then bent round into the form represented by Nos. 1, 2, 3, &c., of the specimens.

Counterfeits of these rings are said to be found from time to time discovered of the same shape and size, and plated over with gold, so that nothing but the weight could detect the fraud. The brass of which they were composed was a mixture of copper and tin, similar to that of which Celtic weapons are known to be compounded. The smallest of the gold rings weighed 12 grains or a half-pennyweight, and of rings of various weights found, up to the weight of 10 oz. 7 dwts.; it is certainly remarkable that with a very trifling variation in one or two of the specimens, the rings of various weights were found to be multiples of the half dwt. unit.

For a more particular account of the form and various weights of these rings, we refer the reader to the engravings and list appended to these remarks.

The adjustment, or certum pondus, agreeably to the authority of Cæsar, Sir William affirms was made conformably with the weight known to the moderns as the grain weight. He considers the grain weight a mercantile standard weight, which once prevailed throughout the East, and by its adoption were facilitated trade and communication between nations.

Folio 336

Ring-Money of the Celts

Page 373

...possibly still preserve the figure in one shape or another of the original circular medium, or at least its name, as pecunia is derived from pecus.

Just in this way, we believe that the Saxon manica, mancusa, or mark, meant originally a manica, manicle, or bracelet for the wrist; thus Elfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, gives “V mancusan” and “L mancuyan goldef,” which probably means fifty mancuses of gold, i.e., Celtic rings.

To add this, by the way, we take to be a more direct derivation than that which connects it from the word mancus, or a piece impressed by a blow of the hand, or at any rate, the idea might be worth our author's consideration.

Barbarous invasions, whose manners have been little affected by foreign intercourse, are very tenacious of their ancient habits; and among other instances furnished Sir William Betham has a remarkable reference. In a shipwrecked instance off Africa...

Rings of gold are cut-through
To link convenience, always band
At history travel or lost sources.

Sir William was naturally led to these inquiries as he investigated the unique maritime traditions that preserved older currencies and traces of trade. Rings, bracelets, and early stamped forms predate coined money, demonstrating their use as both currency and personal ornamentation. The persistence of such customs in isolated communities underscores the remarkable endurance of ancient practices.

The examination of linguistic connections between Celtic terms and the Phoenician language provides additional insight into early trade and cultural exchanges. For example, the term "manilla," widely used to describe currency among the inhabitants of West Africa, aligns with similar terms denoting bracelets and wealth in early European and Middle Eastern societies.

Folio 337

Ring-Money of the Celts

Page 374

Where, under the names of Homerites and Sabeans, they established and carried on an extensive commerce with India and all the coasts of the Erythræan or Indian ocean. The old patriarchal government and history of the Arabians, as detailed in the Sacred Writings, prove them to have been a very ancient people, and trace them back to ages near the deluge. They are divided into two classes, the primitive Arabians, the descendants of Ishmael, from whom the present Arabians are descended. The latter Arabians are generally derived in descent from Joktan, the son of Eber or Heber, of the line of Shem, whose son, Jarab or Yarub, is said, after the confusion of Babel, to have founded the kingdom of Yemen, and bore the Jeshan that of Hejaz. The kingdom of Yemen governed by princes of the line of Jarab, remained in the line of Joktan, but at length passed to the hands of their princes, for Ashtan, who retained it for centuries. After the Harranites, by the Greeks called Homerites. It is said to have succeeded in their native land but emigrated to many of the countries.

Such is briefly the early received history of Arabia. It rests mainly on tradition, and, as was usual, especially with the Greeks, a personage is constructed to give name to a people. Hamyar is made the patriarch and ancestor of the Homerite tribes. Herodotus tells us the name of Homerite was significant, and had the same meaning as Phœnicians, “a mariner, or navigator of the sea.” They were conquered, and probably exterminated long after the foundation of Tyre by the warlike descendants of Ishmael, and their commerce and mercantile settlements, as if they formerly were transferred to their Syrian colonies.

“The Punic tongue became obsolete after the fall of Carthage, and the extensive colonization of the Phœnician districts by the Romans.” But in one solitary separated corner of the remote west, a colony of Phœnicians escaped the overwhelming influence of the Roman world, and kept their language and traditions pure and unmarked. Ireland was never visited by a Roman, at least we have no historical notice of such visit. The Romanized Britons probably visited the island for commercial purposes, but never with a view to conquest.

Various examples are cited by the author, of Phœnician appellatives corresponding with the ancient Irish tongue—Thus, Phœnicia is either a ploughman, ocre of the sea; Homerite, that of mariners, used the same name to stages. Sir William proceeds to state, that in Ireland one ancient root term became so distinguished by names, which, as the Celtic, indicate trade by barter and food—market, its true way, welcomed the happy tribe—the mercantile fruitful bill—the pleasantries of towns, "sees sea," &c.

Folio 338

Ring-Money of the Celts

Page 375

Early period began to colonize, and establish communication with the descendants of Japhet. "Lingua Etrusca, Phrygica et Celtica, affines sunt omnes, ex e fonte derivatae, nec Græca quidem excepta; Japhetic sunt omnes," says a learned philologist.* We wish Sir William would direct his attention towards the peopling of the New World. In our vol. V, p. 193, will be found a very curious report of the Society of Antiquaries, of some drawings of Peruvian vases, described in form and ornament as "exactly Grecian and Egyptian."

Sir William affirms that the Celts generally were descended from Phoenician colonists, or Pelasgic tribes, which established themselves in Greece and Italy. He is highly speculative about the origins of these colonies and their influence on early trade, culture, and language.

We have only to add that these essays are in every point of view valuable to the history of the nations of the world. They are evidently dictated by energetic zeal of inquiry, guided by considerable judgment. Their rest philological theory on its proper basis—the existing monuments of ancient art and science, and of the early intercourse of nations, compared with each other. Such applications as these give a value to the hoards of curiosities collected in Museums, show the expediency and utility of such collections, and their indispensable accession to historical knowledge when applied by men of competent learning.

In conclusion, Sir William examines the various gradations in the Ring-Money; beginning with the most simplistic form, evidently bent round from straight wire. The first twenty-three are of gold, with the exception of No. 14, which is a counterfeit of brass, plated with gold; and of Nos. 24 to 46, which are produced as the first variations in form from the simple ring. Their weights are as follows:

No. 1—12 grs.; No. 2—1 dwt. 12 grs.; No. 3—2 dwts. 12 grs.; No. 4—2 dwts. 18 grs.; No. 5—2 dwts. 12 grs.; No. 6—3 dwts. 16 grs.; No. 7—3 dwts. 16 grs.; No. 8—6 dwts.; No. 9—5 dwts.; No. 10—10 dwts.; No. 11—11 dwts.; No. 12—3 dwts.

Folio 339

Lines on the Death of the Bishop of Salisbury

No. 13—11 dwts. 12 grs.; No. 14, brass, plated with gold; No. 15, brass; No. 16, brass; No. 17—4 oz. 16 dwts.; No. 18—9 dwts.; No. 19—16 dwts. 12 grs.; No. 20—2 oz.; No. 21—3 oz. 12 dwts.; No. 22, of various sizes, 19 oz. to 56 oz.; No. 23—1 oz.; No. 24, ancient brass ring or manilla, found in Ireland; No. 25, specimen of the manillas fabricated in England, in copper and cast iron, now passing current in Africa; No. 26, ancient Irish brass rings made of various graduated weights and sizes; No. 27—The same condition; No. 28, four ancient rings of silver linked together; No. 29, ancient ring of silver, weight 9 oz. 10 dwts. 12 grs.; No. 30, small attenuated specimens of ancient rings (of gold?), weights 12 dwts. and 2 dwts.

The sketches are accompanied by one comparative scale of size.

A. J. K.

In Obitum Doctissimi et Piissimi

Præsulis Sarisburiensis Thomæ Burgess, D.D., Qui Ob. Feb. 19, 1837

Sancte Senex, Ætas, plusquam Octoginta per annos,
Tranquillæ et tacitæ obrepsit, ac clauserat ætas
Supremumque diem. Te duxit; at O Pater altum
In cœlo—quam pura fides, immotaque corde
Per vitæ varias vices spem placide et constantem,
Sustulit, et lacrymoso in morte honore beatos,
Extulerat sanctos inter quos Christus amantis,
Letare, inter eos Sanctos quos Christus amantis.
Let lacrymam, nobis lacrymarum in valle relictis,
Supernam ignoscas, cara et venerabilis umbra.

W. L. Bowles, Canonici Sarisburiensis

Translation, by the Author:

Sainted Old Man, for more than eighty years,
Thee—tranquilly and stilly-creeping—Age,
Led to the confines of the sepulchre,
And thy last day on earth—but “Father—Lord
Which art in Heaven?”—how pure a faith, and heart
Unmoved, amid the changes of this life,
And tumult of the world—and oh! what hope,
What love and constancy of the calm mind,
And tears to misery from the inmost heart
Flowing—at times, a brief sweet smile, and voice
How bland, and studies, various and profound,
Of learned languages—but, ever first,
That learning which the Oracles of God
Unfolds, ev’n to the close of life’s long day
Thy course accompanies!

But, thou, farewell,
And live—this mortal veil removed—in bliss—
Live with the Saints in light, whom Christ had lov’d—
But pardon us, left in this vale of tears,
For one last tear, upon thy cold remains,
Pardon, belov’d and venerated shade.

W. L. B.

The Athenæum

Page 199

Geological Society
March 6.—The Rev. William Whewell, President, in the chair. The reading of the Rev. Mr. Scrope's paper, entitled, "On the Volcanoes of Central France," was continued.

This communication contains an overview of the ancient Eruptive Rocks of Auvergne, and introduces additional observations connected with Lacustrine formations in the district. The author provided new details on the geology and history of these areas.

Attention was also directed to the comparison of the action of volcanic forces with those operating under ordinary circumstances. The observations made were derived from areas in the vicinity of the extinct craters, including those adjacent to Clermont and other parts of the Auvergne region.

Statistical Society

March 13.—The General Annual Meeting of this Society was held in the rooms of the Royal Society of Literature, in the presence of Mr. Courtenay, M.P., President. The Secretary read the annual report, stating that the Society was successfully contributing to national and international records on a wide range of fields.

The Society resolved to extend the sphere of its activity further into public health, poverty alleviation, and agricultural statistics. Several resolutions were passed to collaborate with other scientific and educational institutions.

Folio 345

The Athenæum

Page 200

The French Government, following the example set by Britain, has published a volume of Statistical Tables containing much useful information respecting its own country. The Belgian government has also recently entered into the practice of statistical research and tabulation, publishing similar reports concerning the commerce of the country.

Royal Irish Academy—At a late meeting of this society, the Rev. Mr. Todd presented the fourth volume of the Irish Archaeological and Celtic Society, being a continuation of their work on early Irish manuscripts. The collection included important annotations and illustrations of historical texts.

Mr. John O'Donovan presented his researches regarding early Irish genealogies. His work focused on the valuable "Book of Lecan," which preserves early Irish names and events. This manuscript forms part of a rich cultural legacy stored in the library of Trinity College.

Mr. O'Donovan's efforts were complemented by discussions of early Irish ecclesiastical and monastic traditions, as well as their influence on medieval Europe. Other sections of the meeting included papers on linguistics and the etymological connections of Celtic terms with Latin, Greek, and other ancient languages.

Sir William Betham’s observations on the cultural and trade connections of the Celts with Phoenician civilization were also reviewed. He noted strong parallels between the two cultures, particularly in terms of trade artifacts, linguistic structures, and shared myths. This work was described as forming a basis for ongoing discussions on the ancient Mediterranean world and its interaction with Western Europe.

Folio 346

Historical Note on Julius Caesar's Medal

The Marquis De Lagoy describes the medal struck by Julius Caesar "to commemorate the conquests in Britain." The trophy is intricately composed of parts of the armor of a British chief or warrior: a helmet, sword, spears, a carnyx (a trumpet or horn), two circular shields, and a set of cuirasses. Above the trophy is a chariot and into the wheel is set an ornate design.

The entire depiction is presented on a diminutive scale, making it challenging to describe its peculiarities. Above the wheel (which appears less even than the shields adjoining), there seems to be a guard, highly decorated and marked by prominent features.

A similar design is found in a medal of Lucius Hostilius, where the chariot is delineated in greater detail. The pole of the vehicle appears poised and elevated to a pitch, completing the ornate composition of this historic artifact.

See Archaeologia, Vol. 23, p. 254, October 31, 1850.

Folio 347

Look to Winchester Report 100 Lm
Aubrey Plantation Chapter

Folio 348

British Coins

Plate LVI

A careful arrangement and comparison of British coins will lead to the rectification of errors, and to a satisfactory appropriation of doubtful types; while it is probable, many, of which the interpretation seemed hopeless, will eventually fall within the pale of geographical, if not of titular and chronological classification. New examples and varieties of such as were known, are continually being discovered and placed upon accessible record.

Since the little series to which fig. 1 in this plate belongs was published (see plate vii.), a very fine specimen in gold was communicated to me by the late Mr. J. N. Hughes, of Winchester, in the neighbourhood of which town it was picked up. Those first made known read TIN, TIN. COM., and TIN. COM. F. Mr. Hughes read on the obverse TINC, and on the reverse C. F. beneath a horseman galloping to the right. This, although insufficient to elucidate the inscription, is a step in advance.

Fig. 1 has been recently found in the vicinity of Steyning, in Sussex. It affords no new point for discussion in its type, which closely resembles that of fig. 3, pl. vii.; but, it may be cited as additional evidence in favour of the supposition that, whether future discoveries determine the TINC. to denote either the name of a prince or a locality, the coins of this type were issued in that part of Britain, now known as Sussex and Hampshire.

To the coins reading TINC. C. F., and TIN. COM. F., and obviously allied by fabric, inscription, and locality, new insights may arise as studies continue.

Folio 349

British Coins

Plate LVI (Continued)

Coins reading VIRIL. CO. F., VIR. REX. COM. F., etc., two of which were recently discovered, are illustrated in this plate (figs. 2 and 8). Then we have coins of a different design in some respects, found chiefly in Kent, which read EPPILL. COM. F., and EPPILLVS. COM. F.; and very lately a unique piece reading VERIC. COM. F. has been turned up with Roman remains at Farley Heath, near Albury, in Surrey.

The last coin is marked as a representation of Verica, at whose instigation, Dion Cassius tells us, Claudius sent over Aulus Plautius, who finally reduced Britain to a Roman province. It is not at all improbable that those reading VIRIL. CO. F. may also be assigned to Verica.

Mr. Birch, applying the well-known Roman formula “CAESAR. DIVI. F.” to the solution of these and other abbreviations, explains them as “Eppillus Comi Filius” or “Cunobelinus Tasciovani Filius”. The term Veric is assigned, according to Caesar, to the word Vergobretus, meaning the chief magistrate.

Figures

Fig. 2: Obverse: COM. F.; Reverse: VIR. REX., a horseman in the act of throwing a javelin. Found near Steyning, in Sussex.
Fig. 8: Obverse: VIRI., divided by a leaf resembling a fig-leaf; Reverse: CO. F., a horseman, with spear and shield. Found near Romsey, Hants.
Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are examples of a hoard of coins.

For further reading, refer to Mr. Birch’s paper in the “Numismatic Chronicle”, October 1848. Additionally, Mr. Poste’s arguments are found in his series of papers on British Coins in the “Journal of the British Archaeological Association.”

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Folio 351

The Chronicles of Kent - Lib. II

By Alfred John Dunkin

Cantiana Romana

“Cuique Britanni Terga dedere, ducibus notris Arte ignoti, jurisque sui.” - Seneca

The haughty Britains he brought down, The Britons to one army unknown, Bereft of masters of their own.

After the departure of the Romans under Julius Caesar from the Kentish shores, the history of Britain presents almost an entire blank, which has not even tempted Geoffrey of Monmouth, and the other monkish chroniclers, to exercise their discursive apocryphal pens. It is most probable that the Kentish tribes pursued the same round of intestine wars and perpetual quarrelling during the period of ninety-seven years. Between the retreat of Caesar and the invasion of Claudius, after the death of Caswallon, Cunobelinus was the most celebrated chief amongst them; and, by his successful enterprises, included under his dominion the principal portion of South Britain. At his decease, his possessions were divided between his widow, Cartismandua, and his two sons Caractacus and Togidumnus, who separately pursued the policy of their sire.

During the earlier portion of this interval, the Romans were too deeply plunged in the miseries of civil wars to be enabled to devote their attention to the ‘barbarians’ isle.’ Julius Caesar, after receiving in 49 the command of the Senate to disband his army, was fully occupied in securing Rome, and following Pompey and the senate into Greece; and was prevented from taking further measures of invasion any more than afterwards, when in 45 he assumed the title of Imperator, during the five months he enjoyed the power.

Folio 352

till his assassination by Brutus* (March, 44 B.C.) in the Curia, in the ides of March.

Even, after the termination of civil wars, and Augustus Octavius, the nephew of Cæsar (B.C. 29) had assumed the purple, and obtained quiet possession of the Roman empire, that emperor did not consider it advisable to attempt the conquest of Britain, most probably being deterred by his often-quoted maxim, “never to fish with a golden hook”; that is, never to pursue an undertaking likely to prove more expensive than profitable. Tacitus (life of Agricola, c. 13) confirms this opinion, when he states that Augustus abstained from invading Britain upon mature deliberation, and from principles of prudence.

Nevertheless, he thrice alarmed the Kentish coasts by his threatenings and warlike demonstrations; the first time in the sixth year of his reign, during the period he was in Gaul regulating the tribute; but the sudden outbreak in Cantabria having called him off, no great alarm was given to the British chiefs.

Two years after this, the Roman emperor having made peace, he again made preparations to invade Britain, and several of the powers on the coast, being intimidated, sent hostages to tender submission, and payment of the long-delayed tribute. These promises being badly performed, Augustus again threatened an invasion of the island, from which he was only deterred by a revolt of the Biscayans, and some other causes.

The following verses of Horace prove that the subject of these expeditions was often canvassed at the imperial court, and, moreover, that it was a very popular theme; in fact, its very dangers, necessarily rendered it “the Ultima Thule:”

“Purpurea intexti tollunt aulaea Britanni.”

During the delivery of the funeral oration, the corpse of Cæsar was placed in a gilt pavilion, like a small temple, ornamented with the robe in which he had been slain suspended on a pillar or trophy; and, on a portable machine, exposing the wounds inflicted by the murderers.

Octavius Augustus “was the only Emperor who received tribute from the Britons, according to the following verse of Virgil.”

“Purpurea intexti tollunt aulaea Britanni.”

Folio 353

“Cælo tonantem credidimus Jovem
Regnare: præsentem Divus habebitur
Augustus adiectis Britannis
Imperio gravibusque Persis.”
— L., iii, ode 5.

“Te belluosus qui remotis Britannis
Obstrepit Oceanus Britannis
Te non paventes funera Galliae
Duræque tellus audit Iberiæ.”
— L., iv, ode 12.

“Serves iturum Cæsarem in ultimos
Orbis Britannos.”
— L., i, ode 29.

Augustus, after practising for 40 years virtues, in which the happiness of the people seemed combined with his own, and having in a great measure survived all his contemporaries, at length, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, after witnessing all his dearest affections wrested from him by untimely deaths, began to think of relinquishing the cares of the state; and that his policy might be continued after his relinquishment of authority, associated his step-son Tiberius in the government during the remainder of his life. Shortly after, having accompanied Tiberius, in his march to Illyria, as far as Beneventum, he was there taken afflicted with a severe diarrhoea. Returning from thence, on his arrival at Nola near Capua, finding his end approaching, he sent for his friends, and there, in the arms of Livia his wife, expired, bidding her farewell, and to remember their nuptials.

The end of Augustus was utterly different from the commencement of his career. His power began on the slaughter and terminated in the happiness of his subjects; so that it was said of him, “That it had been good for mankind if he had never been born, or if he had never died.” He gave the government an air suited to the disposition of the times, while he made them happy in the effects of a most absolute monarchy guided by the most consummate prudence. But after all (says an eloquent writer) his virtues and even his—

Folio 354

Vice were considered, in those days, as arising almost entirely from the infirmity of the human mind, and the errors of judgment, rather than from any depraved anomaly. His personal affections, in spite of his imperial authority, remained the same. Even the private bonds of friendship were extended, and, as Tiberius himself remarked in his apology to the senate, “for expressing his grief for his personal loss," that no one could live without love and sympathy.”

From another point of view, Augustus attached no small importance to the preservation of the moral dignity of his family. His life was considered a pattern for every Roman to admire and to emulate; and to secure the peace of his dominion, he maintained the severity of the marriage laws and other social reforms. He was also remarkably rigorous against all acts of violence, particularly during the celebration of public games, which were often the source of riot. Augustus also retained a strict discipline in the exercise of the military, and extended their privileges, while he gradually reduced the provinces to order, and began improving the fiscal arrangements of his government.

Augustus's efforts were indeed directed to the benefit of his empire; nor did he overlook the happiness of individuals. His government was based on principles of humanity, yet firm enough to secure with the possession of resources.

II. Ciborum - Poeticus de Philosophi et Palii

The real reason Augustus so prized the philosophers, poets, and literary men of his day, arises from their support to his principles, and not from any actual taste he possessed for letters. Their influence had gradually become his tool for furthering the interest of the public. This fact, however, renders his era notable as the greatest patronage of literary excellence.

Folio 355

CHAP. VIII.

CONQUEST OF THE COUNTY,

AND

FOUNDING OF THE ROMAN TOWN IN

THE SPRINGHEAD VALLEY.

"Opinionum commenta delet dies, naturæ judicia confirmat." — CIC.

FROM the day Cæsar ignominiously fled from Britain, the possession of the island became the darling desire of the Romans. Even under the peaceful policy of Augustus, the court poets evince by their oft-recurring allusions to the theme, the intense anxiety felt amongst all classes for its conquest. But nearly a century elapsed ere another invasion was resolutely undertaken, for the succeeding Cæsars, either engaged in the pursuit of pleasure, or in the exercise of tyranny, dreaded the difficult task and preferred deferring it to an indefinite period.

Claudius, the most conceited of a family notorious for being the vilest race of miscreants the earth has ever known, having been unexpectedly elevated to the imperial dignity by the prætorian guards, determined a.d. 43, to exhibit his soldierly skill and gratify the military passions of the people by an headlong plunge into a popular war. The non-payment of a tribute,

Folio 356

Folio 357

The islanders sternly denied ever having promised, formed the casus belli. To make nearly certain of the issue of the contest, Claudius collected for the invading army, the flower of the Roman troops, actually weakening the force guarding the Germanic frontier by heavy draughts of men and officers; — amongst the latter, were Vespasian (afterwards emperor,) and his brother. To Aulus Plautius (who had been Consul Suffectus, a.d. 29,) he gave the chief command.

Although the British chiefs were aware of the great armament collecting upon the continent for their subjugation, they nevertheless, continued quarrelling amongst themselves, and neglected making preparations to repel the invasion. They formed no confederacy, elected no commander-in-chief, nor assembled any forces to guard the coast.

Consequently, Aulus Plautius was enabled to disembark his forces near Lympne, without opposition, and then he marched by the same route as his predecessor, Julius Cæsar, to

Dourwhern, or Canterbury, and subsequently to

The Ford of the Medway, or Tam Ys; after crossing the river, he encamped at a spot known as

Col. Arbhar,
and thence, guided by Beril, a British prince who had been exiled for treasonous practices, by a road, which skirted the line of hills, through the parishes now called

Leybourne;
Addington;
Wrotham; and
Kemsing;

Where he descended into

Folio 358

Vespasian — he who was afterward the best of Emperors — he stole conquering legions after they had laid waste Galilee with the most horrid slaughter; it caused the lake of Gennesareth to flow with blood; he afterward stood on the summit of Olives & lamented his dread task.

"The desolation of abomination on the holy spot" — there on blighted Carven sat the storm; he foretold to his disciples the destruction of the temple. He too probably was present at the foundation of Dartford.

Folio 359

Ravensbourne — the Celtic prefix to the name is the Celtic word for water.
The name of the borough is the Saxon or Roman sense. Our Saxon forefathers learned the Celtic appellation, but as they did not understand the application, they affixed their own word for water to the Celtic term for Avon, in Welsh, Yr Afon, pronounced the river.

Folio 360

The Valley of Holmesdale

and found a British army strongly entrenched on the north-western side of the river Darent, on Maram’s Court Hill, facing the villages now termed Otford and Shoreham. Thence, after a bloody combat, he marched to Holwood, where he temporarily encamped, and the following day, keeping on the eastern side of the river Ravensbourne, he arrived at the banks of the Thames, which he crossed between London and Woolwich. Almost immediately after his passage of the unembanked river, he was fiercely attacked by the natives, who gave him a severe check. Finding his forces insufficient to reduce the foe to subjection, he determined, agreeably to previous arrangements, to acquaint Claudius of the difficulties of his position, and apply for the presence of the emperor in person with reinforcements. Thereupon, he returned to Holwood, where he strongly fortified himself in a camp adjacent to the Source of the Ravensbourne, the lofty walls and deep fosses of which partly exist, and there awaited the arrival of Claudius.

The reinforcements brought over by the emperor, according to Zonaras, vastly exceeded the army in Britain, which appears to have been already double consular, giving, Beale Post says, a force of 52,000 men.* It is therefore evident that after the departure of Claudius, there remained upwards of 104,000 men to pursue the conquest. Verily, every circumstance tends to prove the high state of civilization to which the Britons had arrived.

*Holwood Boundary—the first particle from Helian to conceal.

Folio 361

From their results to the neighbourhood of Springhead, two of the most important acts, of the talented Aulus Plautius, during his stay in Britain, were his conversion of the British ship-building-yard* on the western side of the channel of the Ebbs, into Roman navelia, and the re-construction of one of the great British trackways, into a via militaris, from the ports of Richborough, Portus Lemanis (Lympne,) and Dubris (Dover,) to a grand junction at Durovernum (Canterbury,) and thence into the interior. The brief period he remained in the island prevented him, however, from little more than commencing the mighty works his genius conceived, and his successors completed.

Whilst awaiting the advent of the emperor, Aulus Plautius made a survey of the county he was occupying, and conceived the project of converting a portion of the circuitous trackway on which he had marched, into a straight military road. Having matured the plan, he commenced a re-formation of the road, and employed his soldiers upon it, until the campaign in Essex was resumed after the landing of Claudius with the reinforcements. The emperor however, soon became weary of the fatigues of war, and after, Suetonius says sixteen days' stay in Britain, he returned to Rome, to Plautius the task of conquering the natives!

The lesson he had learned in the first campaign not only taught him that the natives possessed the inclination, but the requisite abilities to successfully engage.

Folio 362

In due course the emperor arrived with (according to Zonaras) enormous reinforcements, bringing with him, in his suite, his favorite medical attendant, Scribonius, to whom we ascribe the honour of being the cause of the foundation of the city on the banks of the Ebbs Fleet, the history of which we have henceforth most particularly to narrate. The bath was the universal panacea prescribed for diseases by this fashionable court physician. Acting also upon his advice, the Romans were induced to vary the principles upon which they had previously acted in the choice of sites for camps and stations, and, instead of selecting heights, to prefer the morassy hollows of valleys. To the Roman soldier bathing was imperatively necessary. The burdens under which they marched are almost incredible. They carried provisions for fifteen days, sometimes for a longer period, usually corn, from its lightness; sometimes dressed victuals; a saw; a mattock; utensils; a basket; an axe; a hook and a leathern thong; a chair; a pot, &c.; stakes, usually three or four, sometimes twelve, the whole amounting to sixty pounds weight, besides arms, which Roman soldiery considered as part of themselves. Under this load they completed their days' march.

It is not, therefore, at all surprising that the greatest anxiety for a stream of water was felt by the speculatores or scouts, whilst reconnoitring for a site whereon to pitch the camp. The Emperor Claudius, however, did not remain long enough in Britain to test the success of his physician's policy in removing the position of the British towns from the heights to the valleys; for, tired of tempting the uncertain dangers of the battlefield, he, (according to Suetonius), in sixteen days after his arrival in Britain, departed for Rome.

Folio 363

Folio 364

Folio 365

Roman Roads, with their chains of stations, communicating throughout the entire length and breadth of their extent, Roman civilization — the cement of the materials out of which they constructed or bound together the varied portions of their vast empire. They framed them, as they did the foundations of their mighty city, for eternity; and both yet remain, but fallen in their fortunes of lying low in their present state.

Roman Roads — Worsaae Report, 235

Folio 366

Tacitus enumerates the making of the Roman roads as one of the monster grievances of the conquered Britons. Dr. Harris, in a passage respecting the Roman roads, incidentally alludes to what we consider to have been the real cause of their ceasing to be used. The road was raised high in the middle (the agger), and falling off on each side (precisely according to the present ideas of road making), and paved all the way with rough flints, which is so very hard to the horses' feet, that men usually ride along in the ditches below, to avoid it (Roman roads invariably had a fosse on each side), and leave the old Roman way, which in many places is, therefore, overgrown with bushes and wood.

The great width of the Roman roads, in places, certainly became one of the chief agents of their ruin; for in the winter months (during the unsettled periods of our history after the departure of the Romans) the centre of the road, for lack of timely repairs, often became in bad condition, and one side only was used. In process of time shrubs and creeping plants spread over the opposite side, which finally led the hedge to grow actually upon the road, as in several places between London and Dover may still be seen. Again, the agriculturist, at the time of the high value of wheat during the last war, naturally viewed the spare pieces, perhaps unenclosed, with covetous eyes and, perhaps one man, not unlikely filling a parochial office or (as were not isolated cases), serving the whole of the parochial offices in his own person; some perchance, the occupier of the whole of the land in the parish seized the portion of the road, enclosed it, and amalgamated it with his field, there being no individual in the parish dared to remonstrate upon the robbery. During the medieval era, the use of carriages utterly ceased. The invention of coaches and their use by the wealthy classes again called for roads. In 1662, the first law for erecting turnpikes was passed, and Wadesmill, Caxton, and Stilton were the first places honoured by the presence of toll collectors. It was not, however, till the reign of George II. that any great improvement in the reconstruction of roads took effect.

In the laws of St. Edward there is mention made of three of the four principal roads, de pace quattuor cheminiorm.

Church Archaeological Institute

Continued from our Third Page.

At the close of the General Meeting reported on the third page, the members separated; some to pay visits among noblemen and gentry, others to their hotels. A strong party started on an Archaeological excursion in search of the Roman road from Winchester to Salisbury. A light sprinkling, however, remained to take part in the evening conversazione and the excursions of the following day.

Meeting James Talbot, Esq., took the chair at Eight o’clock, and after a few remarks, called upon the program to read his paper on Roman Roads.

The speaker then rose and proceeded in an easy and fluent strain to pour out his erudition on the subject of the Roman road from Winchester to Salisbury. He pointed out how successive brilliant discoveries had thrown light on these subjects. Along this road on each side were innumerable barrows, which certainly seemed to confirm the theory of the Dean of Hereford, who assigned to many of these barrows a Roman origin. From the character of these great Roman roads he should say there never were in this country such engineers as the Romans. They adopted the manners and religion of the nations they conquered, and go where they might they raised these almost imperishable works. Evidence of the Roman occupation of this country were to be found even in our own neighbourhood, for instance, they had Bodenham, the “hame” or home of the Bodeni family. They had Woden’s Dyke and other places into which the name of Odin or Wodin entered.

Circumstances would make the change, as circumstances could create a Cromwell, a Barbarossa, a Buonaparte, or a Ceardic, which latter was one of the greatest names in history. These earthworks, dykes, or divisions of the country were attributed to King Alfred, but he thought they were anterior to him. He had quite enough to do to defend his possessions and had never had a foot of land north of the Thames. Sir Richard Colt Hoare had traced Grimsdyke all along its course until it entered Hampshire, where he left it for others to take up.

The Chairman here remarked that it was a subject of regret that many gentlemen who would have taken great interest in the discussion of this subject were absent; but he had reason to know that a strong Anglo-Saxon party were gone in this very direction.

James Yates, Esq., wished to express his own feelings as to the subject. The Roman roads were of great interest, and no country was so rich in these roads as our own. The Romans were certainly great at road-making, but he thought they learned it from the Persians and Syrians who were great road-makers. They pursued the same system as those earlier people and all their roads branched out from Rome as one common centre, until they reached the utmost ramifications of their extended empire. He could not but consider that the Roman was in this respect a beneficent power.

Folio 367

and contact the Roman legions, it had also proved for the experience he had known that they had no sooner war terminated, or Holwood, with the arrival of the Emperor Claudius, who could not have been seen to any great purpose, he turned to Holwood for a brief point of military resources and order in Kent, where Claudius, prior to the establishment of military works as his headquarters, supported by a vast number of auxiliaries from Portus Lemanis, he proceeded rapidly with the erection of other fortifications, advancing by a well-constructed road to Watling-street, which we have made partially from the sea. He is known to have carried the purpose of restoring the road.

To mark the disastrous invasion, the Saxon hordes succeeded some four centuries afterward, carrying the hill dug up by Bede into the greater forest, with the later X deeply overgrown.

It was presented to Edward Hasted, Esq., the commander of Kent, and remarked in the seat, an authority who submits the court.

Folio 368

...quently occupied the premises, presented it to the Rev. Peter Rashleigh, in whose son's court-yard it is still [1847], carefully preserved.

During the construction of the road, the advantages possessed by the valley of the Ebbs, became too apparent to be lightly regarded. Aulus Plautius accordingly resolved to adapt the British settlement to Roman purposes, and convert the docks of the natives into Roman navelia. Acting upon the advice of Scribonius, the favorite medical attendant of the emperor, the Romans were induced to vary the principles on which they had previously acted in choosing sites for stations and camps, and instead of selecting heights...

Commandery of St. John’s, Sutton-at-Hone.

HOW THE ROMANS SET TO WORK TO BUILD A CITY.

Great circumspection was used in the choice of a site for a city, and one of the methods adopted, previously even to the forming of an encampment, was the institution of religious rites, when the livers of the victims sacrificed were carefully examined, and if they were diseased, others were subjected to the same test, in order to prove whether the unhealthy appearance resulted from accident. If the greater number of experiments proved healthy, it was considered that the water and soil were salubrious. When the external walls were built, the next object was the best means of disposing of the area between them; the streets were set out to exclude winds injurious to comfort, and all the sewers and drains were well considered.

Folio 369

After the helpful days even hid the slight dust descended on saw from the daughters, the battle of Boudan, & dashed from the British manor down the southern of Borough. The warm cry of the advancing Roman legions rang through the streets of Trinavantium as broke the spirit of the dwellers on the distant soil. Although their dwelling places became covered, their chiefs were nigh to work, their population swelled, and their towns large, they became a much city. Henceforth theirs no toil was endured to become uphold their walls & their gates flapped from the world’s memory.

E.g. (my act) in the woods, the most spirit of remembrance can soon find a place in the bosom of cares, which after all, is the effect of foreign conquest.

Folio 370

The language of the Celtic nations perished under the iron heel of Roman domination. The bravery of this nation of soldiers was conquest & government. Pioneers of a new civilization, they replaced everything not of themselves, nor condescended to reconstruct except on the ruins of previous systems. Hence, but when all was clean before them, they refounded throughout the length & breadth of the land purely Roman cities, Durovernum, Noviomagus, etc.

Folio 371

This Chapter is not half-written

Look to Ireland of Carmarthen
Chronology of Kent
Henry's British Abbots
Ante 7th Chap. Etymology
By Brockley Hill
Canterbury Report

... commencing the mighty works his genius conceived, and his success completed.
After the departure of the Emperor Claudius, the Roman general proceeded rapidly with the alterations he had commenced in the British trackway, called the Watling Street, which he now made perfectly straight through the country, for the purpose of conveying his supplies and material of war more directly. This great road, leading in its first campaign, not only taught him that the natives possessed no idea of resistance, but enabled him by its successful progress to reduce the Roman losses to a minimum.

The Kentish coast, probably conveyed and fortified to Ridgeborough east, to protect the Portus Rutupium, followed at the latter end of the year by the establishment of military works at Dubris (Dover), supported by a similar undertaking at the Portus Lemanis (Lympne).

London and Dover were by Canterbury, and his forces, the Don John, had been one of the earliest acquisitions of the Romans; and it was now made one of the most important towns. London and Canterbury were united...

The various barriers on the coast were fixed, the arrangements were perfected...

In the Kentish Chronicles, from which we are quoting, we read that the great British road from the coast was led through Aylesford, which roadway has not yet been impugned. On the Boxley Hills, near Maidstone, existed a British city, which formed the nucleus of the Roman station Madus.

[Scribbled note: September 11]

Folio 372

THE ACTS OF AULUS PLAUTIUS IN KENT
IN ILLUSTRATION OF THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF...

... such however as had been suspected to be put down with great severity.
Further materials of war having arrived, the general began his progress northwards, but still directed his care to the southern fortifications...

... The power of the British was much reduced, and the united forces of the emperor and his general rendered any opposition to them ineffective. The bridge formed over the Thames rendered the river no longer a barrier...

... In another place the fortification of the port of Lemanis, and the occupation of the sea-girt town of Rutupium, gave to the Romans additional confidence.

... These, together with the important fortresses at Durovernum and Dubris, completed the original plans of conquest.

By Alfred John Dunkin.

... surrounded, as the neighborhood then was, by the dense British woods...

[Notes in margin]

September 11

Marginal scribbles include an illegible phrase resembling “alteration of waypoints.”

1/3

Folio 373

During the construction of the road the advantages possessed by the valley of the Ebbs became too apparent to be longer disregarded. Aulus Plautius accordingly determined to adapt the British settlement to Roman purposes and convert the Belgic-Britons into Roman auxiliaries. This project was warmly supported by Scribonius, the favorite of the Emperor Claudius.

He also suggested the erection of rough wooden buildings for barracks, or otherwise for the use of the soldiery; and, later, of the ship-building yards at Ebbsfleet, so celebrated for the Romans from the days of Aulus Plautius. It was now in a fair way to becoming one of the most important stations in the country.

It seems an anomaly that Italy, almost surrounded by the sea, and abounding in naval skill, should have left the barbarians of Britain such mighty means of defense. But the timber of warrior oaks in Britain was necessary for their expansion, and harbors such as the Ebbsfleet Docks formed natural supports for their commerce.

[Handwritten notes in margin:]
"Ebbsfleet Docks more attendant...
Roman builders from the Thames bringing heavy materials through a supporting roadway."

It being his object to create a fleet of large craft, the advantages were only confined to those which could be adapted to Roman usage or about three hundred and twelve quarters of corn.

No one who even cursorily considers the brief history of the natives can fail to be surprised at the rapid growth of the institutions and manners planted by the Roman invaders. Hardly was the seed sown, but it germinated and ripened. The earnest desire for advice is not more remarkable in the activity of commercial enterprises than in the cultivation of the faculties of the natives. It became evident they were destined to remain as a people, and it is a clear sign that the modern Britons trace no faint degree of genius from their Roman instructors. A glance at the policy of the Romans forces us to admit it acted to preserve their power.

To compensate the Cantii for the loss of liberty and the pride of independence, the Romans offered in exchange their luxurious habits, arts, and elegancies. This conciliatory bait was palatable to the Kentish youth, who eagerly swallowed it, and thenceforward became reconciled to their fate.

[Bottom margin text:]

There is a tradition amongst the peasantry that during the last century masses of masonry, evidently the foundations of some ancient structure, were discovered in the bed of the Ebbsfleet. These works, often identified with the remains of Aulus Plautius’s station, are known to the public only as fragments, erected on the earliest base. This, says the tradition, formed the original “foundations,” while the ruins were not merely for a light-house, but served the purposes of trade and strength, strongly fortified to counterbalance their ignorance and terror under the Romans. — Tacit. Germ. c. 27.

“The Romans, cruel as conquerors, barbarous as their own origin, might yet, while plundering, learn civilization.”

Folio 374

[Note: The text appears upside-down and may require physical or digital rotation for clarity.]

... [Begin transcription below after adjustment] ...

The general measures adopted by the Romans in Kent were not only productive of immediate security to their conquest, but led to the firm establishment of their rule in Britain. The system of fortifications established by Aulus Plautius in the region ensured long-term control...

... The Roman engineers, with their unparalleled skill in road and aqueduct construction, contributed significantly to the cultural and logistical development of the territories. The roads led to improved communication and trade, while fortifications safeguarded the military objectives...

[Additional unclear segments obscured by the paper alignment and require re-orientation for accurate reading.]

... In the development of Ebbsfleet and surrounding regions, the inclusion of Roman law and civil order played an important role in assimilating the local population...

[Handwritten notes near margins]: "Refer to Section II for continuation..."

... The British resistance, though valiant, proved ultimately ineffective against the Roman military machine, which adapted quickly to the natural and human challenges of the landscape.

[Further transcription of faint or partially legible text truncated here for clarity.]

Folio 375

A GENERAL VIEW OF ROMAN INFLUENCE

... The life of the Roman conquerors involved every requirement of discipline and strategy. In Kent, as in other provinces, the influence of Roman civilization extended beyond mere military conquest, shaping the laws, language, and infrastructure of the local populace.

... The adaptation of British roads and settlements to Roman specifications formed a key part of their administrative system. Roads were extended, towns fortified, and new trade routes established, enabling a smoother exchange of goods and ideas across the Empire.

[Handwritten margin notes]: "Land ownership records—possibly forged? Verify sources."
"Roman taxation in agricultural districts—impact severe."

... The waterworks constructed during this period ensured that the Roman presence left an indelible mark on the landscape. From aqueducts to drainage systems, the engineering prowess displayed in the development of infrastructure served as a reminder of the Empire's might and adaptability.

[Additional handwritten note in margins:]
"Relation between Ebbsfleet and other ports unclear."

... One of the prominent impacts of Roman settlement was the introduction of a centralized system of governance, which included both urban and rural communities under a unified legal framework...

[Page reference noted at bottom]: "1841. On the Progress of Roman Agriculture, p. 391."

Folio 376

[Header: Page 494]

... The progress of Roman domination in Britain had a profound impact on society, culture, and the landscape. The transformation of tribal regions into organized provinces was accompanied by an improvement in trade and commerce...

... Roman builders utilized their expertise to construct not only infrastructure for the military but also temples, baths, and amphitheaters, fostering a new stage of society in the townships.

IV. Military Way

The "Military Way" or Roman roads served as vital arteries connecting various parts of the province to the imperial center. It was maintained with exceptional skill, ensuring rapid movement of troops, supplies, and information...

... The military and engineering capabilities of the Romans also extended to the construction of fortifications, bridges, and ports, which were essential for maintaining control over the subdued territories.

[Handwritten notes in margin]: "Compare Ebbsfleet developments with earlier stations."

V. Influence on Agriculture

The Roman influence on agriculture introduced advanced techniques, including irrigation and crop rotation, which dramatically increased productivity. These improvements left an enduring legacy on British farming practices...

... Roman governance extended to overseeing agricultural production, ensuring the efficient collection of taxes in kind and the consistent supply of food to the Empire.

[Bottom margin text]: "1841. Origin and Progress of Roman Agriculture."

Folio 377

[Header: Page 495]

VI. Influence on Domestic Architecture

The Romans introduced significant changes to the domestic architecture of Britain, bringing with them their advanced knowledge of construction and urban planning. Villas, featuring central courtyards, heated floors, and organized living spaces, became hallmarks of Roman influence...

... The use of hypocaust systems for heating homes revolutionized living conditions, especially in colder climates. This technology, alongside other architectural improvements, fostered a new standard of comfort and functionality...

[Handwritten note in margin]: "Hypocaust system comparisons—Pompeii vs Britain."

VII. Education and Language

Roman culture also introduced a systematic approach to education and literacy. Latin, the language of the Empire, was not only a tool for governance but became an integral part of elite British society. This adoption of the Roman language further facilitated integration into the Empire...

... Evidence suggests that Roman schools were established in several towns, promoting the study of Latin literature, law, and arithmetic among the children of the local elite.

VIII. Religion and Society

The religious practices of the Romans also found a foothold in Britain. Temples dedicated to Roman gods and goddesses were constructed alongside shrines to native deities, blending traditions into a syncretic belief system...

[Bottom margin text]: "1841. The Progress of Domestic Civilization, p. 495."

Folio 378

Page 496

Origin and Progress of Domestic Architecture

The first kind, though it has never been completed, is at present rather more than half a quadrangle, with a magnificent gateway, disgraced by two heavy modern cupolas; a large hall, with a screen, and bow-windows adorned with armorial bearings in stained glass; a large “chamber of state,” now a drawing-room, a gallery, and chapel, besides other apartments, all of an L-shape. The arrangement and effect of the whole is that of something between a castle and a convent. Had the quadrangle been completed, it would have been greatly superior to the only house I have seen not resembling it, viz. Hardwick, in Derbyshire, built by the famous Countess of Shrewsbury. The date of its erection has been already ascertained.

Another example of this disposition of apartments around a central interior is Dunkenhalgh, an old house in Lancashire. In addition to the old house, which adjoins the hall of Whalley. But the old hall, now a venerable relic, contains stained glass, panels of the second period, &c.

The characteristic accompaniments of such houses were bay windows, chimneys, &c.; beds of oak, bedsteads of the same; fireplaces calculated to last for centuries, staircases upon boards; and, in short, a whole system of internal accommodation intended to resist the ravages of Time, without an idea of the revolutions of Taste. No sentiment, seldom omitted in houses of this rank and date, but never found in those of mere antiquity, was a long gallery for music and dancing, sometimes 150 feet long, a proof that the hall was now beginning to be deserted. At all events, the practice of dining in these great apartments at different tables, according to the rank of the guests, was scarcely continued below the Restoration.

Till that time, however, the old train of “Sewers and Seneschals” were mostly kept up. But the general interruption of hospitality, in great houses, occasioned by the civil wars, and afterwards the introduction of foreign manners, resulted in the total ruin of them. In Royal Family seats, their numerous dependents, occasionally retained, lessened in consequence; and economy continued its operations.

(To be continued.)

Mr. Urban, June 1

“That all things should be done decently and in order,” was an apostolic precept which prescribed a regular and uniform method in religious service...

Folio 379

With regard to Noviomagus, Mr. Puttock observed “the site of this station has long been an unsettled question; some of our early antiquaries have wildly imagined it at Buckingham, or Guildford! Camden, more rational, fixes it at Woodcote, an eminence in the neighbourhood of Carshalton, and it was, it is submitted, not far from the mark. In the fifteenth and seventeenth iters of Richard of Cirencester, it is stated to be fifteen miles from London; in the second iter of Antoninus, only ten. In this last iter, and in the fifteenth of Richard, it is said to be eighteen miles from Vagniacae, so that the only discrepancy in the itineraries on this point is in its distance from London.” These and other circumstances induce Mr. Coppock to place Noviomagus upon the spot now occupied by Wallington and Carshalton, in Surrey, about eleven miles from London, or, if approached circuitously, fifteen. Mr. Puttock rejects Holwood Hill, as not answering to any of the distances in the itineraries, and believes the spacious earth-works there to be British.

Mr. Puttock, believing that the Romans had two roads into Kent, is inclined to place Vagniacae at Sevenoaks, and observes, “the distance to Noviomagus, according to both itineraries, is Vagniacae, at a distance of eighteen miles. Beyond this, in Richard, the fifteenth iter, is Madus, at eighteen miles. In Antoninus, after Vagniacae, eighteen miles, from which I propose nineteen, unless either way (by inserting nineteen for nine after Durobrivis, or by inserting Madus, with the number eighteen) both the itineraries would accord exactly.”

The author, then, after alluding to Mr. R. C. Smith’s opinion, that Durolevum was in the vicinity of Faversham, assigns reasons for placing it at Milton, a town of note in the Saxon times, and taken by the Danes in 893. “Durolevum is placed, in Antoninus, at thirteen or sixteen miles from Durobrivis (Rochester), and twelve from Durovernum (Canterbury). In Richard, the fifteenth iter is twenty-five miles from Durobrivis, and twelve from Durovernum. These numbers being all more or less incorrect, do not assist us in settling the site of this station; but what strongly weighs with me is, that in Richard, the fifteenth iter, Durolevum is stated to be eighteen miles from Canterbury, twelve from Madus, which, taking the latter to be Maidstone (of which there can be no doubt), is true, and fixes Durolevum at Milton. The spot on which Mr. Smith has...”

Folio 380

Folio 381

Page 125

...to prefer the morassy hollows of valleys. This fashionable court physician also suggested the erection of rough wooden buildings for baths, or thermae, for the use of the legions. The seizure of the ship-building yard must have been regarded as a most valuable prize, for the Romans, from the days of Augustus, had been anxious to possess a fleet, and this desire was now in a fair way for being accomplished.

It seems an anomaly that Italy, almost surrounded by the Mediterranean, should not early have assumed a high rank in the creation and maintenance of a navy. But the ambition of her warrior sons appears to have been confined to land exploits, “and the ocean existed as an object of fear rather than curiosity.”

During the succeeding twenty years, although the Romans in the west and north experienced vast vicissitudes, and at times merited sufferings, yet, the city on the banks of the Ebbs continued increasing in magnitude and absorbing the natives of the neighbourhood from their locations. The continual passage through it of masses of recruits and materiel directed...

...dered. Their public buildings were established in convenient quarters, and their foundations made adequate to bear the weight placed upon them. Laws were established which prevented individuals from doing anything which would interfere with the public health or enjoyment. These were the first and chief considerations. Evidence of Edward Cresy, sen. esq., before the Health of Towns Commission. In their application of water the Romans were most wasteful. Rome, in its palmiest days, through the lavish magnificence of the emperors, at the minimum possessed fourteen aqueducts, or as others count them twenty. Of this number three only at the present time are found amply sufficient for the wants of the modern Romans. —Eustace, v. 2.

Folio 382

Folio 383

Page 126

...from Rome to feed the waste attendant on the harassing war in the interior, necessarily tended to its advantage particularly as the camp at Black Soles, in Stone parish, was used in connexion with Spring-head, as a “resting place” for the men to recover from the fatigue they had undergone travelling to the island, ere they were sent on active service. The admirable situation for commerce of the newly founded town; its easy distance from London, already an important place; sheltered harbour; agricultural advantages; docks; the healing waters of its thermal springs, combined with other conveniences, rendering it a considerable mart for trade.—Magnificent and highly embellished mansions built of bricks, flints, and timber sprang up in every part of the town. So lavish were the architects in gorgeous decorations of the houses generally in Britain, that Tacitus assigns it as one of the principal causes of the Boadan insurrection. He says, “The Romans wasted the resources at their command, in useless embellishments, instead of fortifying and placing the subjugated provinces in a state of defence.” Considering the uncertain tenure by which the Romans held the portions of Britain they occupied, it shews how infatuatedly wedded they were to ornaments and frippery.

To compensate the Cantii for the loss of liberty and the pride of independence, the Romans offered in exchange, their luxurious habits, arts and elegancies. The conciliatory bait was palatable to the Kentish youth, who eagerly swallowed it, and thenceforward became reconciled to their fate.

Very different indeed was the scene, from that which now meets the eye; instead of an important town, we...

Folio 384

THE YOUTHS' MAGAZINE;

OR

Evangelical Miscellany.

OCTOBER 1825.

THE PREPARATION OF BREAD.

No. 1. shews the mill ready for use, the cup or hopper, in the upper stone, for the purpose of receiving the corn, and the stick or handle for turning it. The upper stone only is moved, the lower one remains fixed for grinding. No. 2. shews the upper mill-stone separated from the lower, with a section of the cup, to shew how the corn passes down to the surface of the lower stone. No. 3. shews the convex upper surface of the lower stone, with the short central pin which holds both stones firmly together; under it are its feet or stands, to keep it steady when in use, either in the lap or upon a table. Such are the hand mills common in the private houses of almost all the eastern nations, which Tournefort thus describes: These mills consist of two flat stones about two feet in diameter, which they rub one on another, by means of a stick which does the office of a handle. The corn falls down on the undermost stone, through a hole which is in the middle of the uppermost, which, by its circular motion, spreads it on the undermost, where it is bruised and reduced to flour, which flour working out at the rim of the mill-stones, lights on a board set on purpose to receive it. The bread made thereof is better tasted than that of flour ground either by wind or water mills. These hand mills cost only from half-a-crown to a crown and a half. No. 4. is the simplest and probably the most...

VOL. N.S. EE

Folio 385

Folio 386

ARZOOMUND

(Continued from page 299.)

The Bryagrees’ comment upon the 34th Chapter of Ezekiel—His remarks upon the Europeans—The conversation respecting the Bible revealed next morning—Their departure in quest of Muckdoom—The impostor Fakyr recognized—His temple, idol, food, and mode of cooking—Arzoomund alludes to the Bible—The Fakyr’s opinion and sarcasms—Seconded by Afyoo—They retire to Arzoomund walks out to view the country.

It had been some weeks since the Bryagree had been enabled to visit Merut, he was therefore desirous now of going, and being quite ready, as soon as it was passing there along his inquiry, he was pleased to hear the account which Arzoomund was enabled to give him respecting the exhortation which he had chanced to hear.

The copy of the Scriptures which the Saheb had given to the Bryagree was lying by his side, in a silken cover, on the carpet where he was sitting, and no sooner did Arzoomund mention the chapter from which the discourse had been taken, than the old man turned to it, and read it aloud, talking to himself, and, as it were, reasoning with himself as he went along, and in a manner which would have placed a refined English audience, however serious, in a strait between the inclination to laughter, natural to the nation, and a restraining sense of the seriousness of the subject—but the Hindoos are not a laughing people, and those who know them best, frequently remark of them, that nothing excites them to mirth but sin, a sort of merriment which we wish was restrained to heathens only. "And so," said the old man...

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ARZOOMUND

Bryagree, “I am to understand that this beautiful chapter is a picture of the latter days, when the evil beasts shall cease from the land, and men shall dwell quietly in the wilderness, and sleep in the woods?”

“The Almighty grant that these days may come quickly, for heaven only knows how far the state of this poor country is from the peace and security which is here described!” Alfoo made no answer, for the scene of the Durgah was present with him, and Arzoomund was restrained from speaking what was in his mind by the presence of his father.

The conversation then took another turn, and the Bryagree shewed his visitors some iron rings which were affixed in the cement of the roof, at regular distances. “These rings,” said the old man, “I caused to be placed as you see, because, when I built this house, I had the conviction in my own mind, that some European gentleman would come to visit me, and pitch his tent on the roof of my house, and honour wherever he may choose to come.” “It appears, then,” said Alfoo, “that you thought much of the Feringhees before they came into the neighbourhood?” “I have long had an idea,” replied the Bryagree, “that the truth was amongst them, though I have seen many, and heard of more, whose lives do not answer to their principles.”

Alfoo and his son being now called to the refreshment of supper, took their leave of their host with all due courtesy, not expecting to see him in the morning; they were, however, mistaken, for Alfoo having spent some hours of the night in carousing with some of his own caste in one of the lodges, slept late, and was not on foot again with Arzoomund, who had made the best of his time by sleeping off his fatigue, till the sun was considerably above the horizon.

On the borders of the tank above mentioned, they accordingly met the Bryagree, who was returning from his morning ride on a small pony, accoutred according to the Hindoo fashion, with various tassels and bells, which made a curious jingling and rustling, as the creature ambled along.

CHIEFLY IN THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 245

Her, some years since (1835), with a literal translation of this ballad, and a few days afterwards, that accomplished and lamented lady, sent me the following versification of it, which I cannot say in its translation from the Irish into English, has lost any of its original merit.

THE GOLDEN GRAVE.

He sleeps within his lonely grave
Upon the lonely hill,
There sweeps the wind—there swells the wave—
All other sounds are still.
And strange and mournfully sound they;
Each seems a funeral cry,
O’er life that long has passed away,
O’er ages long gone by.

No warbling minstrel’s left to sing
The hymn where he has lain;
The humming bee, that seeks in spring
Its honey from the heath,
It is the sole familiar sound
That ever rises there;
For silent is the haunted ground,
And silent is the air.

There never comes the merry bird—
There never bounds the deer;
But during night strange sounds are heard,
The day may never hear:
For here the shrouded Banshee stands,
Scarce seen amid the gloom,
And wrings her dim and shadowy hands,
And chants her song of doom.

Seven pillars, grey with time and moss,
On dark Slieve Monard meet;
They stand to tell a nation’s loss—
A king is at their feet,
A lofty mount denotes the place
Where sleeps in slumber cold
The mighty of a mighty race—
The giant kings of old.

Folio 392

246 NOTES ON VARIOUS DISCOVERIES OF GOLD PLATES

There Goliah sleeps—the golden band
About his head is bound;
His javelin in his red right hand,
His feet upon his hound.
And twice three golden rings are placed
Upon that hand of fears;
The smallest wound to round the waist
Of any maiden here.

And plates of gold are on his breast,
And gold doth bind him round;
A king, he taketh kingly rest
Beneath that royal mound.
But wealth no more the mountain fills,
As in the days of yore;
Gone are those days; the wave distills
Its frigid gold no more.

The days of yore—still let my harp
Their memories repeat—
And every sword was sharp,
The warrior dumbs on the hill,
The stranger rules the plain;
Glory and gold are gone; but still
They live in song again.

Tradition commonly attributes the original discovery of the Wicklow gold mines to a poor schoolmaster, who, while fishing in one of the small streams, which descend from the Croghan mountain, picked up a piece of shining metal, and having ascertained it to be gold, he gradually enriched himself by the success of his researches, in that and neighbouring streams, cautiously disposing of the produce of his labour to a goldsmith in Dublin. He is supposed to have preserved the secret for upwards of twenty years; but marrying a young wife, he imprudently confided his discovery to her, and she, believing her husband to be mad, immediately revealed the circumstance to her relations, through whose means it soon was made pub-

Folio 393

Look upon that field, whose surface alone can be tilled, under whose surface lie rich intermixtures, and whose fertility was a vast population, whose ability and property had ceased to be exerted for the good of all. The support nature to the day in the outskirts of the town was marketed as a poorly was established. In past years, the produce of successive establishments, as yet advanced in market availability, supplied various outlying areas.

In the aftermath, taxes and subscriptions were collected rigorously for public works, of which the daily waste accumulated from laborers was of benefit, although land taxes were severe on subsistence providers. The adjacent river bed, mined for its useful metals, repeatedly revealed the astonishing quantities of "aurum," and many pieces were used by slaves to freely establish bounds before property and wealth accumulations. The Greek pigment, by "Ajax," spoke of Augustan trade as one favorably adapted to the last decades of its low valuation. "Now, Capitae 653," it was not only the work of slaves, but the forced work and control inflicted on them as a severe punishment.

* Marginalia and annotation cut-off in visible regions of the upper clipping.

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Look upon corn fields, under whose surface alone can be met with the foundations, and other interesting, though scanty remains of a vast population, whose ability and power have long ceased to be exerted for good or evil.

The superior nature of the clay in the outskirts of the town was early remarked, and a pottery was consequently established. In after years, this pottery became a most extensive establishment, a fact evidenced by the endless varieties of elegant, yet useful, fictile vessels and urnæ, portions of which are daily discovered. In the still-called Tiler's Field, was a tegularium, or tile-manufactory. The agriculturists have repeatedly marvelled at the astonishing quantities of thick baked and unbaked broken tiles their coulters have exposed. Adjacent to the navelia was situated the manufactory for querns or hand-mills. Within the last few years two perfect ones (vide etching) and very many pieces have been picked up; one of the former in most perfect condition, exhibiting the denticulated surface which triturated the corn. The pebbles used in their manufacture were collected from the adjacent fields, but the ingredients and composition of the cement which bound them together is utterly unknown. These querns were used by the slaves to grind corn, for water mills were not invented till the reign of Augustus (Vide Greek Epigram, by Antipater, who celebrates it as a new invention. — Athol. Cephale. 653). It was not only the work of slaves, but the hardest work, and often inflicted on them as a severe punishment.

“Moliendum in pistrino, vapulandum, habendæ compedes.” — Ter. Phor. ii. 1. 19.
“Hominem pistrino dignum.” — Id. Heaut. iii. 2. 10.

Folio 395

CHAP. IX.

THE ROMAN TOWN—SPRINGHEAD.

“Mind creates and re-creates,
Bids cities, long destroyed, resume
Their pomp of pride, and all life's stir,
Then leaves them once more to their doom
Engulfed in Time’s vast sepulchre.”
— KEANE

Julius Frontinus succeeded Suetonius in the command of the Roman forces in Britain, A.D. 75-8, and not only added some defences to the pharos, on the north-eastern heights, to command the entrance of the estuary.

During the mild and equitable sway of Agricola, (the next pro-consul,) the town experienced vast improvements. The sheds erected at the suggestion of Scribonius over the most clear and translucent waters in the county, gave place to shady piazzas and luxurious baths; parts of the remains of which were laid bare in 1814, and now form a foundation for the lodge at the entrance of the grounds.

The thermae constructed at Springhead, were upon a similar model to those in “Rome, the Imperial City”. They stood among beautiful gardens; nearly, if not wholly, surrounded with lofty walls, composed of flint and stone, the foundations of which still exist, partly in grounds belonging to Edward Colyer, esq., and Mr.

Folio 396

As the Romans neither wore linen nor used stockings, frequent ablutions were alike necessary for cleanliness and health. We are not, therefore, astonished at their elevation of bathing to a science, nor their adoption of hot water and unguents with cloths.

The thermae constructed at Springhead were upon a similar model to those in the "Imperial City." They stood among beautiful gardens; nearly, if not wholly, surrounded with lofty walls, composed of flint and stone, the foundations of which still exist, partly in grounds belonging to Edward Colyer, Esq., and Mr. Bromley. The foundation-floors are set in clay and are unusually firm, built two inches above the Roman level, as discovered upon the demolition of a former road. The present road was doubtless the original way that yielded to the desires of the Vandals.

The Britons early appreciated the luxuries of their corrupted conquerors, and adapted the bathing techniques. After completing their daily routines, they indulged in the luxury of baths. The process of the thermae began in a Roman manner: first ablutions, then a dry process to clean the surface. Ancient baths also included rooms for various unguents and supplies.

A Roman bath has been also thus described: "The building containing the baths was divided into two divisions, one for males and the other for females. It had hot and cold water tubs or tanks." The water in both divisions was heated by a central system, and the building easily retained heat. In the midst of the building, on the ground floor, was the heating room, by which cold rooms were adjusted for bathing, but sometimes also for frigid storage or rest.

Above the heating rooms was an apartment in which the proper water-courses were walled in, one above another, so that the elevated tepidarium immediately overflowed to the second (frigidarium), over the first, and an elevated vapor room connected to secondary tiers. A constant communication was maintained between the baths and water sources, ensuring cleanliness.

Folio 397

Anecdote of a Highlander

Macqueen, the Laird of Pollochock, a small estate in the north of Scotland, is said to have killed the last wolf that infested that district, though he himself was alive within the last fifty years. Tradition reports him to have been nearer seven than six feet high, proportionably built, and active as a roebuck. The story told is this:—a poor woman, crossing the mountains with two children, was attacked by the wolf, and her infants devoured, while she escaped with difficulty to Moughall. The chief of Mackintosh hearing of this, ordered his vassals to assemble the next day at twelve o’clock, to proceed in a body to destroy the wolf. Pollochock, who was one of those vassals, and possessed of gigantic strength and determined courage, was eagerly looked for to take the lead in the enterprise.

The hour came, and all were assembled except him in whom they most trusted. Unwilling to go without him, the impatient chief fretted and fumed through the hall, till at length, about an hour after the appointed time, in stalked Pollochock, dressed in his full highland attire: “I am little used to wait thus for any man,” exclaimed the chafed chieftain, “and still less for thee, Pollochock, especially when such game is afoot as we are bound after!” “What sort o’ game are ye after, Mackintosh?” said Pollochock, simply. “The wolf, sir,” replied Mackintosh; “did not my messenger instruct you?” “Ou, aye, that’s true,” answered Pollochock, with a good-humoured smile; “troth I had forgotten; but, an that be all,” continued he, groping with his right hand among the folds of his plaid, “there is the wolf’s head!” and he held out the grim and bloody head of the monster at arm’s length.

“As I came through the hollow,” continued he, as if talking of some every-day occurrence, “I forgathered wi’ the beast; my long dog there turned him, I buckled with him, and dirkit him, and brought away his countenance, for fear he might come alive again, for they are very precarious creatures.” “My noble Pollochock!” cried the chief in ecstasy, “the deed was worthy of thee! In memorial of thy hardihood, I here bestow thee a Seannachan*: give meal for thy good coming.”

—Sir Thomas Dick

Folio 398

...where the best sell from three to five, and even seven pounds sterling each. When the oil of tobacco, after long smoking, has given them a fine porcelain yellow, or, which is more prized, a dark tortoise-shell hue, they have been known to sell for forty or fifty pounds of our money.

Their manner of digging keff-kil in the Crimea, is merely by opening a shaft in the ground, and then working till the sides begin to fall in; this soon happens, from the nature of the soil, when they open a new pit. A stratum of marl generally covers the keff-kil; through this they have to dig, sometimes to the depth of from eight to twelve fathoms. The layer of keff-kil seldom exceeds twenty-eight inches in thickness, and beneath it the marl occurs as before. — Dr. E. D. Clarke.

We should esteem virtue, though in a foe, and abhor vice, though in a friend. — Addison.

Conscience. — In the commission of evil, fear no man so much as thyself: another is but one witness against thee; thou art a thousand; another thou mayest avoid; thyself thou canst not. Wickedness is its own punishment. — Quarles.

In a former number, we inserted some lines, entitled “Hope,” as the production of Bishop Heber, to whom they are attributed by mistake, in his life, by his widow. We have since ascertained, that they were written by Chauncy Hare Townshend, Esq.; and, in doing justice to the author, by repeating them according to his corrected copy, we are sure that the beauty of the poetry will excuse us to our readers.

AN EVENING THOUGHT.

Reflected in the lake, I love
To see the star of evening glow;
So tranquil in the Heaven above,
So restless on the wave below.
Thus heavenly hope is all serene;
But earthly hope, how bright so’er,
Still fluctuates o’er this changing scene,
As false and fleeting as ’tis fair.

Folio 399

Brenchley. The foundation-flints were set in clay and afterwards built up with lime mortar. The Roman lime is of browner hue than that of the present day. The road which crosses the current, from the “head” spring (which rises in the hollows on the west side of the road,⁴) was doubtless the original way or via which led to these thermae and the navalia, after a divergence from the Watling street. The Britons rapidly appreciated the luxuries of their corrupted masters and eagerly emulated their proceedings. Apt scholars in vice, they followed in the track, and adopted amongst other practices, the use of the thermae. Upon entering which, they hired persons termed capsarii to attend to their habiliments. Then they proceeded into the unctuarium, where they were anointed. Adjoining, was the aleothesium, a heated apartment, in which were preserved the purest odoriferous unguents for anointing the skin after the performance of the tedious process. Every choice perfume, apician tastes could conceive were here to be obtained, and with them, delicate, soft-handed officiating male and female assistants, called unctores.

The bathers, after being anointed, passed into a heated room called the sphaeristerium, where they amused themselves with gymnastic exercises; they thence adjourned into a room still more heated, where the primal ablution was made; here they sat in a baptisterium, below the surface of the water, and their attendants scraped them with strigils, one of...

Folio 400

...which, in bone, was picked up in 1842, on Tiler’s Hill.⁵ From this apartment they passed into another, where they completed the bath; then the alipte entered with towels and rubbing cloths. After them the meteores, with oils, or unguents, which were then applied to the body, from the crown of the head to the soles of the feet. It is doubtless, owing to these baths, says Mr. Crafter, that such vast quantities of fibulæ and pins, (vide pl. ii.,) have been exposed in Springhead gardens.

Until the death of Constantine, which occurred in the year 337, the town on the Ebbsfleet progressively increased in importance. A.D., 367, the Saxons, the most ferocious depredators that ever chose the waters for a home, sailed up the river Thames to London, and after pillaging it, carried off its inhabitants for slaves. In this predatory excursion, the town on the Ebbsfleet was partially destroyed. From this disaster it however soon recovered. Its principal ornaments at this period, were probably the baths, the markets, the temples of the Sun and Esculapius, the palace of the Roman governor, and, perhaps, the country residence of Nectaridus the “Comes Saxonici Littoris” who was slain in 368. The dwellings of the commonalty and middle classes were principally built of wood on foundations of flint, or of alternate layers of tile and flint; interspersed with buildings or cottages of earth or clay, well moistened with water, mixed or beat up with straw to make the parts cohere, and dried only in the...

Folio 401

Folio 402

Monumenta Anglicana

THE MONUMENTAL INSCRIPTIONS OF ENGLAND;

WITH INCIDENTAL NOTES ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE
PARISH CHURCHES, FAMILY DOCUMENTS,
OR OTHER MATTERS WORTHY OF RECORD.

EDITED BY
ALFRED JOHN DUNKIN,
Author of Nundina Cantiana, Memoranda of Springhead, &c.,
ASSISTED BY
MANY OF THE CLERGY AND ANTIQUARIES IN THE KINGDOM

IN submitting a work of the magnitude now proposed to public notice the compiler at the outset, desires to eschew the imputation of being actuated by a desire of gain—being perfectly aware, from past experience, that the labourer in the archaeological vineyard is rarely, till “he has thrown off this mortal coil,” considered worthy of his hire. For confirmatory instances of the truth of this observation, he need not leave the county (Kent) in which he resides, since two of its historians, Harris and Hasted,—time-honoured names—were impoverished by their labours. Nay, he could have produced corroborative testimony even from his own family circle;—thus, The History of Oxfordshire, by J. Dunkin, in two vols. 4to.,* was published at £5 5s., although each copy cost about £7 7s.—again, within the present year, the History of Dartford, although published at £1 1s., nevertheless cost in its production, 30s. But the writer of this does not adduce these anecdotes in a spirit of complaint—but incidentally to show that he is influenced by far higher considerations than pecuniary recompence. He will feel amply rewarded if the perusal of his prospectus should induce the transmission to him of the inscriptions he requests.

A feeling is now prevalent, that these records of
“The perishing dead, who are past all pain,”
have been improperly placed in the sacred fanes, which have hitherto held them. Consequently, it is not at all improbable—at least in some churches—that they may be torn down,

Folio 403

...to his task which would have startled his predecessors, notwithstanding their industry and research. The genius Hallam and Macaulay have raised the standard of the public taste; so that the historian requires the skill of an artist in the general arrangement and grouping of his facts, as well as in the fidelity and picturesqueness of his details.

Neither is it the style only of the original work which necessitates its reconstruction; the zeal of modern antiquaries has greatly enlarged the field of research, and a rich harvest of facts has been the result. There is scarcely a parish in the county, in which some discoveries have not been made, some new facts brought to light, the notices of which are scattered through a host of scientific and antiquarian publications. These will all be embodied in their proper place, and nothing shall be found wanting to render the work complete in these details up to the date of publication. Every parish in the county will be personally visited; all that Hasted says of it collated on the spot; and all the information minute enquiry can ascertain, carefully recorded.

A feature in this history will be: a complete and accurate transcript of every monumental inscription in the parish churches and churchyards in the entire county, which, upon inspection, may appear worthy of preservation. Whenever the descendant representative of the subject of such memorials may be willing to contribute towards the cost, a woodcut will be given of the monuments themselves or of the heraldic insignia by which they are decorated. In every case these valuable vestiges of the departed will be accurately noted and described.

We shall leave no means untried for making our architectural notes of the parish churches as full and accurate as possible; every peculiarity either constructive or decorative will be carefully described; and, should the success of our undertaking permit, we shall not hesitate to secure the best talent of the day for the illustration of this section of the work. Nor shall we confine our attention to ecclesiastical edifices; every castle or manor house of interest or note, will find its proper place in our collection.

We purpose to print as proofs and illustrations of our text extracts from documents of every kind referring either to general, parochial or family history, such as charters, deeds, wills, parish books, scarce tracts, &c.

Essays on the history and antiquities of the county...

Folio 404

...from time to time appear, each forming a separate part or parts, so as to be complete in itself, or bound up with the other portions of the work. Thus we shall have one on the civil and military history of Kent, with its organization for defence, and for the administration of justice, with complete lists of the lords-lieutenants, sheriffs, knights and burgesses, &c. Its ecclesiastical history and organization, accounts of the monastic houses, and notes on all the dignitaries of the hierarchy, especially of the several archbishops and bishops of the two sees, will form the subject of another. The third, under the title of Cantia Britannica, will be illustrated by a map of all the British and Druidical remains in Kent; and describe every locality in which British remains or interments have been discovered. This part will be rendered highly interesting by its numerous illustrations.

A similar essay and map will be devoted to the Roman antiquities in the county; all the Roman roads, camps, burial places will be accurately described; and, as far as can be ascertained, every spot where even a coin has been discovered will be carefully indicated.

Under the head of Kentish Families, a chronological abstract of all the notices scattered through the several parishes will be given, connecting together the members of each family, their descent and connexions; with short biographical notices of those of whom any particulars are to be obtained.

The materials for the task the editor proposes to himself, would form in themselves a library of ample dimensions. Besides the existing histories and printed documents, several MSS. collections, in addition to his own, will be available. The treasures of the British Museum have already yielded an ample harvest to his research; and those invaluable sources of all historical information, the collection of the Public Records, by the liberal spirit of our age, becoming daily more accessible to the antiquary.

To carry out such a task as is here propounded, he earnestly entreats the resident clergy and gentry throughout the county, to lighten his labours, by assisting in the collection and verification of facts. Hundreds of intelligent and laborious students have passed a long life, in the collection and elucidation of truths of the utmost service to mankind, which for want of a proper medium for publication, have been confined to the author’s desk, and at his death been de...

Folio 405

...voted to the vilest purposes. The publication, “Notes and Queries,” has shown the extraordinary mass of rare and curious “detached facts” which may be brought to light from all quarters by the establishment of a suitable depository.

We shall enumerate a few of the leading subjects on which information is particularly requested, distributing them under four heads—Antiquarian, Biographical, Parochial, and Traditional.

The ordinary subjects of Antiquarian interest to be met with in our country parishes, are of four distinct epochs—British, Roman, Saxon, and Mediaeval.

Of the first we would wish our correspondents to inform us, whether any traces of the following antiquities have been discovered in their parishes:

Tumuli or mounds of earth, generally containing an interment, though sometimes, as at Silbury Hill and Beachborough, used solely as a beacon.
Camps or fortifications, indicated by banks and ditches, usually in elevated situations.
Roads or trackways, frequently traceable over a considerable extent of country, in remote situations, often forming the boundary of a parish.
Deep pits, sometimes called Draw-wells, usually discoverable in thick woods, and where found associated in groups of two, three, or more, indicating the site of a British village.
Large stones either singly as maenhir, or stones of memorial, or in groups, as cromlechs, cairns, or circles.

Remains of interments may almost invariably be expected in the vicinity of these; and we particularly request our readers to note the precise nature of any discovery of this kind—whether a skeleton or any bones were found; any urns or earthen vessels containing ashes or other substances; any arms or weapons, as arrow or spear heads, swords, bucklers, celts; or any female ornaments, as beads, pins, shells, or jewels of any description. Every fragment, even the most minute, should be carefully noted and described; as frequently a very anomalous and unpromising looking article, has thrown considerable light on the contents of some other barrow.

The second epoch, that of the Roman dominion in Britain, has left abundant traces of its extent and duration; the lapse of twelve centuries of barbarism or neglect, has not sufficed to destroy more than the superficial vestiges of that imperial people. Not a day passes but the plough and the spade bring to light some object of interest pertaining to...

Folio 406

...them. We shall briefly allude to a few of the most common, and most likely to come under the notice of our readers; beginning with their camps, which were usually in elevated situations, near a good and abundant water supply, and defended by one or more deep ditches, and a lofty rampart.

Their roads generally extended in a nearly straight line from one camp or station to another, of a uniform width, with an indication of a ditch or bank on each side; when on a level with the surrounding country, they are frequently traceable by the name of Street applied to them in all parts of the country, and often over a line of several miles in length.

The site of a Roman villa is generally indicated by the presence of mosaic pavements, of more or less beauty of design and execution, and of bricks and tiles very characteristically marked by their peculiar form, generally of two feet square. Altars and inscriptions are not of frequent occurrence in this country; but when found, accurate copies should be made, or what is better, transcripts obtained by squeezing thick soft paper in a damp state, into the letters; by allowing this to dry carefully, a fac-simile is produced in a portable and convenient form. Coins, on the other hand, abound. Wherever a Roman set his foot there he left traces of his presence. The locality of these enduring traces should be carefully noted and described; as some very interesting facts have been brought to light by comparing and examining the several points at which these interesting remains have been turned up.

A rich harvest for the antiquary has always attended the discovery of a Roman burial-place. Urns, and pottery of every description, from the elegant Samian to the coarsest clay; glass vessels, and fragments of various forms; coins, armour, weapons, fibulæ, jewels and female ornaments of bronze, silver, and even pure gold have been discovered, and in no scanty proportions, in all parts of the county. We doubt if there is a single parish in which some or other of these interesting objects have not appeared. To collect notices of all such discoveries; to connect them with their proper localities; to describe and comment upon the nature and use of each, is the task we propose to ourselves, and in which we are most desirous of enlisting the aid of our correspondents.

The third epoch, that of the Saxon invasion and conquest...

Folio 407

...does not bear so marked a monumental character as the preceding. This warlike people, at once the spoilers and the heirs of Roman civilization have left deeper traces of their presence, in the men, than in the soil of Britain. Our language, our institutions, the spirit and social character of our nation, abundantly evince the presence of the Saxon element; but the material vestiges of their existence are now rare, although Saxon roads, camps, buildings and interments have frequently been confounded with those of the Britons and the Romans. Nor is the distinction easy to be made, for the Romanized Britons must have maintained a remnant of Roman habits, customs and civilization, long after the appearance of the Saxon keels on their defenceless shores. As the starting point of Saxon civilization may be dated from the expiring struggle of Roman learning, we shall not dwell on this subject at present, but leave the characteristics by which antiquaries are enabled to distinguish the date and nature of similar objects of antiquity from each other, to be discussed in another place.

The fourth epoch extending from the Heptarchy to the Renaissance, or to the end of the Wars of the Roses, comprehends a variety of objects of antiquarian interest: these are the remains in the three classes of ecclesiastic, military, and civil architecture—

The first comprises the abbeys, monasteries, priories, commanderies, preceptories, cells, churches, chapels, chantries, scattered through the country; in the second are included the castles of the barons, and the walls and gates of fortified towns; and under the third are classed, the manor houses, town and guild-halls, colleges, alms'-houses, and hospitals.

In the art of sculpture the medieval artists can hardly be said to be inferior to those of our own day; and numerous are the examples they have left us in the shape of monumental sculpture in churches, crosses, tombs, household furniture, and goldsmith's work, both for ecclesiastical and civil purposes.

Fewer vestiges of the sister art have, it is true, been preserved to us; nevertheless, some mural paintings, and the abundant treasures of illuminated MSS. sufficiently exist to our regret that the mechanical means at their disposal were not equally favourable to the transmission of their productions. Their scarcity and value will render any notices of them doubly valuable; and we trust our correspondents w...

Folio 408

...not to be a cesspool for the offspring of ancient respectability and nobility, who many coming under their notice, might, like so many hardy plants, flourish in the parishes of the county. This county below, to furnish a complete illustrated essay on the natural products of the soil, and its adaptation for every purpose of life. May it be found in the archives of every Kentish family, and may it find its way among the members of the Agricultural Society, the Antiquary, the Antiquarian, and others.

We may also take a special interest in the care for the preservation of parochial documents, by reason of the destruction or loss of several of the oldest of our registers and monuments. To rescue a relic from further decay, every transcript will be considered invaluable to us; we shall spare no exertion to preserve the contents of wills, MSS., deeds, and such like documents, which are known to exist in the county. By the co-operation of parish officers, we shall have the valuable opportunity of inserting in the first issue of our publication.

From the scattered materials collected by our correspondents, we shall be able to gather and add additional lists of Lords-lieutenants, Sheriff’s officers, and other civic personnel who deserve attention.

Already in the making, we are certain of the success that awaits this noble venture...

Folio 409

...jority of places, the manor-courts have ceased to be more than a name; those interesting links which seemed to transport the beholder to a period contemporary with the dawn of our modern civilization, are all but severed: the fairs and markets which were considered such valuable concessions, and for which a royal charter was often produced, are rapidly falling into disuse: not one landowner in ten has ever seen the court roll by copy of which he holds his inheritance; nor has the remotest idea of the nature of the suit and service, which he is every seven years called to perform—while reliefs and heriots, those valuable privileges of the Lord, and oppressive tax upon the vassal, now merely furnish occasion to display the learning of the bar, or to bewilder the heads of a county jury.

In the preceding paragraphs we have barely alluded to the leading subjects, on which we invite contribution; many more will doubtless suggest themselves to our readers: but to facilitate the collection and registration of facts, we propose to prepare a series of “Instructions” in the most economic form, and suitable for transmission by post, so that any person may readily acquaint himself with the nature thereof.

MODE OF PUBLICATION

The Popular Edition, in 8vo. demy size, in a bold, clear, and entirely new type, cast for the purpose, sixteen pages of which, or an equivalent engraving, will be sold at the rate of threepence each sheet. Two of these sheets, in a colored cover, will be sewed together and delivered to the public, price Sixpence, with the Magazines, on the first day of every month; and after the first twelvemonth, fortnightly. The 8vo. volumes, when bound, will contain about the same number of pages as Hasted's.

Seventy copies of an Edition in large 4to. royal, (this size is considerably more than double that of the former), will also be published for the nobility, gentry and clergy. This will be uniform with the "Monumenta Anglicana," and, in the majority of instances, contain the charters, documents, &c., in extenso. Those individuals only, who enter their names as subscribers, can obtain this edition; for which purpose application is to be made per post, to Henry Banner, Dartford. The price will be at the rate of 6d. per sheet, sewed into parts. Delivered quarterly, free of expense, in London, or forwarded as directed.

Folio 411

POETRY. Original and Selected. THE LAMENT OF THE OLD MILESTONE. I stand by the silent way, Forgotten and all alone, And in sorrow I think of the day I beheld when a young milestone. I sigh for the good old time, For the coaching days of yore: They are gone from their native clime, They are gone to return no more. It is, Oh! for the cheery days, When the sound of the mail-guard's horn Came floating upon the haze That shrouded the birth of morn. When the wagoner weary with toil, As his horses came lumbering along, Would look in my face with a smile, And carol his thanks in a song. When the snows and the frosts were about, And the old year was ready to die, How the urchins to see me would shout, As their holiday coaches rolled by. When the New Year's dominion I knew, I have wished some seclusion to find, For the boys' faces gloomier grew, As I marked home life further behind. They are gone, they are fled from the road, The day-coach and the fast-going mail, The wagoner's gone with his load, And the boys give their shouts to the Rail. When I ponder on what I once saw, The downfall I feel of my race; And I hear it’s forbidden by law To talk about distance or space. If the peace I would claim as my right I could have, I would never complain, But I wake in the dead of the night At the scream of that horrible train. Such screaming, and puffing, and brawl, A philosopher's patience would craze; Oh! build us some college or hall, Where the Milestones may finish their days.

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SALES BY AUCTION. BY MR. SUMMERFIELD. Valuable Investment—Wouldham Court Farm, Wouldham, Kent, about three miles from Rochester. Mr. Summerfield has received direction to submit for Sale by Auction, at the latter end of July next, this valuable Leasehold Estate. It consists of about 478 acres of excellent land, with an appropriate residence, in the occupation of Mr. Pye, and is held under a 21 years’ lease from the Dean and Chapter of Rochester, renewable every seven years by payment of the customary fine, and was renewed afresh last year. Possession can be given at Michaelmas next. Full particulars will appear in subsequent advertisements. Week-street, June 23, 1856. BY MR. G. FOORD. To Timber Merchants, Wheelwrights, Carpenters, and Others.

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Crescent Lodge, Eltham
March 22nd, 1847
Sir,
I would have written to you before but to tell the truth I put your letter by intending to write but have quite forgotten it till lately.

I shall be glad to have your work when it is out (Cantia Antiqua) if you will be kind enough to leave it or have it left at my house by the Dartford omnibus.
The Roman seal

Folio 414

was ploughed up in Southfleet Parish but the exact locality I do not know. I cannot now lay my hands upon it, but will send you an impression as soon as I find it. Yrs.
Geo. McClaurton

Folio 415

My dear Sir,

Wright thinks it would not be prudent to let & use this plate in the book, as is your trust, but adds I see no objection to use on time Wright and I think you had better kindly forego claim but if Mr. Wright thinks we must do if you are willing.

Yours in haste,
C.R. Smith

London
June 5, 1846

I am going to Truro in about 10 days with earliest heats.

Folio 416

WHEN ENGLISH HISTORY BEGINS.—There is a real difference between ancient and modern history, which justifies the limits usually assigned to them; the fall, namely, of the western empire; that is to say, the fall of the western empire separates the subsequent period from that which preceded it by a broader line, so far as we are concerned, than can be found at any other point either earlier or later. For the state of things now in existence, dates its origin from the fall of the western empire; so far as we can trace up the history of nations which are still flourishing; history so far is the biography of our own living world, and of the ancestors of the dead. In our own island, the division most clearly marked is the century in which we see the coming over of the Saxons; the Britons and Romans had lived not our story, as men indeed, but not nationally speaking, the history of Cæsar’s invasion has no more to do with us, than the natural history of the animals who then inhabited our forests. The soil over-running the earth from one end of it to the other we were born, when the white horse of the Saxons had established his dominion from the Tweed to the Tamar. So far we can trace our blood, our language, the name and actual divisions of our country, the beginnings of some of our institutions. So far as our national identity extends, so far history is modern, for it treats of a life which was then, and is not yet, extinguished.—Dr. Arnold.

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Folio 418

The public buildings were in such a style of magnificence as became a town of its size, (see pl. vi.) For the whole of the traffic from the continent continued to traverse it;—and, independently of its attractions as a fashionable watering place, ¹ the noble estuary by which it was bounded upon the north, was rarely without government vessels of war in commission, as cruizers, to protect the merchants’ ships from the myriads of pirates that swarmed upon the seas. These combined circumstances alike tended to increase its celebrity, stability and importance; and trade, consequently, crowded its harbours and markets. The ships of war were commanded by an officer of high rank, who was styled "Archigubernis Classis Brit." or High Admiral of the British Fleet, whose duties occasionally compelled him to dwell in the neighbourhood; where he also resided, in elegantly adorned villas, many of the opulent merchants whose capacious storehouses and wharves adjoined the docks. An evidence of the wealth and luxurious habits of its inhabitants is clearly exhibited in the curious discoveries made in 1801, in Sole Field, described in the Archaeologia by the Rev. Peter Rashleigh; and since cremation generally ceased after the close of the second century, it is probable that we may be correct in assigning the date of the mortuary deposit to that period.

¹ In fact, the city on the banks of the Ebbsfleet, was in the third century to London, what Gravesend is, in the nineteenth. And should the reader be curious as to the condition of the Roman city present day—it is now a favorite resort where Gravesenders and Londoners flock to regale themselves with the fine water-cresses and strawberries for which the grounds are so deservedly celebrated.

Folio 419

The total destruction of the town, did not, however, occur till the commencement of the fifth century, when an adventurer, named Constantine, was raised to the command solely from the prestige attached to his name. But although he proved himself worthy of the appointment, unfortunately for Britain he was an ambitious man, and not satisfied with its sway, endeavoured to include Spain and Gaul in his rule. To accomplish this end, he raised a vast army, and, sanctioned by Honorius, attempted their conquest. Profiting by his absence, torrents of Saxons poured into Britain. The wretched islanders were not only harried with these marauding hordes, but were harassed beyond measure at the perpetual vexatious levies and taxes required to sustain the detested foreign invasions. At length, oppressed beyond endurance by the licentious and avaricious publicans, the Britons rose and entirely threw off the Roman domination, [A.D. 410,] and in its stead, for many a long year, drained to the dregs the bitter cup of civil dissensions.

During this period, one of the piratical bands of the Saxons, stimulated by rapine, having repelled the feeble resistance the inhabitants were able to offer, made good their landing at the town on the Ebbsfleet; and, after an unrelenting slaughter of its unhappy defenders, in the true spirit of barbarism, fired the town. The innumerable wooden buildings of the plebeian population crowded in close and narrow streets, supplied ample fuel for the flames, and the conflagration only ceased when the destruction of the city was completed. It is much to be regretted that the memory of the champions engaged in the defence of this ill-starred town should...

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Folio 421

THE LATE HEAVY RAINS—FLOODS IN PAST TIMES.
The prevalent and long-continued floods, to which the whole country has been more or less subjected for nearly two months, and the remarkably heavy storms of the summer also, suggested a record of the inundations to which Great Britain has been subject. The earliest inundation in the United Kingdom recorded is one by the sea in Lincolnshire, in A.D. 245, which laid under water many thousand acres that have not been recovered to this time. In the year 353 another took place in Cheshire, when 5,000 persons and an immense number of cattle perished. In 798, a flood at Seafield drowned upwards of 400 families. A hundred years later the Severn overflowed its banks and laid waste a country for 30 miles round. In 1014, under King Speed, a prodigious inundation of the sea on the English coasts demolished a number of seaport towns, and the Goodwin Sands were produced by inundation. "Early Goodwin Sands, exceeding 4,000 acres, covered with wood, and known as the land of Earl Goodwin, Earl of Kent, now Mone (A.D. 1100) by the name of Goodwin Sands." Two thousand houses were destroyed by the Severn overflow during this deluge. In 1248, the Severn overflowed, causing loss of life and property; houses were destroyed, and many children drowned. Waters settled upon the land, and were collected into vast lakes for 100 years after. Again, in 1345, a great flood spread its desolation over the land; 500 persons perished in Somersetshire and Gloucestershire. The "great flood" of 1771 will be recalled by Yorkshire people still living. An inundation of the Liffey did immense damage in Dublin, Nov. 12, 1787, and Dec. 2 and 3, 1802. The bursting of a cloud during a storm in May 1811, over Saugh, caused many persons and much stock to perish. Destructive floods were occasioned in Strand, Ireland, by two meetings of snow, in January 1816. In England, 50,000 acres were deluged by the ten counties in 1810. Comparatively recently (1811) Brentford and the surrounding country was visited by an inundation, by which several lives were lost and a considerable quantity of property destroyed. There is no authentic record of a stormy and rainy season so long-continued as that of the present year, and such it is to be hoped has now terminated.

Folio 422

be wrapped in oblivion—sharing precisely the fate of its nomenclature.
Fire having done its worst to the town, its antagonist element, shortly afterwards, to consummate the devastation of the spot, burst its barriers, and drowned the crops upon the plains of the adjoining country. For the ruin of the docks included that of the gates and embankments, which, till then, had restrained the Thames from inundating the valley, an event of frequent occurrence before their construction. The total destruction of the town, combined with the gradual depopulation creeping over the face of the land, consequent upon the drain, incidental to civil dissensions and foreign wars, aided perhaps by superstitious notions prevalent in the minds of the lower orders (with regard to the fall of the Druid Groves), prevented the wretched survivors of the Saxon fury restoring their ruined patrimonies, and no attempt was made at re-settlement. The artificial restrictions having disappeared—the continual washing of the uncontrolled waters upon the unconsumed walls of the temples and public buildings, soon undermined them, so that after a few centuries of exposure to the action of the atmosphere, all sank into the miasmatic morass, which thenceforward became only the resort of the otter and the heron. Thus perished the town in the valley, after an existence of almost four centuries.

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CHAP. X.
SPRINGHEAD.
"Nations arose and nations fell.
The tale is old, but the event
Confirm'd by dreadful monument." — Hogg.

Our readers may be gratified to have presented to their notice, some account of the second rise of Springhead, from an unwholesome swamp into a fashionable place of resort, after a lapse of almost fourteen hundred years.

Thorpe, in the Customale Roffense, says, in the lands adjoining Springhead, now called Bark (Barque) Fields a great number of Roman coins, some of silver, and many of copper, have at times been turned up by the plough. The late Mr. Landon, who was rector of Nursted and Ifield, and many years curate of Southfleet, where he resided, had several: one was of the Empress Faustina, very fair, in silver. Mr. Pedder, a farmer, also, (1788), who then occupied the fields had likewise many of these coins in his possession; as had one Mr. Lane, who kept a public-house in Betsome. Mr. Landon also informed Mr. Thorpe that parched corn, (as wheat, &c.), had been dug up where the coins were found, which shews that fire was the cause of the destruction of the town. Mr. Landon writes — "where the coins were found, some few years since, was discovered...

Folio 424

A fair mile-stone⁸. It stood upright in the ground with its crown four or five inches below the surface. I measured it soon after it was dug up. It was two feet and a half long: two of its sides were sixteen inches each, the other fourteen: its corners were chiselled, but its faces were very rustic; upon one of the sides was a very fair X cut.⁷ "In Barque Lands, in Southfleet, two small silver pieces were lately found. Upon one of them there is a very fine and bold profile of a woman's head, with Plautilla round it, very plainly to be read," &c., &c.

Tradition records, that many anchors were found during the past century, in the "Salt Marshes" of Swanscombe.

In "Sole Field" in the parish of Southfleet, at the close of the last century, (A.D. 1799), some discoveries were made, and the Rev. P. Rashleigh transmitted the following account to the Society of Antiquaries:

"Southfleet, Jan. 1, 1800. A few days ago, as some men were ploughing in a field, in this parish, they perceived one of the horses' feet sink in the ground, which, upon examination, proved to be in the mouth of an urn; fortunately the horse did not break it, and the men dug it up; they examined its contents, and finding no coins, but what it contained consisted of some burnt bones and pieces of broken glass of a bluish colour and very thick, they threw them again in the hole and covered them up, bringing the urn home, which is now in my possession. It is of the rudest form, nearly spherical,⁹ of very strong red pottery, and contains twenty gallons; it has formerly had something resembling a handle, as two pieces remain one on each side of the mouth; it was covered with a very thick tile, and has, from its very rude form, the appear-

Folio 425

...of great antiquity. The men informed me that they broke another urn in pieces in digging out the first, which pieces they likewise threw into the hole; its contents were similar to the first. I immediately repaired to the spot and dug up all the fragments I could collect; it differs materially in shape from that first described and is of smaller and thinner pottery. I have collected enough of the pieces of glass (which are extremely friable) to discover that it has been a small bottle with flat sides, and which I imagine to have been a lachrymatory.³ — In making further researches in the neighbourhood of these urns, I discovered, at nine feet distance, (south) a tomb of stone covered with two very large stones, in each of which was fixed with a cement (not lead) an iron ring.³ The tomb contained two leaden coffins, of the most simple construction, consisting each of two pieces of lead; the bottom pieces, being turned up, formed the sides of each; and the top pieces, by being turned down at each end and a little over at the sides, formed the tops and ends of the coffins.⁴ No solder had been used, but a slight cement was laid over the coffins, which I concluded had been enclosed in wood, by several large spike nails (with flat heads being found amongst the dust in the tomb). The coffins were not at all adapted to the forms of the bodies, like our modern coffins, but were in the forms of parallelograms. Upon opening the coffins, (which was done by simply lifting up the top) we found the bones of a skeleton in each, perfect, which we conjectured to be those of children of seven or eight years old, from the age of the teeth and smallness of the bones. In one of the coffins I found only a skeleton, but in the other, a very handsome gold chain,⁵ ornamented with angular pieces of a bluish green stone or composition, and in the middle of each alternate link there had been pearls, which time has nearly destroyed; at the bottom of the chain was a stone set in gold, of a square form, with an intaglio of an oval shape. There were likewise in the same coffin two curious rings of gold,⁶ with serpents heads at the junction, used as bracelets, likewise a small gold ring⁷ with a jacinth set in it."

³ Vide pl. viii. fig. 2.
⁴ ib. pl. viii. fig. 3.
⁵ ib. pl. viii. fig. 6.
⁶ ib. pl. viii. fig. 4.
⁷ ib. pl. viii. fig. 5.

Folio 426

Literary and Learned.

British Archaeological Association.
Canterbury Congress.
Abstract of Mr. Fairholt’s Paper on Irish Antiquities, Read at Canterbury.

Irish antiquities may be said to derive their chief interest in their relation to the Bardic traditions, or early religious ceremonies of the primitive races who dwelt in the western regions of Europe. The ancient Irish lived in close communication with the primitive world, and their remains afford us views of their habits, peculiarities, and primitive civilisation. The Druids were the priests of their religion and the learned men of their society, and they held their mysterious rites in circular temples of enormous size, standing in open fields or enclosed with forests, and frequently composed of circles of stone. The remains of these religious temples are the most remarkable relics of ancient Ireland, and, though to be found in England and Scotland, they are most frequent in the sister island.

Among our Anglo-Saxon ancestors the fibula was a badge of social station, an insignia of office, a mark of merit, or a record of public service. Anglo-Saxon fibulae are very rare, and there is no article of personal ornament, or implements civil and military, of which they are deficient; the fibula alone, with its earliest uses as a clasp and its later as a decorative badge, gives us a proof of their peculiar and progressive nature. The many ornamental varieties discovered in Ireland, particularly in the county of Kilkenny, are remarkable by their artistic and intrinsically beautiful designs, and exhibit the skill of the Irish artificers in an extraordinary manner.

It was a subject of interest to archaeologists to compare the remains of ancient Irish fibulae with those of England and Scotland; but the fact of their resemblance is no evidence of national affinity, nor does it destroy the interest of their separate study. Their peculiar beauty and character cannot be overrated, and are worthy of all the attention they have obtained. The ancient fibulae discovered in Kilkenny are considered as among the finest relics of early art, and their preservation is justly regarded as important.

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Page 816
The series of beautiful examples of these early relics of antiquity, which he had collected in his tours, including the present one, amounted to about six hundred, among which he always found a rare or curious article, which he analyzed, and in many cases a particular and singular fact connected with the discovery was often of importance in determining the use of the article. The relics he had found among the tombs of the Irish and Scotch Druids bore a high character for taste and workmanship. These articles were sometimes made of brass, occasionally of copper or iron, but most frequently of gold and silver, and often set with jewels of a costly character. Rings, bracelets, torques, and the highly finished fibula, were among the articles, and in every instance of their manufacture they gave proof of skill and taste, in tastefulness of design, utility in use, and, occasionally, in artistic beauty, which could rival any article of modern times.

The extraordinary skill and taste displayed by the Irish artificer in these relics are so universally admired that they claim a peculiar and lasting consideration, not only from the student of antiquity but from the connoisseur and the critic. The fibula was used not only to fasten and adorn the dress but occasionally as a badge of authority or power. Among the tombs in Kilkenny were found some of the most beautiful fibulae, elaborately ornamented and decorated, many of which are preserved in our national collections.

The most elaborate specimens were often of pure gold, set with precious stones, and exhibited great skill in working and combining the different materials. One of the most remarkable facts connected with these discoveries was the comparative similarity of these articles with those found in the Saxon tombs of England.

At the close of the meeting, Mr. Fairholt delivered an animated and eloquent address, illustrating the subject by reference to the collection of these relics which he exhibited. He remarked that it was remarkable to find the tombs of our early ancestors of different races yield relics of such equal excellence, proving that a love of decoration and a high taste in art and utility prevailed at a period of history when, in other respects, civilisation had made but little advance.

Folio 428

Page 137

The skeletons deseparated from this sarcophagus were reinterred in their leaden wrappers, in the chancel of Southfleet church, by the command of Mr. B. Rashleigh, then the rector.

In the autumn of 1801, Mr. Rashleigh pursued the explorations in Sole Field, the result will be found in the following letter, read at the Society of Antiquaries, Feb. 11, 1802:

"Southfleet, Feb. 2, 1802. As I have made some further progress in my researches in Sole Field, in which I have been successful, I take up my pen to send you some account of what I have recently discovered in the same spot; which I think will decidedly determine it to be a Roman burial place. Within a small distance of the former tomb, and at about three feet beneath the surface of the earth, I found a pavement of stone, of the common Kentish rag-stone, which being removed, I discovered under it, nearly in the centre, a sarcophagus, or massy stone, divided into two parts, top and bottom, very nicely fitted in a groove; upon taking off the top, I found it had been excavated in an oval form, both at the top and bottom, with a rough or coarse stonemason's chisel; in this oval recess were placed two large glass urns or vases, containing a considerable quantity of the remains of burnt bodies; both the urns were open at the top, but one of them, containing the lesser portion of bodies was filled to the brink with a transparent liquor, which did not appear to have diminished in the smallest degree, by evaporation; the liquor has no taste or smell, has no acid or alkali, but is probably some mucilaginous substance. The other urn was filled about two-thirds full with the parts of bodies, and had within it some of the same liquor, much of which had been absorbed or evaporated. Between the urns, were two pairs of shoes much decayed by time, but enough of them is fortunately remaining to shew their form, and to prove that they had been very superb, and of very expensive workmanship; they were made of fine purple leather, reticulated in the form of hexagons all over, and each hexagonal division worked with gold; the dress had likewise been put into the sarcophagus, but that was reduced to tinder. On each side of..."

Folio 429

Page 138

This sarcophagus had been deposited large earthen urns, all of which were broken, and compressed flat upon the ashes they contained, by the weight of pavement, earth, &c., which had covered them.

"Very near the sarcophagus, and upon a level with it, was another small depot, consisting of two earthen bottles holding about a pint each in measure, of red pottery, but empty; and two red pans standing by their sides, in one of which were two small rib bones and some ashes: these were placed in a recess formed by the smooth ends of four stones, and covered by a larger one. Immediately under this had been deposited a box of wood extremely well secured by copper clamps, which were fastened by large round-headed copper nails; the wood was entirely decayed, except some parts which adhered to the clamps and nails, but entirely rotten. The stone of which the sarcophagus is made is the same kind which formed the former tomb, what I call the roe-stone, from its resemblance to the roe of fish. I have been likewise able to ascertain the foundation of the building or walls which surrounded the tombs, in extent about fifty feet square."

About four years after Mr. Rashleigh's discoveries in Sole Field, some labourers employed by the surveyor of Southfleet parish, met with many human bones—portions of three skeletons,—in the western bank of the Watling-street, before its junction with the vicinal way to Springhead, adjoining to the angle formed by the road to Southfleet church. After irreverently exposing these remains, the men were ordered by a parochial authority "to chuck them back again into the hole."

From that time till May the 20th, 1845, no memorials of the perished races, who, in their day and generation regarded with complacency, the scenes

"That now know them no longer,"

had been remarked in this part of the parish. On that evening, Mr. Silvester, whilst riding by, observed in...

See pl. v, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4. — Pl. v, 5, 6, 7, 8. — Pl. vi, 1.

Folio 430

Forgetting
From earth we came, and we return’d to earth.
Descendants! Spare the Dust that gave you birth.

Folio 431

With this skeleton, we found fragments of urns, a large bead.

Folio 432

the northern road-side bank of Sole-Field, a mass of flint-work set in cement. The next day, accompanied by his son, we drove to the spot, and after a minute examination, were convinced, from finding two pieces of an unbaked cinerary urn and other signs, that at some antecedent period, a mortuary deposit had been violated, and its contents carelessly scattered.

A little beyond Sole Field, we arrive at Barque Lands, through which runs the Watling-street in a direct course to the metropolis. At the corner of this field, upon the western side of the road, there was discovered in the bank, in June, 1845, a male skeleton. Its cranium and some other bones are preserved in Mr. Silvester's museum. The legs had lain across the road, and consequently been pulverised by the traffic.

A few yards farther, a branch road, or vicinal way to the baths, deviates from Watling-street. On the south of this via militaris, were the principal buildings of the town. The field is covered with masses of foundations to such an extent, that the agriculturists assert they can trace the course of the streets during droughty seasons. We saw it last autumn, whilst a fine crop of wheat was ripening, and the varied hues clearly developed the positions of the foundations. The old road, the Watling-street, was most decisive, because a storm, two days previously, had beaten down the wheat on either side of it, (where the roots struck deeper,) and left a long line of corn luxuriantly waving in the wind.

Folio 433

1813 Jan Mr. Crafta purchased of Bradbury a tile 8 inches by 1 and a quarter inches in thickness, a ring, 2 coins, a horse shoe, buckle & some pieces of bronze for 5/-.

Folio 434

Page 140

The property has promised to make an examination of the fields in which the foundations present themselves; and his exertions will, inevitably, be rewarded by ample discoveries, such as altars, &c., &c. Mr. Smith says, in a droughty season, six years ago (1841), when it was a clover crop, that he remarked "the walls to be regularly mapped out and the angles and doorways of rooms of various sizes were sharply defined. In general, the walls appeared to be about two feet thick, but in some places they seemed to be of greater solidity."

In the spring of 1844, some workmen whilst grubbing up the shrubs in the bank immediately above the now dried-up springs which supplied the baths, on the north-eastern side of Barque Lands, which had remained, as the stubs proved, in an uncultivated condition six feet into the field, and one foot nine inches wide; it was constructed of surface-picked flints, embedded in mortar. The following week, whilst carefully inspecting the ichnography, the materials and their position, we picked up a beautifully executed piece of Samian ware, a fragment of a patera. The very next day, one of the labourers “Seized, for his shade of the spoil,” two silver coins of the lower empire in fine preservation.

The Gardens

The first discoveries in the Gardens of which we have any record, are those made by “Watercress Jack,” as he was termed—a man named Bradbury, who being unable to procure constant employment, fancied he could obtain a livelihood by the cultivation of water-cresses. Impressed with this idea, he solicited permission...

Page 142

...became daily increased. The cress which he considered the most susceptible of culture was that of the celery leaf species, accordingly, he, with great labour, gradually supplanted with it the indigenous cress. The almost virgin soil repaid his assiduity with wealth—so that he, too, after some years of toil, felt an inclination to retire, and abandoned Springhead after finding a successor at an enormous premium in Mr. Silvester. Of the discoveries of Mr. Harris no record can be found. That he must have met with quantities of curiosities is certain, from the simple circumstance, that now, hardly a week passes, but coins or other valuables are discovered.

Soon after Mr. Silvester had entered upon the occupation of the territory, he was surprised at the quantity of coins, &c., his labourers were continually picking up: and after, presenting very many to curious individuals—he was advised to form a collection.

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Folio 440

Folio 441

Description of Various Cress Species

The various sorts of cress to be met with in ditches, streams, and moist places, are worthy of the attention of the botanist, from their useful qualities. The water-cress (Nasturtium officinale), though so common and well known, is not unfrequently confounded with a plant with similar leaves, which grows in the same places—the creeping water-parsnip (Sium nodiflorum); and as this is by no means devoid of its poisonous nature, it may be well to point out the marks by which the two can be distinguished.

The leaves of the water-parsnip are of a lighter green than those of water-cress, and never purple nor brown, like the latter; while the leaves, or divisions of the leaf, are longer and narrow, saw-toothed on the edges, and pointed at the end, in the water-parsnip. The leaves of water-cress, on the other hand, have the leaflets roundish, and particularly the odd leaflet at the end of the main leaf, which is large and blunt. None of them are regularly saw-toothed, though they have a few indentations along their edges.

When the water-parsnip is in flower, the spokes of the umbel have both an involucre and an involucellum; the flowers are fertile, the petals heart-shaped, and the seeds egg-globing and streaked. The most certain proof for persons not acquainted with botanical distinctions is the taste; this can never be mistaken.

The best water-cresses are those which grow within reach of the tides, at least of spring tides, as the salt of the sea-water apparently acts as a beneficial stimulus to improve their growth and flavour. Next to those, may be preferred such as grow in very shallow streams of clear spring-water, where the bottom consists of gravel, or small boulder stones. Mud, or clay, does not agree with them.

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Page 143 - Archaeological Insights

Advice, we rejoice to say, he adopted. The consequence has been the collection now upon the premises. A collection we most advisedly say, unmatched in the kingdom; from the circumstance of its having been all procured from the parcel of ground in his own possession. Mr. Silvester is now erecting a museum, and (we take the credit of the suggestion to ourselves) intends allowing all parties who are archaeologically inclined, a gratuitous peep at the relics of the Roman sway in Britain.

During the summer of 1844, Mr. Silvester, whilst engaged in recovering further portions of the bog, and adapting the adjacent land to his horticultural designs, came upon heaps of fictile ware of every description and quality—bottoms of urns, amphorae, Samian ware, &c. These fortunate discoveries have added three fresh names to our list of known English potteries. The position and vast quantities of these fragments almost indisputably evinces that probably here or in Tiler's field, close by, were potteries for the manufacture of coarse and fine ware.

To use the words of C. R. Smith, esq., the Secretary of the British Archaeological Association, "The forms and patterns comprise almost an infinite diversity, ranging from first rude efforts, to the elegant result of perfected art."

In 1843 legal proceedings⁴ were commenced by Mr. Silvester, against the surveyors of Southfleet and Northfleet.

Footnote: ⁴ The Springhead road was very important—it not only divided two parishes and two hundreds, but its centre was also the boundary line of two divisions of the county. When the country was divided into parishes in the tenth century, roads being regarded as the most certain objects of existence were taken for the boundary marks. The Southfleet surveyors, however, maintained, that the road was of no importance...

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Page 144 - The Road and Archaeological Findings

Fleet for not maintaining in good repair, the road to the Gardens. The Officers were at first exceedingly contumacious and it was not till after a vexatious defence, and the fining of the Southfleet surveyors by the justices in Petty Sessions at the Dartford Town Hall, that they submitted with a bad grace, and commenced the necessary repairs.⁵

Whilst the labourers were cutting down a portion of the Wingfield bank to widen the road, April 22, 1845, they laid bare a foot above the level of the present road, a platform composed of square tiles, 7 ft. long and 2 1/2 wide; upon it were fragments of calcined human bones and masses of charcoal.⁶ The tiles were much damaged by the action of fire.

Notes

Footnote:

⁵ April 22, 1845.—Dartford Special Sessions.—Mr. Collis, surveyor of Maidstone, reported, that he had viewed the Southfleet portion of the Springhead road—he estimated the repairs at £60, independent of the purchase of land to widen it—he further offered to complete the work in a week. Same day, Mr. Hubbard, land surveyor, ordered to make a Plan of the road, and report it at adjourned Sessions. May 20.—Plan produced, showing length of road to be 383 yds.—parish officers not present, contumacious—so “Order” signed by Justices Capt. Dyke, Malcolm and Renuoard.

⁶ Cremation was not an invariable practice of the Romans—whose laws forbade burning or burying in a city, from a sacred and civil consideration. The Roman burial places were either public or private. The private were usually in fields or gardens, near the highway as to be conspicuous, and recall to the wayfarer's recollection that his days were numbered; whilst, still further to impress the fact upon his mind, the inscriptions often commenced, Site viator, Aspice viator, &c. After cremation the bones and ashes were collected...

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Folio 445

Page 145 - Archaeological Discoveries

The following week there was discovered, also upon the Northfleet side, a small black cinerary urn, filled with ashes, together with vast quantities of pieces of black and red pottery. An amazing number of small sea shells were met with in the bank.

The only object of interest found upon the Southfleet side of the road, during these repairs, was a skeleton, 18 inches below the surface, on June 29, 1845.

The numbers of querns and pieces of querns picked up, adjacent to the heaps of pieces of pottery, prove also that a manufactory for these handmills must have existed here. A perfect half of a quern was dug up on the 16th of May, 1845, and portions of three others in the Summer of 1847. No clue to the nature of the composition of the cement can at present be conceived; and an eminent cement maker declared in 1846, that he would freely give £10,000 to find out the secret of its manufacture.

A. H. Burkitt, esq. kindly etched a plate of these querns, etc., for that learned work, the Collectanea Antiqua, No. 7, impressions from which accompany this account, as, pl. iii. Fig. 16. Querns are hand-mills, made of two portable stones—the lower a cylinder, with a bason at top, cut in it. An upper stone was fitted in it, and the corn was ground between them.

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Page 146 - Springhead Discoveries

In the upper stone was a hole to pour in corn, and a peg, by way of handle. The meal ran out by the sides on the cloth. It was these mills to which Matthew alludes, chapter xxiv, verse 41, "Two women shall be grinding at the mill; the one shall be taken, and the other left." See also Luke, xvii., 35. In the illustrating plate with the querns are also representations of bells, fibulæ, fragments of Samian ware; and in the accompanying article, C. R. Smith, esq., truthfully observes,—"As yet the neighbourhood of Springhead remains free from the intrusion of the speculator, and the people of London, for a trifling expense, and at an accessible distance, can find in its walks the gratification of knowing they are really tasting something of the delights and retirement that belong to true country life. But few of the numerous visitors to the quiet gardens of Springhead are conscious of the existence, in the locality of ought beyond the charms which nature presents, in varied luxuriance, in cultivated garden, field, and wood scenery. They dream not that the pleasures of a visit to this retired and pretty spot may be enhanced by a retrospective glance at its condition in former times, and a slight knowledge of its importance when Britain was under the civilizing influence of her Roman masters; and that the facts which supply this information are ploughed or dug out of the grounds over which they walk in unsuspecting ignorance of what lies buried beneath their feet. Where now the garden smiles and the corn waves, fifteen hundred years ago stood the dwelling of Roman colonists, and there lived and died generations of whom no written record remains and whose existence is now only to be traced in the..."

Folio 447

Quern - The Pancake of Shrove Tuesday is said to have occurred to a feast in the Fornicalia appointed to commemorate the manner in which bread was baked before the invention of the oven by the deified Fornax.

A curious coincidence or rather a startling affinity between two distinct peoples' languages is seen in the Scoto-Celtic Bracatair, a baker. See Juvenile Bradshaw, care a baker; Ex. Bradshaw's "Eels of canes," snakes.

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SPRINGHEAD.—Errata.—In our paragraph last week upon Springhead were several sad blunders, through the wretched copy sent us by our correspondent, who, like most authors, experientia docet, never has either pens, ink, or paper. "Thermae" instead of "therma," and these said thermae—or baths instead of being fed with shrines are really fed with the most beautifully pellucid springs that can be conceived. These baths are really worth going many miles to visit, independently of the enjoyment to be obtained in the charming pleasure gardens in which they are situated. Springhead, our readers are aware, was in the second and third centuries a large city; the old race of antiquarian crabbed men deny this statement, geologists of a "new school" men deny this statement, but admit at the same time that they have not the slightest idea what its appellation was. Mr. Dunkin at one time thought that "Sulis" was a portion of the name, from so many spots in the neighbourhood still being called "Sole" and "Sole-field," "Sole-field" being the name of the corn-field in which such masses of foundations have been exhibited.

Folio 449

The Athenaeum

London, Saturday, August 27, 1846.

Historical Illustrations of the Art of Pottery, treated as a branch of Archaeological Investigation. By Joseph Marryat. Longman & Co.: London. Dated 1846.

The art of pottery, one of the earliest branches of manufacture in human history, is treated here with detail and insight. The work not only spans the history and evolution of pottery but delves into its cultural significance. In the early chapters, Marryat explores its initial function as a utilitarian craft before evolving into a fine art, particularly in the civilizations of Greece and Rome. Furthermore, the technological advancements in pottery-making, such as the use of the potter's wheel and kiln techniques, are addressed with thoroughness.

Detailed descriptions of various findings, especially in ancient burial sites, showcase the importance of pottery in understanding the lifestyles, trades, and artistic pursuits of early human settlements. The author also sheds light on the transition of pottery from household necessity to ornate and symbolic artefacts during the Renaissance period.

Marryat’s analysis of modern pottery techniques and trends compares their evolution with their ancient counterparts. The work concludes with an appeal for preservation and more archaeological focus on this art form, emphasizing its relevance in tracing cultural histories.

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Her causes: “To the oblivion in which the classical productions of former ages were buried, or the disregard in which they were held—to a waning capacity in the bishops, clergy, and monks, upon whom the weighty charge of education had devolved—to a selfish reflection in the same order of men, that in proportion to the decline of learning and the spread of ignorance, their churches and monasteries had prospered; whilst the revival of letters was likely to divert the copious streams of pious benevolence into a channel less favorable to the interests of the clergy and the monks—to a marked aversion in the bishop of Rome to any scheme by which the minds of churchmen, or of others, might be turned to the study of antiquity, and to those documents which would disclose on what futile reasons and sandy foundations the exclusive prerogatives of his see were established.”

Again, speaking of the vices of the pope: “The Roman see was unworthily occupied for many years, particularly by Benedict IX., who was called to it by the venal Romans when he had not completed his tenth year; but whose votes the treasures of his family had purchased. ‘The writers of the age dwell with malevolent complacency on the vices of this infant pontiff; and he continued to improve in profligacy, till, unwilling any longer to bear the insult, the same people drove him from their city, and taking another bribe, elected the bishop of Sabinum. In his place, this election also was soon annulled; when, ‘as there was not,’ says the historian, ‘in the Roman church a man fit to occupy its first station,’ a German was nominated, and, on his death, in 1049, Leo IX., himself a foreigner and bishop of Toul, ascended the papal chair.”

For Gregory VII. he has scarcely a better word: “The style adopted by Gregory—better, perhaps, known by The son of Hildebrand—is, agreeably to the characteristics of his mind, bold, vigorous, and ambitious. On a former occasion, speaking of his decrees in nine books, I said that the imposing language he used sought to establish the supremacy of the Christian religion.”

If Mr. Berington has little respect for the religion and morals, he has still less for the literature, either of the popes, or of their subordinates. After speaking of Gregory the Great, he observes: “I do not mean to insinuate that the immediate successors of Gregory were all destitute of literary accomplishments, though, in an age of ignorance, but little attention is due to the eulogy of contemporaries. Toward the close of the seventh century, when Agatho was bishop of Rome, we have irrefragable proof of the low state of ecclesiastical learning. A Roman synod was convened to deliberate on certain communications which had been received from Constantinople; and it was agreed to send deputies into the East with letters to the emperor from the pontiff and the council. The deputies were seven, bishops and priests; and as the synod was numerously attended, we may fairly presume that they were selected with care. ‘It is not,’ says Agatho, ‘from any confidence which we place in their knowledge; for how can the perfect science of the scriptures be found amongst men, who live in the midst of a barbarous people, and with difficulty earn their bread by the labor of their hands?’”

Further discussions included the scarcity of books, the laborious process of transcription by monks, and the limited dissemination of knowledge due to the absence of critical literary taste and the challenges posed by barbarian invasions.

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The Athenæum

Descriptive Transcription: This issue contains discussions and observations on the evolution of pottery and its artistry across various ancient civilizations. It highlights specific techniques, motifs, and artistic developments, particularly in Greek, Roman, and Etruscan pottery styles.

The earliest examples, dated around 600 B.C., exhibit simple human and animal forms traced in black outline. These designs, while coarse, lay the groundwork for more refined works. The text delves into archaic Greek pottery, focusing on the Athenian styles characterized by light, fine clay and intricate designs. It describes black-figure pottery with figures drawn in stark contrast against a lighter background.

Among the innovations discussed are the technical transitions in pottery decoration, such as using black pigments and incising fine details with brushes instead of gravers. These advancements allowed for freer and more expressive artistic styles. The Athenæum attributes this progression to influences from renowned Greek painters like Phidias and Polygnotus.

The text further explores the interplay between societal changes and artistic expressions. It notes the decline of vase painting during periods of cultural and poetic decay in Greece, linking artistic decline with broader societal transformations.

The latter part of the article describes Roman pottery, including Samian ware and its influence on British pottery. The technical sophistication of Roman clay work, often adorned with mythological or hunting scenes, highlights the interconnectedness of ancient artistic traditions.

The Archaeological Institute, mentioned in the document, hosted discussions showcasing pottery from Babylonian, Greek, Roman, Medieval, and Renaissance periods. This event emphasized the enduring legacy of pottery as a medium of cultural expression.

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One of those masterpieces such as, in former years, at once caught the eye—gathering the visitors around at its invitation, and holding them there by the spell of the affections and the assent of the judgment. The highest Art is unrepresented at the Academy; and the amateur has to refer to the divine memories by which that dim vault is haunted, or to his knowledge of what is passing elsewhere, for the assurance that it exists amongst us. There is much here, however, that is creditable to a school—though nothing that should crown it; and the second visit takes off something of the disappointment which waited on the first. The works of all kinds in this Exhibition are 131 in number. Of these 77 are the proper population of the Academical gallery—bust and medallion; and 14 others are portraiture in various kinds;—making a total of 91 mere personalities, and leaving a remainder of only 40 for the ideal of the Art. A further deduction has yet to be made, before we can at all venture to use such a word “so as not abusing it;” and then, it will be understood how of this synopsis the margin is a small one within which the artist is working with beauty, or for fame. On no conditions from which such elements have been excluded has he ever attained to the perfection of his art. The types of the Beautiful are, as we have said, importunately outnumbered in the English sculptor’s practice by such types as Art would characterize in terms which courtesy declines;—and the worker in such, even though he have a seat in the Academy, must expect none on Parnassus on the claim of having been a tenth or twentieth producer of foolish faces.

Of even such materials as here exist most deserv-

Folio 456

Among the specimens illustrative of mediæval pottery may be noticed a remarkable fragment from the collection of Mr. Whincopp. It appeared to have formed part of a vessel ornamented with a Gothic architectural design, in high relief, and bore a very brilliant green glaze.

The specimens of Maiolica, or Faenza ware, contributed by Mr. Mayer, of Liverpool, and Mr. Gowen, were numerous and good. The Secretary, in alluding to them observed, that Dr. Klemm, of Dresden, was of opinion that this ware was first made subsequently to the introduction of Chinese porcelain into Europe, by the Portuguese, in 1518. The earliest manufacture was at Faenza; but Urbino and Sienna became afterwards celebrated for it. It has been supposed that many of the designs are from the hand of Raffaelle himself; but although a letter from the great painter to the Duchess d’Urbino has been cited, stating that the drawings ordered by that princess for porcelain were in progress, it is probable that most of these subjects were furnished by engravings after the great masters. Mr. Mayer also exhibited some curious landscapes in terra-cotta, which he purchased in Calabria, where they were made; but he had not been able to ascertain where the manufacture was situated, except that it was in the “interior.” Mr. Octavius Morgan, M.P., with reference to these specimens, made a few remarks on the terra-cotta decorations of the Fürstenhof at Wismar, in Mecklenburg—which he considered to be of Italian workmanship. The discussion was closed by Mr. Cole; who observed upon the examples illustrating the progress of the Staffordshire manufactories to which we referred in the last Athenaeum.

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[MAY 9]

Models will leave an influence upon Art, which an immediate return to the fountains of beauty will be powerless to counteract. However impossible it has been to communicate to the faces, which look all sorts of unutterable and unimaginable things from the shelves of the Academy, the character of the divinities whom they are there to rival,—the leaven of the human will be found introducing itself into the composition of the divinities, in expressions which will be sure to raise question of their divinity. A Venus or Anti-nous who should betray the most distant family relationship to some of the aspects that are the remarkable lights of the Academical Golgotha, would be deposed from Olympus by the universal consent of gods and men.

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No. 967

Name in the specimens found in England, Holland, and other parts of the Roman Empire, would lead rather to the inference that it was all issued from one or more great central manufactories in Italy; though it has been strongly maintained that the specimens found in Britain and other provinces were the product of native potteries. Specimens of this ware were exhibited by Sir Philip Egerton, Bart., from Northwich, in Cheshire,—where a Roman pottery is supposed to have existed,—and also by Mr. Talbot. Mr. Birch proceeded to point out and compare a variety of specimens of the coarse yellow, dark blue, unglazed red, black, and light red terra-cotta Roman ware,—chiefly from the collection of the Marquess of Northampton.

Folio 459

London Wednesday Concerts—The second and third of these agreeable and popular entertainments have passed off with as much success as the opening concert deserved and gained. The selections have been various and good, and a change in the vocalists has lent additional attraction to the “Evenings.” Of the former, the most judicious has been a nicely chosen variety from Barnett’s Mountain Sylph; of the latter Miss Rainforth may be acknowledged to be principal. We are promised increasing attractions, and on Wednesday next, Ernst, the great violinist, is announced for a solo.

Holborn Vocal Concerts—On Wednesday last we noticed a meeting of a sort of Madrigal Club which is giving a series of most interesting vocal performances at the large ball in Holborn, more noted for dinners and speeches, etc., than aught else. In any other locality these concerts would have commanded a far greater degree of success, for with the increased numbers of the people, the late mingling between great composers, the fine works of Bennett, Morley, Callcott, etc., &c., ought to find audiences of enthusiastic hearers. We wish this society better fortune for its concerts, and think it would be difficult to find a corps more zealous in their desire to maintain the standard of the art. A madrigal from King’s college by Professor Attwood, and a new “madrigal” by Hayes, were given, as well as a fine overture attraction to the entertainment by Mr. J. A. Tully. It is on the new “anthem” for voices, and is a melodious and devout composition.

THE DRAMA.

Haymarket—A one-act farce, called The Laughing Hyena, was produced on Saturday last, founded on an old and prolific theme—jealousy, and although the incidents were amusing, and the acting in the safe hands of Mrs. Fitzwilliam and Miss Reynolds, and Messrs. Webster and Buckstone, it was treated by the audience with an uncalled-for severity. Many a worse piece has not only had a patient attention, but been loudly applauded. Buckstone as a poet, the object, and Webster as a husband, the subject of the green-eyed passion, were very amusing; and a few judicious alterations that have been effected since the first night have placed the farce on the list of successful productions.

Adelphi—Methinks I see my Father is the title of a two-act farce brought out at this theatre on Thursday evening. The comic incidents arise from the exertions of Mr. Charles Mathews to find a father for a friend, who is to be married on the same day as himself to one of two young ladies who will only be married simultaneously, and whose uncle, a man of rigid adherence to forms, will not permit the marriage to take place without certificates of the birth of both of the bridegrooms are produced. A variety of schemes are proposed to meet the difficulty. Mr. Mathews and several fathers suggest to describe the equivoques that arise would be to destroy the point; but that arising out of the weight of one of the ladies, as represented by Mrs. Daly, is of a kind of wit as broad as unique itself. The weight of the farce is principally borne by Mr. Charles Mathews, who executed his arduous duties fully and successfully; indeed, the humor of the acting was excellent. The first act is dull, but the second is full of incidents and surprises, which created roars of laughter from all parts of the house. The lighting up and applause at the fall of the curtain were enough to satisfy the manager.

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...is made of casters or moulders, though a reference to Minton’s splendid description of the infernal palace shows how much more poetic that would have been than the hammer and anvil. Homer describes all articles of superior workmanship as Sidonian; and represents his people as trading in every part of Greece. Their ships run into some cove, and their factors go to the dwellings of neighbouring chiefs. These, though at feud among themselves, receive the strangers kindly, and purchase from them hardware, jewellery, articles of dress, and toys, in return for cattle and slaves. Now, just such a person I suppose the possessor of this vessel to have been, and of this very nation. Commerce was probably carried on in this way along the shores of the Mediterranean till the destruction of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar destroyed it also for a time, and then removed its most powerful centre of action to Carthage. That state seemed to have chiefly directed its attention westward; and it was confined almost exclusively Phoenician—the trade in this time, the use of the alloy rapidly grew into demand. The land traffic, the supply failing, became obliged to seek other resources; but in vain, till the earlier Athenians, the refined masters of the Aegean,—nay, perhaps even earlier than that, thought out that event, till the fall of Carthage cut it off. It was, as well, the duty of abstract thought to suggest a vital desire for not being thought of. Returning now to Homer: the Phoenician traders were quite ready to have recourse to violence where they could; and it is probable that their rule in the coasts of Lybia and Spain they took an early opportunity of turning their factories into forts, and enslaving the natives. Did the same thing happen here with the Tuatha De Danann, a tribe in metallic ornaments and weapons, subdued the ruler Tribogy, who referred their superiority received as “magic”? We regard these very persons also Phoenician; their name signifies the tribe of the gods of the Dadii or Danae; if it is right, it did not exist on the Danaus; but besides that they must have been far later. It seems improbable that such fierce warriors would have been overpowered by any Celtic division; but it is nevertheless, that the times of Domnannian Cornwall must have been completely under the influence of the Phoenician agents, and may indeed be imagined as their colleagues and rivals at first. But I believe it is said that the battle of Moytura, which established their dominion, was fought about six hundred years before our Lord, and therefore about every time when the fall of Tyre may have been supposed to scatter its people, and the ruin of their commerce. Nevertheless, no one would presume that this conjecture may be established or disproved by a comparison of the skulls found in sepulchral monuments on their battle-fields, with those of Tyrian or Carthagenian origin, if any such are known to exist.

Mr. Potts said: “It was worthy of remark that the bronze relics found in King’s County had that peculiar origin as referred to by Dr. Robinson in the course of the examination. It was interesting. He might also observe that it was manifest the ancient instruments should bear testimony that the finished instruments such as those which had been exhibited that evening, because a large number of different moulds for latchets and other implements of warfare had been found from time to time in this country.”

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Roman Coins discovered at Springhead Southfleet, Kent

Now in the possession of Mr. Gylbert, June 1845.

Pillar

Augustus, one specimen much worn/leguminous;
Tiberius, one; Vespasian, three; Trajan, one;
Hadrian, one; Antoninus Pius, two; Faustina the Younger, one;
Faustina Senior, two; Commodus, two; Cara Calla, two;
Julia Domna, wife of Severus, two; Severus Alexander, one;
Julia Mamaea, mother of Severus Alexander, one;
Valentinian Junior, one; Salonia, three; Valentinianus, one;
Postumus, five.
Of these, the early specimens are much worn, those of Severus and family are selected as most desirable by the finders. The coins of Postumus are also much retained.
Total: 31.

Large Brass

Domitian, one; Hadrian, three; Sabina, one;
Antoninus Pius, three; Faustina Senior, one; Faustina Junior, two; Commodus, one much worn.
Total: 13.

Middle Brass

Antonius, one; Agrippa, two; Claudius, two; Nero, two;
Vespasian, one; Trajan, five; Hadrian, four;
Antoninus Pius, one; Marcus Aurelius, one; Lucilla, one;
Caracalla, one.
Total: 22.

Small Brass

Gallienus, three; Victorinus, one; Tetricus, two;
Postumus, three; Allectus, one; Constantine Junior, five;
Roma, eleven; Helena, three; Theodora, two;
Valens, two; Valentinian, one; Gratian, two.
Total: 37.

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Coins found in Britain, ancient. Coins illegible or worn, three.
Coins inscribed “Constantia,” two or three. Total: 255.

The Value of Some British Coins

I may be assured that the coins are a fine valuable type of the general character of those discovered in and about the sites of Roman stations; and they point to almost the same uninterrupted date, and also precisely illustrate the common accepted scale of degrees of rarity.

Thus, the coins of Tiberius and of the Constantines, Spring and later, are rare, while there is one excellent specimen of the Marinus, unique in finding. The smuggled coins are of small service. The earlier coins are generally of good material and service both in form and type, the presence of which is both well defined, while the later specimens are somewhat less preserved. It will appear by the coins that the place was inhabited down to the termination of the Roman occupants of Britain. They have thrown an interesting light on the early proprietors of the locality. This would be best evidenced by the scattering of those remains of their various buildings which are so determined, spread beneath the surface of the adjoining fields and about their interior area.

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5 Liverpool St. City
June 16, 1845

My dear Sir,
As it seems to be necessary to fix a day at once for our visit, suppose we determine on Friday next. I will arrange with Mr. Keats to get off very early, but I would be thankful by your letting me know where the tavern is where we should land. Of course, you will begin early in the morning without waiting for us, for we could hardly be down before half past 10. However, we had better land at Greenhithe, but I am at present ignorant of the locality of the barrier you intend to open.

I need not say more.
Yours most sincerely,
[Signature unclear]

Folio 464

Pettigrew would be happy to see your father & Dr. Culhane, if convenient to their leisure.
I will write to Mr. Collyer, but I have no tickets left. They will act vigorously.
I will let myself or Fairholt know in case they should like to come.
Mr. Keats is just returned from Italy & Egypt, and is delicate & warm with me.
Mr. Barham is dangerously ill & the Rev. J. J. Hodgson, as I have just heard, is dead. He promised me a paper for our meeting.

I am obliged for the [unclear signature or closing line].

Folio 465

Perhaps the one will do for my Canterbury task, the other for my miscellaneous collection.
The Queens are just arrived together with the pottery. I have listed the names, all of which I shall be acquainted with and supplied with specimens of the finest pottery.
Fecit Peculiaris MARTII.O.
Mater Officina OPPRIM, officials, and Prim or Primula. These are very good. Dr. Smith has taken them after the fetch this evening tomorrow.

With best respects to Mr. and Mrs. Dickens, Junior.
Sincerely yours,
CH. Smith

Folio 466

London,
5 Liverpool St. City,
June 22, 1845.

My dear Sir,
I am particularly and earnestly desired by the whole of the London portion of the company who this day yesterday accepted your invitation into Kent and experienced so much attention from you and the members of your family, to offer you and them our most cordial thanks for the considerate and liberal forethought with which you and they seemed to us, in spite of unpropitious weather. The enjoyment of a delightful day's recreation which will be long remembered by us.

Folio 467

We arrived home quite safe at eight o'clock and terminated the day's happiness with a champagne supper at Mr. Chaffers'.

My sisters join me in best respects to you, Mr. and Mrs. Dunkin, and their one.
Yours ever truly,
CH. Smith

Folio 468

I mean to give a brief notice of Springhead in one of my tracts, more to the purpose, in order to draw attention to the locality and thus benefit Mr. Slasher. I shall use the 2 plates by Mr. Burkitt.

I will also get a notice into the Journal.
Believe the next series will be on the 16th and 30th of July.

Folio 469

...be hoped, the proprietor Mr. Collyer, will sanction and encourage the investigation of...
Some early opportunity.
CH Smith

Folio 470

"It is not good to be alone."

Folio 471

A.D. 1857, Feb. While Mr. Andrews’ men were digging near the stile adjoining "The Four Went-ways," they came upon some Roman foundations. Mr. A., who has had some experience in archaeological discoveries, observed from the circumstances of finding the cistern (?) or cavity, that on this occasion a cist was disturbed.

Folio 472

44-45
Mr. Henry
16 Day of June
1874
47 / 1
----
4-8

Folio 473

Moule's Essay on Roman Villas

...of these oeci described upon the latter, and are left either to consider them as identical with the Triclinia or dining rooms, or distinguish them from the latter as we may. However, "asarotos oecus, the unswept room, was a name once given to a Triclinium, on account of the singularity of the design of the mosaic pavement, which, by the caprice of the artist, was made to represent all kinds of fragments of a feast."* P. 129. A pavement of this kind, it may be remarked, was lately discovered at Rome.** The oecus, if not identical with the peristyle, as some have thought, may be considered to be a large Triclinium, for the purpose of entertaining company; it was, according to Vitruvius, to be made of the same proportions as to length and breadth as the Triclinium, but twice its width in length. It was surrounded by a simple row of columns, it was called Corinthian; but, if constructed of two orders of columns, it was called Egyptian; it was lofty, and appeared like a Basilica. In either case, the windows were introduced open towards the north, with plenty of light. There were such as were made sufficiently capacious to admit of two Triclinia opposite to each other, and were sufficiently capacious to admit of two Triclinia opposite to each other, and were sufficiently capacious to admit of a view of the peristyle or Viridarium. The Viridarium, or pseudo-garden itself, was occasionally constructed open to the air, or in that of the house of Actaeon, at Pompeii, under cover; whilst, in other instances, it was a representation of a real Triclinium, with its reclining stone benches, and roofed over with trellis-work.

...visible oeci, sometimes disposed to confound the oecus with the peristyle, but we believe, it was the most magnificent and spacious apartment of the house, the banqueting oecus par excellence; it had no small correspondence with an Andronitis, or men's pleasure hall; and was always, it will be remembered, the banqueting room of the Triclinium itself. It was remarkable as containing tables in the peristyle around the festoons of garlands over the columns fixed in masonry.

Other articles noted are the Sacrarium or domestic chapel, a little square in the midst of which stood an altar for sacrifice; and, in olden times, the Penates or deities dedicated to the Bona Dea. The Lararium, in which the Penates were lodged, were considered to serve four classes, the celestial, marine, and infernal gods, and all demi-gods or heroes who had deserved divine honours; these last, corresponding somewhat with the saints of Romish worship, to whom supplications are idolatrously made. The Culina or Kitchen—"The extent of the Roman kitchen was enormous, being sometimes no less than 148 feet in length.

*See it described in Gent. Mag. vol. CIII. pt. ii. p. 63.
**Pompeiana, vol. I. p. 148.
† Ibid. p. 177.
‡ Melmoth's Pliny, book 5, letter VI.

Folio 474

Moule's Essay on Roman Villas

1834. Due time, and Moons will be carried before the Coach, when dark, on mornings and evenings, for the safety of the Coach in travelling.
Performed by us, William Allen, Thomas Taylor.
N.B. Notice will be given in this Paper, a week before the Coach will leave off performing this stage in two days.
Yours, &c. I.A.R.

Roman Villas.

An Essay on the Villas of the Augustan Age, their architectural disposition and enrichments, and on the remains of Roman domestic edifices discovered in Great Britain. By Thomas Moule. 8vo. pp. 179.

Modern discoveries have furnished most satisfactory data for a work like this; and, when they are compared with incidental passages in classic writers, a doubly reflected light both on the outline and the vestige itself must be the result. This, indeed, is the mode which has been judiciously adopted in the publication before us. “In the time of Horace, who wrote in the reign of Augustus, every man, who was rich enough, had his country seat in the charming Campania, and the district of Naples, Baiae, Puteoli, &c., was preferred, being the most beautiful sea-coast in the world.” On this, we observe, that the love of rural retirement and relaxation was so strong with the ancients, that they possessed at least a supplementary abode, to rest the wearied spirits admitted into a blissful eternity. Hence the fabled Elysian Fields.

But, within the province of the Roman Empire, Britain, the same ardent identity prevailed, and hence the extreme remains of splendid villas which have been found from time to time at a distance from any acknowledged town.

Horace writes with delight, whenever he has an opportunity, on the pleasures of a country life, and the younger Pliny’s elegant description of his Tuscan or Laurentian villa proves the same taste continued to the latest time of discussion.

Although a general conformity of style and disposition of apartments may be supposed in the larger mansions of the Romans, existing remains and the authority of classic writers shew that one strictly uniform rule of design cannot be insisted on.

The Roman villa after Vitruvius is made the immediate text for the author's illustrations (see the elegant little Plan prefixed to the volume). The principal features noticed are the Prothyrum, vestibule, or lobby; containing often an inscription, the porter’s lodge, inscribed with the caution, “Cave Canem,” Beware of the Dog. The porter was a slave chained to his post. The dog was, sometimes, merely a painting of the animal on the wall, or a representation in mosaic. In the country, it is rational to suppose that a real Cerberus would guard the porch of the villa. The atrium, or covered hall; here the domus and retainers of the family congregated. In the centre was an open space, styled the “Impluvium,” in which was a Tank, Compluvium, for retaining the rainwater falling from the roof. The Peristyle, or inner court, was surrounded on all sides, as its name implies, by a colonnade; in the centre was a cistern of gold and silver fish, or an ornamental fountain.

* Plin. Epist. lib. V. epist. VI.
† The Romans frequently placed shrubs upon the roofs of their villas, thus forming a sort of hanging garden. See several examples in paintings on the walls of Pompeii.

Amongst the horticultural treasures now in this pleasant retreat of Springhead, are growing sundry fine old vines, the roots of one of which are said to have been wrapped in a band from the Cerecloth that enveloped an Egyptian mummy. Thus, proving the long duration of the germinating power in plants, given to life, as the willow reed, rising from a box of imported Cerecloth found in St. Helena, by Mr. Seirton. [*See, the proprietor, Napoleon!]. A handsome piece of land close to the entrance to the grounds, from whence, he pays Compliments!

With a raised and constant hand, Like a gypsy bag of hoarded found.

The other principal vine, that makes only one small large dog’s foot-long trench, is trained by vines that reach a small trellis, brought from the Sandwich Islands, by tree which were laid to some fifty centuries near the dead bodies of their King and Queen, in the tattered cloth of his Spring.

Handwritten note: Lord Lindsey took from the hands of a mummy, a letter. It was planted as a beautiful Dahlia was produced.

Folio 483

Discovery of Anglo-Saxon Remains at Northfleet, by C. R. Smith, Esq.

[Extracted from the Journal of the British Archaeological Assoc. No. XI.]

The opinion held by the author of the foregoing pages, and which the following discoveries have tended to confirm, is that during the fifth century, the Roman town on the banks of the river Ebbs was destroyed. (See p. 132, ante.) And after the Saxons had become naturalized, they adopted the heights nearer the mouth of the estuary for their residences.

“In the spring and summer of 1847, I was induced to make inquiries whether during the progress of railway excavations on the elevated ground at Northfleet, any ancient sepulchral remains had been brought to light. I was led to watch the operations on this line, as far as almost incessant engagements at home and elsewhere would permit, because experience has now so well proved that nearly all the hills and elevated land throughout the county of Kent were chosen by the Anglo-Saxons for cemeteries, and particularly so when contiguous to towns and villages. Railroad excavations, although they often lead to curious discoveries, are not the process most favourable to antiquarian research, which requires care, circumspection, and the capacity not only to re-“

* To elucidate this article as far as possible, the wood blocks used in the Journal published Nov. 1st, 1847, were kindly lent—for which, the author of these pages returns his best thanks.

Folio 485

Cognize objects of antiquity when met with, but to arrange and adapt them to some useful purpose; and we therefore find, that all the revelations of hidden works of early art, which have been made in railway cuttings, have been only of comparative service to archæology, simply because there has been no person present competent to seize upon and apply the facts developed by the pick-axe and the spade. This has, unfortunately, been the case with discoveries made at Northfleet, in the locality where, as I stated, I anticipated such a result. It is true, some objects have been preserved; and thanks to the care and politeness of Mr. Gale of the engineer’s office, and of Mr. Stevenson, access to them has been procured; but the circumstances under which they were found have not been preserved, and their interest in consequence is impaired. Still, the discovery is authenticated, and comparison with others made under more favourable arrangements, will enable us to add this to our records as a contribution by no means valueless and unimportant.

“The annexed cut exhibits an assemblage of objects, which may be thus particularized: —fig. 1, a portion of an urn with an incuse pattern stamped on it, as at a; fig. 2, an iron umbo of a shield, six inches in diameter; fig. 3, a spear-head in iron, fifteen inches in length, with an iron termination to the spear when perfect, as shown below; fig. 4, another variety of spearhead in iron, six inches in length; fig. 5, portion of a wooden pail or bucket, with bronze hoops, four inches in length; figs. 1, 2, and 4, being in the posses-”

Handwritten note: Ossian alludes to "the Bossy iron Shield," with this fearful instrument we are told the Batavians struck and mangled the faces of their enemies.

Folio 486

To the Editor of the "Kentish Independent"

Sir,—On reading in your paper of the 19th instant, a paragraph relative to the “discovery last week in the railroad works at Northfleet of a mass of oak, part of a vessel, thirty feet below the bed of the estuary, in which the Roman fleets generally wintered,” &c., I visited the spot, and made enquiries of the workmen relative to the “mass of oak, part of a vessel,” and where it was to be seen! They assured me that no excavation had been made in the estuary, indeed I was quite satisfied with the discovery made, that a mass of oak had been discovered. Instead of excavating in the estuary, thirty feet, they are raising an immense embankment with chalk, and that is at least forty feet above the level of the surface of the estuary. I was further assured by the men that in boring the soil to ascertain the depth to a firm foundation, the estuary being bored through sand, mixed with wood, a very common occurrence. They lately found the same whilst boring for an Artesian Well at Tilbury Fort.

I remain sir, your obedient servant,
William Crayter
61, Parrock-street, Gravesend, Feb. 26, 1848.

To the Editor of the Kentish Independent

Sir,—In your paper of Saturday last, there was a paragraph headed “At Springhead,” which induced me to pay a visit to the railway works now in progress at Northfleet, for the purpose of inspecting some of the relics of ancient invaders of the Romans. But I am sorry to say that I was greatly disappointed, as I could find no foundation, not even an “ancient Roman relic,” for the announcement made. In the paragraph referred to there were three distinct announcements—the first was that a paper by Mr. Charles was read at the British Archæological Association by the secretary on a Roman bath lately discovered in Finsbury-street; the second was a mention was made of the discovery at Northfleet of the remains of an ancient ship; the third, that Mr. Silvester exhibited two Shubas lately dug up in his grounds at Springhead. Now, Mr. Editor, in order to prevent a multitude of your readers from being misled by the paragraph referred to, I beg to inform you that I have made the discovery that the writer of the paragraph intended that last fact to be the interpreter of the middle, and that the remains of the ancient ship were part of the “Shubas,” or little fish spoken of in the concluding portion of the paragraph.

I am, Mr. Editor, yours, obediently,
A Gull.

Folio 487

This claim forms a very ancient copy of the Apocalypse, preserved with Tertullian. The custom of burying the ~~shall live~~ dead originated as prisoners, to await final deposition of the dead, the articles he had many hundreds of years before the Stone Tray, for a father, it is noted, that the remains of Celts, or weapons of flint (paxagaya), with which he is circumcised as Ezekiel the Prophet has girded one round with his body in the tomb. Ezekiel also explained swords worn for two lines about the custom, “my blade will bite all my teeth, that the fallen in battle are circumcised. This can none dare tell (the grave) who thus worship you, nor do they have lost their swords under their lust.”

Folio 488

For Richard
For Jewel

Folio 489

sion of Mr. Silvester, of Springhead, and figs. 3 and 5, in the collection of Mr. W. Meyrick, of 39, Eastbourne-Terrace, Hyde-Park. To these, by the courtesy of Mr. Stevenson and Mr. Meyrick, I am now able to add the following: —fig. 6, an urn in black pottery, eight and a-half inches in height, three parts filled with burnt human bones; fig. 7, a vessel in pale clay, seven and a-half inches high; fig. 8, a rudely formed urn, six inches high, unbaked, and slightly scored on the side. Mr. Meyrick has also another variety of spear-head, and two bosses of shields, but slightly differing from that shewn in the above cut, one of which is remarkable in exhibiting perforations apparently from spear thrusts, and clearly made before it was deposited in the earth.

The next object, shewn in two views, fig. 9, is like those which have been engraved in Douglas’s Nenia Britannica, as bow braces.

Our researches at Ozengal have enabled us to ascertain that the able antiquary, whose diligence, care, and fidelity, cannot be too highly commended, has been mistaken in thus naming these relics, and an opportunity presented itself to allow correction of the error, and at the same time to demonstrate how very important it is, in investigations of this kind, to note the positions of things in situ before they become dissociated from connecting facts, which often can alone determine their original use.

Folio 490

In a grave in the Ozengal cemetery a boss of a shield lay upon the breast of a skeleton; having been carefully removed, immediately beneath it, the hollow side uppermost, was what Douglas had termed a “bow-brace,” but which, from its peculiar situation, was palpably the handle of the shield or target. In the present example, as in those in the collection of Mr. Rolfe, traces of the string which bound it to wood are still apparent. The correction of this error of the author of the Nenia is the more satisfactory, as the bow does not appear either from remains, or from historical notices, to have been a common weapon with the early Anglo-Saxons.

“The sword shewn in the above cut (fig. 10) is somewhat different from the varieties hitherto found, which in general are upwards of thirty inches in length: this is only twenty-one and a quarter inches, and is very slightly curved at the top, like the knives so frequently found in Saxon graves. It bears traces of a wooden sheath and handle, and a small portion of a bronze fastening remains at the hilt.

No apology, it is hoped, need be offered for placing this discovery on record; for, although it has not been made under the most advantageous circumstances, the objects themselves furnish suggestions which will not be lost upon the attentive antiquary.” The ornamented pottery in the first cut, which is so rudely made that by some it was conceived to be of very early date, was found by the side of the iron umbo and spear, and may from that fact be pronounced of late fabric; the pattern, moreover, accords with similar designs on specimens obtained from other undoubted Saxon burial places, and thus may assist in appropriating more questionable examples presented without weapons and other objects which admit of immediate classification. The Roman vases found with, or near the Saxon remains, furnish another to the many instances already recorded of the Saxons resorting to localities which had been previously used for like purposes by the Romans; and the presence of Saxon urns in graves which contained skeletons indicates the partial adop-

Folio 491

tion of usages which custom had stamped as sacred, after those usages had become superseded by others of a totally different character.

“Having suggested to Mr. Meyrick an examination of the wood still attached to the weapons in his possession, he very kindly submitted it to professor Lindley, who pronounces that adhering to the sword to be pine, and that in the groove of the spear-head, ash. The professor's opinion is confirmed by that of Mr. Girdwood; and it is an interesting fact that it is in accordance with the known practice of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers. The spear-shaft was so universally made of ash (æsc), that in the old Anglo-Saxon poetry the word æsc was constantly used as synonymous with gear. Thus, in Beowulf, line 3535: —

Swá ic Hring-Dena
hund missera
wold under wolcnum,
and hig wigge be-lác
mænegum mægea
geond þisne middan-geard,
æscum and ecgum.

Thus I the Hring-Danes
for many a year
governed under heaven
and secured them with war
throughout this earth,
with spears (ash) and swords.

In another passage in Beowulf, l. 654, the javelins or spears (grás) are described as having shafts of grey ash wood: —

gáras stodon
se-manna searo
samod æt-gædere,
æsc-holt ufan græg.

Their javelins stood
the weapons of the sea-men,
collected together,
ash-wood grey above.

Æsc wig, signifies famous with (or for) his ash or spear; and æsc-wiga, a warrior who fights with the ash or spear. The latter occurs in Beowulf, l. 4079: —

Þonne cwíð æt beore
se þe bēah ge-syþð
eald æsc-wiga,
se þe eall ge-món
gár-cwealm gumena, etc.

Then will say at the beer
one who beholdeth the ring
some old spear-warrior,
who remembereth all
the warlike slaughter of men.

Folio 492

“In Cædmon, the term æsc-berend, or spear carrier, is applied to a soldier. In the fragment of the poetical History of Judith, we have æsc-plega, the play or game of spears (or ash) as a poetic term for a battle. So we have æsc-bora, a spear-bearer; and in Codex Exoniensis, æsc-stede, a place where ash spears are used, a field of battle.

“It should be stated, that the field in which these remains were found, is called ‘Church-field’, a name by which, as has been remarked on a former occasion, the sites of many spots fertile in antiquities, are known.”

C. ROACH SMITH

FINIS.

Folio 493

On the Feodality of the Anglo-Saxons

The existence of feodality in this country before the Norman Conquest has been denied by most of our historians, but they have in no instance attempted to analyse the real merits of the question by an investigation of its details or an appeal to the Anglo-Saxon writings, which, it is obvious, can supply the only evidence on the subject. Under these circumstances, the following loose annotations, though fragmentary and incomplete, have been hazarded by the writer under the impression that they may in some degree contribute to a proper adjustment of the general reader to a point of indisputable interest, not only with respect to European antiquities generally, but to his own.

It is however to be clearly understood that they decidedly do not mean to assert that at any period before the epoch I have mentioned, existed in this country, in its entirety, that system (so far as mere details or incidental features are concerned,) was peculiar to the middle ages; it is indeed obvious that no such feature could have existed here, but, from all that is recorded of the age, it is impossible to doubt that a semblance of it at least prevailed.

It will be proper in the first place to explain what that original principle was, and then to proceed to the consideration of the land in which it was eventually compressed.

The principle alluded to was vasalage, or simple homage, the origin and primitive existence of which amongst the ancient Germans it was reserved for the ancient Montesquieu to discover; and in his hands it furnished a complete clue to the otherwise inexplicable mazes of feodality:

The words of Tacitus, which supplied the authority for this fact, are so familiar that a translation is unnecessary. They express, under the names of principles and customs, the entire mutual dependence for service and protection of a superior and inferior, i.e., in the feudal sense, of a lord and his vassal.

This relation was transplanted into Britain by the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Angles. Along with it they also imported the system which had regulated the connexion of primitive society and the organisation of warlike tribes.

Folio 494

On the Feodality of the Anglo-Saxons

tioned countries were subjugated, and the conquerors became lords of the soil. They, therefore, would seize so much as their necessities or their capacity required, and those estates retaining the characteristics which had appertained to them in the hands of the Romano-Britons, placed the barbarian in the novel condition of an extensive allodial proprietor—a condition, however, which his mind was capable of apprehending and appreciating from the experience of his home in Germany.

But, notwithstanding those seizures and appropriations of individual estates, by private persons, a larger proportion of good and available territory remained unoccupied and unappropriated by the barbarians.

This land the nation itself stepped in and claimed to hold as its own property, subject to the ancient and still existing laws of Germany, and to those usages in English history distinguished as public and fiscal land.

In Germany it had been an annual custom to divide the allodial household allot the corn-lands, for the space of a year or two, to those members of the tribe who were to remain peaceably at home, whilst the others were engaged in war. Annexed to this temporary possession was a condition to contribute towards the subsistence of their militant brethren.

The practical exposition of such condition is, that the maintenance of the soil paid to the state a rent in kind.

Both these principles of the temporary holding of public land, and the obligation of certain services to be rendered to the state for it, were retained and introduced by the barbarians into their British settlements; though, owing to the large formation of allodial estates, the territory to which these principles were applied was not so extensive as the public land of their native Germany.

The public land of Britain was supplied by the invaders for the benefit of the nation, in two distinct ways, viz.: it was either cultivated by coloni or farmers, who paid rent for it in the nature of produce, or it was dispensed to the comites or liege men of the procurators as aids.

A most important change however occurred after the barbarians had abandoned their old pastoral state and fixed on the conquered territory as their new home. The conditions on which those lands were now granted to individuals were so framed as to assimilate them to more recent feudal tenures; and when it became hereditary, as it did in the same term, i.e., from an annual existence they became life.

This point brings us back to the circumstance attending the ancient German vassalage, which is of considerable importance, in its bearing upon the institution of feudalism.

The chief of the German horde, affording subsistence to his comites, rewarded and encouraged them on occasions of need with arms (stipendium in franca). His armoury in the early ages formed the only fund to which his retainers could, by the possibility of things, be rewarded. But when he became chieftain not of a wandering race of a king, he then, as we have seen, was invested with the same right of disposition over the public land which had formerly belonged to —

Folio 495

On the Feodality of the Anglo-Saxons

ealdormen collectively. Instead, therefore, of the limited means of his former condition, he found in the public land of the conquered country a “copious fund for the reward and incitement of the comites who had followed him from Germany.” The favour of his native ruler was confined to larger grants of the public land to persons more dignified or entitled to national distinction, which was, in his judgment, would be his duty.

Sometimes, in consequence of the service relating to temporary allotments, the claim of hereditary possession arose.

But, notwithstanding all these changes and usages, it is to be observed that they afforded no ground of immediate utility, and were not even in name or semblance the result of a specific act of hereditary power or dominion. On the contrary, it would appear that to the more noble, wealthy, and important of the Anglo-Saxon rulers, the right was limited to freehold, which was in terrores, and forfeit, while the tribute was offered to the warrior as an appeal to exertions that were deemed independent of his lord.

The names under which the two classes of land I have mentioned were known to the Anglo-Saxons were folcland and bocland, the former being the terra fiscalis, or beneficiary land, and the latter the allodial, or freehold land, held of no superior and subject to no service or charge.

The folcland, while it continued such, strictly speaking, was not hereditary, or, as the case is, it then had no merely free or royal element. But as soon as hereditary succession was adopted, dues rendered to the state or made under tenure were in two capacities.

Whether the latter corresponded to Anglo-Saxon law is not disclosed, but the information which they would yield is well understood in the system, namely, that tenure of all kinds had special rights associated with them. The obligations and duties occur there:

Fiscalia tributa, exactores, poenales, etc.
Regalia foris, the rights of dominion over forests.
Special dues for royal services, in war or abroad.

These tributes were distinguished clearly as dependent upon service to the sovereign.

Folio 496

On the Feodality of the Anglo-Saxons

But from all these services and dues, the beneficiary assignment or fief, which the Anglo-Saxons would appear to have called thegnland, was exempted in the same manner as the absolute estate of bocland. For, although we have no direct evidence to show precisely on what terms the thegnland was granted, yet we may believe that it and the Frankish benefices had a base and onerous nature of the charges I have enumerated, would be a very strong presumption. These services were due upon the folcland, which was occupied by tenants or cultivated by farmers (the fiscalia of the Conquerors), and the holders were the renderers of the tenants in demesne.

On the death of each beneficiary the thegnland reverted to the state, and was either regranted in that character or renewed under farm as demesne or terra regis.

Of this fief we find the clearest proof in England, even in the tenth century, feodality not having advanced beyond the first stage of its development. The Ealdorman Alfred, in his last will (executed between the years 877 and 889), after giving to his son a fair slice of his bocland, adds, “And of gyfe ic cyninge genum willan thas folcland to tham boclande thonne habbe and bruce.”*

We see, by this will, that the dying beneficiary could not bequeath his folcland, nor did it descend like his estates of bocland, but in the prospect of death, he recommended to his son the bounty of his lord, in whose discretion it would be to continue the benefice in the same family, or grant it afresh to another vassal. Yet in this recommendation of the father we may see a small advance towards the inheritance of fiefs. It could not have been uncommon in this age to see the benefices of the father disposed to the son of one or two sons; and, as I have before remarked, that in these circumstances, to the frequent state of misibility of feodal property, there was but a short and easy step.

What I have been able to ascertain is, that fiefs among the Anglo-Saxons were granted or guaranteed to their persons with far greater facility, and less cumbersome usage, than among the Anglo-Saxon successors who employed the conveyance of bocland for their basis.

The obligations and duties occur in laws such as those specified here. Though these general military services were required from all kinds of land, and the holders of it; as a condition of incident real to its tenure, totally different. This leads us to consider who were the beneficiaries in England during the —

Folio 497

On the Feodality of the Anglo-Saxons

Anglo-Saxon period; but for this purpose it becomes necessary to make a few remarks upon “vassalage,” as it actually existed amongst the Anglo-Saxons.

Like their German ancestors, they regarded it as superior to all other obligations in the man, and as equally binding upon him under the jurisdiction of his own superior; being thus, in some sense, the same principle by which the general applied to himself as lord.

Alfred, in his laws (c. 38), bequeaths to his own vassal a right of service in Ethelstan’s laws in the following words: “On I thone Driften, God and his hlaforde gewrece, thæt nan mon his hlaford of life ne bereawe, ne of limen, ne of londe.” (“Let no man rob his lord of life, or of limb, or of land.”)

“Vassalage was,” says an old historian, “the same in all ranks of society, and, as lord, the eorl, ceorl or king, was held in an idea of equality of privileges, and was condemned himself, as an equal subjected to his eorl, or scamu (counsel), to be equal, and became his man.”

In the time of the Confessor, Earl Swegen, son of the celebrated Godwin, with a view of conciliating his relative Earl Beorn, offered “to swear unto him oaths, and be to him hold.”*

The effect of vassalage in this country, as on the continent, was to give to the lord devoted and uncompromising followers, who, had their previous duties, were separated themselves from the political community as identity investers, in their feelings and interests.

It is therefore easily understood how the later kings and their successors derived advantages. Along with this sovereignty they addressed the lands which were held to a martial superiority, and this sovereignty became the principle under which they addressed their vassals. The lands were the successions by occupation of their direct term, and were also subject to vassalage, by the later term as received by the tenant—was no longer a voluntary compact.

We also find, as men called the alterati, and was the tenets of kingship allowed in general rebounded. The king’s services became those of independence. It was not those who yielded themselves, but the degree of privilege tying the jurisdiction which it possessed over his own vassals and tenants, for, by a principle of Germanic law, and as a necessity of vassalage connected to military power, and accordingly, in the practice of the king’s thegn, these two privileges were usually conjoined by the grant of a crown.†

Folio 498

On the Feodality of the Anglo-Saxons

attempted to trace the origin of English benefices, and the prolongation of these estates to a period embracing the life of the grantee, and the question next arises whether in this country the perpetuation of the fief (i.e. its hereditary transmissibility), was ever established, and if such were the case when that event took place.

It should be observed that, as this subject is not very clear in France, it is not surprising that our own annals supply no direct evidence in regard to it; and much therefore must be left to presumptions, which are, however, sufficiently strong, I think, to show that this final development had taken place independently in England.

In regard to the evolution of feodality in France, the celebrated Augustin Thierry has some striking remarks which have considerable bearing on the same question in its relation with this country. He says,

“La tradition des assemblées de canton et des assemblées nationales, le système des partages mutuels, et d’association de force des hommes libres, eurent dans la portion de ces mêmes mœurs, l’habitude de vassalage, devenue de plus en plus vivace, et finit par se rendre dominante. Elle fut le seul lien social auquel dans l’antichité des sociétés germaines.”

It is evident, if M. Thierry has correctly enumerated all the causes which in France led to the establishment of the feudal system, that there would not be much probability of finding it in this country, even in the first stage of its progress, for it is well known that the several German institutions referred to by this historian continued to exist, notwithstanding all the frightful troubles of the ninth century.

During the Danish invasions, and long survived the shock, not only of those events, but of others of a similar nature which followed them. Yet, as far as we see feodality in its incipient workings here as a native institution, through no introduction or imitation of foreign usages, other causes widely different from those which suggested themselves to Thierry must have operated. The warlike utility and complete and final development of the system as it now exists must be attributed to these causes.

The same course was again pursued, and tenure, which in the same family, was gradually locked to hereditary possession, and grew up into its own peculiar rules. “The entire jurisdiction which the chief possessed over his adherents, especially as a price which was derived from his service.”

This development may be traced historically in the appointments of leaders and commanders, and the local offices proceeded from the same source as the funds under them; the grantees, and involved themselves by the same process.

Folio 499

On the Feodality of the Anglo-Saxons

in England. But, as in a former number I went fully into this part of the subject, I beg to refer the indulgent reader to the article there inserted, without trespassing on his patience by a repetition.

The foregoing observations may possibly throw some light on the history of feudalism, but they do not explain the extraordinary license as it applies to the disposal of estates in the allodium, which is discernible in the 11th century in England.

In France, some justice has attributed the same circumstance to the surviving rights allowed voluntarily during their earliest tenure, and as hereditary boon from their sovereigns as feudal acts; this induced great families, who derived their strength and protection when granted to them, to acquire estates by the strength of their service, or as hereditary boon.

The same in the king’s thegnas in England, made tenants and occupiers of the English nobility and their lands. The same proceeds from the license of folk reality, so naturally present themselves as the immense estates to the crown of bocland, occasioned the destruction of the great families, which must have followed the wholesale devastations of the Normans in all parts of the country during the tenth century, and these seizures and confiscations may be said to have been wholly based on the right of conquest. There is no doubt that, as the commerce increased during that age, the license depended upon the means of the times, during the Anglo-Saxon existence, and pervaded every part of English territory.

In the first-mentioned century we do not find it occupied in general allodium, nor acquired by the general abuses applied to fiefs; and still in this sense the fief is so extensively remarked in the Domesday Book, to describe estates as they were held in the reign of the Confessor.*

Such notices as the following occur continually in the Survey, “Godwinus comes tenuit de Rege E. sicut allodium.”†

These words are inapplicable to the old Saxon allodial estate of bocland, which was not held of the king or any other superior, but they can only express the fief or perpetuated benefice, disposed of in the course of the changes of the folkland. The events of the reign of the Confessor compose a picture of social economy quite differing from the political appearances of the continent. These events led to complete seignorial tenure, which, when full grown, was calculated to give to eminent families what must have been large benefices enabled them to make vast acquisitions, which secured their lands for God and man as successors, which would have been impracticable unless through grants.

From the reign of the Confessor the transition was not short to the Conquest. The Normans added, for the sake of the conquest itself, a great number of changes which affected their own dominions, in which the English soil was protected, but the transition abrupt and violent, and would therefore leave behind it ample memorials of its occurrences. It has been usual to attribute to the Conqueror the perpetuation of feudal tenure in the country; and this opinion is supported by the authority of Blackstone and De Lolme. The theory itself must always be grounded on a circumstance recorded in Saxon Chronicle, under the year 1085, in the following words: “Siththan he (i.e. William) ferde into abutan, swat the com to Lamesse. Hider com to him ealle tha whole cnaton to his witena, and ealle tha land sitteinde men, the ahte waeron,

Folio 500

On the Feodality of the Anglo-Saxons

offer call Eglendland, weron thæs manes men, the hi weron, and ealle hi bugon to him, and weron his men, and him hold athas sworon, that hi wolden ongean ealle othre men him holde beon.”*

I will ask the reader, what is there in this passage, to intimate that at this epoch, nineteen years after the Conquest of William, the feudal system was for the first time introduced into England? If the English historian had chosen to commemorate a revolution in the institutions of his country, such as the sudden and arbitrary introduction of a foreign novelty, by which the general allodial land of the kingdom was transformed into fiefs, would it not be amazing that he should use language so inadequate to represent its meaning? He could be clear and circumstantial; he had before him the Survey preceding the compilation of the Domesday; and, the events of a similar development could have been carefully told by him. If the construction put upon this passage by Blackstone and De Lolme were correct, we should look to find existing in our own archives, some documentary proof that such a measure could not have been taken without the consent of all persons interested in such a proceeding, and must have left a legal memorial to attest the change by law, and to enforce its observance. But, though we have many copies even of the acts of the Witenagemot, which founded the ecclesiastical Courts, we have no trace of any enactment of that body connected with the present subject. The fact is, that the writs were specially convened by the Conqueror to take the oath of fealty. The same thing had been done by Cnut, who, on his accession to the whole of the kingdom in 1016, had assembled the magna tenentes, and obtained from them an oath of the like nature.†

The explanation of each circumstance is founded on the peculiar character of vassalage as it then existed. Homage and fealty were originally indistinguishable, no fealty being due where homage did not apply, and the immediate vassal only was bound by this obligation. In the Saxon oath which has been quoted it will have been seen that no fealty was even reserved to the king.

It was not till later times that this reservation was made. The effect of this principle was practically seen in the reign of the Confessor. During the troubles of that period the followers of Godwin, Swegen, and Harold unhesitatingly embraced their cause, at the cost of their immediate lords, against the king. The Saxon historian says of these vassals, “Ealle gear to wige ongean theowe cyninge.”† The conduct was consistent with their duties, as those who regarded as hostilities against their own lord all of the king's, feudal vassalage being at step. The same historian says, “hi thega cymes mid hyre cyninges hyge gefeohte thare cynehlaforde feodan seodon.”‡

This state of things compelled Harold, and afterwards, by the necessity of tenure, his supporters formed laws by occupation of their direct term. Power and warlike connections were thus reduced as the immediate means of securing their fief or allodial lands.

In conclusion of this sketch, I will merely observe, that the same data being found in the institutions and customs of England before the Conquest, as those from which the continentally system was developed and derived, and there being no proof the Normans having introduced that system, it must necessarily follow that feodality in England had a native origin and growth.

Doctors' Commons,
H. C. C.

Folio 501

After the utter destruction of the Romano-British town at Northfleet by the Saxons, as described in the preceding chapters (circa 430), the case for nearly fourteen hundred years to have any connection with the parishes of Northfleet or Gravesend was not noted. Alfred the Great, the first annointed King of England, in defending his kingdom, constructed strongholds (burghs) [A.D. 890].

The cause is presented as affecting the centre of Kentish roads and the ancient boundary between the principal parishes. It is noted in the latter observations that the distinction of the boundary remains a local reference, preserved to this day by customary law.

This note also highlights the introduction of the Saxon framework, which stands in contrast to the boundaries formed under Roman rule. These have been preserved with local adaptations, showcasing vital administrative continuity despite broader cultural shifts.

Folio 502

SYLLABUS

Part First.

The Monkish Chronicles; definition of the term Primeval; Etymology; limits of the County; period of the discovery of the Isle of Britain; the first colonists; aboriginal Cantians; Errors in Julius Caesar’s Geographical details; commerce with the Phoenicians; earliest settlement on the bank of the Thames, on the heights overlooking the river Ebbsfleet—(afterwards the port where the Britons fitted out the principal portion of the fleet Caesar defeated off the coast of Armorica—and the haven where Sweyne twice wintered, now, however, all silted up); Habitations of the aborigines and contents of their tumuli; &c., &c.

Part Second.

Invasion of the Belgae; the Proper Belgae a branch of the Celtic family; Gothic tribes; the Belgae of Caesar; departure of the aborigines, adaptation of their locations by the Belgae; relation of the Irish language to the Celtic; pursuits, manners, customs, laws and residences of the Belgic Cantians; &c.

Part Third.

Caesar’s first and second invasions; Caesar and Caswallon; passage of the Medway—Tam, Ys, war chariots, essedæ; the cromlech, Kit’s coty house; the Druidical Fanes, the groves, the meinigwyr, the sacred grove, the illustrating springs, the kistræva; Aylesford; Mandubratius; the Trinobantes; the hundred of Hoo; Chalk; Spring-head; Solefield; Southfleet; Cæerlabraher’s hole; the passage of the Darent; Col Arbhar farms; Sutton-at-Hone; the city of the Cassii at Wilmington, Bexley; North Cray, Sutton-at-Hone and Dartford Parishes, (upon the decadence of which arose Noviomagus, afterwards Durobrivae) defeat and flight of Caesar, &c., &c.

The Morning Lecture will commence precisely at TWO o’clock, and the Evening at EIGHT.

TICKETS

For the Morning Lecture, 1s. 6d. each, or Family Tickets to admit Five, 6s. 6d.
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Folio 503

TOWN HALL, TONBRIDGE, KENT

ALFRED J. DUNKIN,

Formerly of the Military College, Vendôme;
Author of the ‘Chronicles of Kent,’ ‘Legenda Cantiana,’ and Editor of ‘The Report of the Proceedings of the British Archaeological Association at the First Congress at Canterbury,’ &c., &c.

Has the honour to announce to the Nobility, Gentry, and Public of Tonbridge and its Vicinity, that

ON TUESDAY, MARCH 10th, 1846,
HE WILL DELIVER A

MORNING AND EVENING LECTURE

ON THE PRIMÆVAL PERIOD

OF THE

HISTORY OF KENT,

At the Above Place

TONBRIDGE, KENT.

Tickets may be obtained of Mr. Nash, and at the other Libraries.

Folio 504

By Dartford to the “Long Reach” above a century prior to Alfred, Ebbsfleet became a recognized station for the Kentish coast. My landing for the first time when I surveyed the marshes of England.

With Ebbsfleet as the port of arrival, the antiquities discussed in this essay afford an authentic and respectable introduction to the early Saxon conquest and settlements. Connecting scenes of hostilities with constructions of considerable magnitude along the shore, communicating several details regarding the burning charters of Dartford and other localities in that portion of this vast district.

These events bring to mind their singular character and distinction, such as the long-forgotten legacy of Ebbsfleet. The causeway across this ancient setting provided the land bridge for the gradual transition of many generations.

I devoted my personal research to the examination of foundations and relics that evidenced remarkable Saxon enterprise. On several occasions, archaeological findings such as the groundworks of Dartford or Sutton afforded insight into the remarkable endurance of early efforts.

Further exploration of this period will illustrate the continuity of Ebbsfleet as the center of commerce and transport—transforming the district into a renowned trade hub.

Walking along one prominent avenue for viewing these final vestiges in safety, the plains create a dramatic scene that invariably glints upon the shore. The matter draws large reverie, inspiring a sense of antiquity, romance, and thoughtful reflection upon the sense of the past.

The most highly preserved portions are deeply entrenched in fields of memory—many being cultivated and maintained, though connected to the years gone by. However, certain visible attributes remain, wavering between destruction and neglect.

Many ancient sites and their circles were commendably disposed of or dedicated to new use under the law of the land, eventually being entrusted to newer boundaries by historic records.

The general antiquity of the district “almost alluded to the foundation of every king or seigneur,” has been prominently attested to through consistent preservation. What began as temporary shelters soon established a permanent pattern of residence and economy, elevating these first roots into a grander framework.

Recent findings support that the progress from these conditions was duly drawn upon the wheels of time. The residue of alterations made visible in the parish has since borne critical influence.

These details reveal the civil and religious elements that reached the borders of the conqueror, and their drawing lines during the eleventh century with undeniable permanence. This marks out one of the most important crossroads England has encountered.

Folio 510

Folio 511

But the crime, like endless crimes in history, its guilty command author clothed in the establishment of the Danish provinces in Britain. Ethelred, the unready, tired of buying the forbearance of the Danish’s destruction, at the climax of the threat, a cowardly submission.

This adaptation to this subject, the lady of St. Brice (Mrs.?), put possibly the sword to every Northman man, woman & infant at the break of day, having any station. In pursuance of this horrid decree, Gunhilda, the sister of Sweyn, the leader of the English Earl, & her son (held as Christian hostages) as a hostage for the faithful observance of late treaty were beheaded. Upon this foul land a repute has been strongly tethered in the future. On the mild plains her depths relating the freedom she enjoyed perished at the same rate; tied means for their miscreant’s treachery.

The temper of the barbarity once exercised & justly resented at the conduct of the laymen & the Vikings of St. Brice are as recorded, decisive for England under ruler vengeance.

The sword devoured the land not fire proving a better test. The blood of the murdered cried for revenge, playing all the troops & [mantras] of country to [infliction] where it was mentioned.

To save his personal safety & as truly of his subjects, will his trusted advisors—yet humiliated from him resulted in his title to ‘ethics,’ ‘unready,’ for his misgovernance.

Folio 512

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Folio 513

Folio 514

Note: Was it anticipation? That is, was some intuition forecasting the tragic event that in 893 they attempted to overtake the Thames, setting the Isle of Sheppey on fire and crossing over at this focal point to Canterbury, Rochester, and London.

In 837 the great announcement first occurred—Saxons landing in King’s Town. Warnings from the approaching enemies could only spell turmoil, as many retreated and others resisted.

This led to great concern when a fleet of 350 vessels anchored with their raid threatening to despoil resources. By 853, the battle lines were drawn, consolidating their hold at Thanet and extending to the Danish invasions.

The sequence of events included a forced retreat to the Isle of Sheppey. In return, my argument points directly to how a concentrated number could spread their influence so effectively, overcoming a larger resistance that marked this land.

This false conduct so exasperated the raiders that in one measure, they overtook armed numbers, destroyed their settlement, and ultimately annihilated their townships.

Evidence shows that their approach for 20 years, visiting Kent, and as recorded in 892, lay dormant while the Vikings gathered strength.

These events are clearly articulated as a central narrative where they returned to shield themselves near settlements like the Isle of Thanet. The fortifications made near these shores formed pivotal positions for protection but ultimately became exposed.

Dane camps once laid as the mark of hostility to Rochester; the crossing at the Thames continued as a strategy for despoiling and carrying the Danes’ threat farther inland.

In 893, Northmen with a large fleet of 230 ships attempted to conquer Wessex. They entered the Thames with 40 additional vessels and sought a permanent settlement.

Their destination this time was once again the shores of Kent, particularly their stronghold at Sheppey, where they retreated after losing earlier attempts. Their numbers greatly overwhelmed the smaller English forces stationed at various outposts.

Alfred, during this emergency, devised a new defensive strategy, one that combined mobile troops with fortified positions. By controlling the Thames, he was able to create a barricade against advancing fleets.

Meanwhile, the Danes turned their attention to other locations, such as Hastings and Romney, where their raids and assaults laid waste to undefended settlements. Kent was again subjected to destruction at the hands of these invading forces.

By 896, Alfred’s resistance and strategy forced the Northmen to withdraw from England, though their influence and destructive legacy remained.

The attempted invasions of 893 to 896 serve as some of the final chapters in the Viking age within England. Their retreat to regions in the Isles of Orkney marked a turning point, as Wessex under Alfred maintained its integrity.

This period is marked by notable advancements in English fortifications, Alfred’s construction of burhs, and a decisive shift in tactics that prevented further large-scale invasions from the north.

Folio 519

Folio 520

SOME ACCOUNT OF THE PERISHED TOWNS AROUND SOUTHFLEET

[BY ALFRED JOHN DUNKIN,]

As published in the Maidstone Journal, May, 1845.

The height to the west of Springhead, called Stonepark Wood, is supposed to have been one of the earliest sites in the country, selected by the Celtic emigrants who were driven to fix a colony about 1800 years before the Christian era. The readiness of these aboriginal tribes for excavations in the earth (vide Tacitus—Diodorus Siculus—Dio Cassius—Passim), in which miserable yet safe abodes, large families of men, women, and children were promiscuously huddled together, and as at this day is the practice of certain savage tribes in South Africa. The situation of the location on these heights exactly coincides with the requisite essentials of the earliest settlements—being on the border of the open space of woods, (Caesar) near marshes drained by a creek of the Thames—these circumstances combined necessarily have engendered inhabitants, the very principle of local occupancy indicating the stages they could arrive at an epoch in which they became hunters, the hunter not too primitive for progressive mankind, advance insensibly from infancy to youth. Of this primeval period, the adjacent site, the ancient Olabbacher’s Hole, is a capital specimen.

Tradition has brought the name to our times as "Clabbacher's Hole." The very pronunciation shows its uncertain origin. As all names of places are, to a certain extent, arbitrary, we can but trace the meaning of the separate syllables. The site evidently indicates settlement.

Folio 521

From Clo, locked or shut in; which, again, is a compound of cau, an enclosure. Llai is less, from le-is, the lower place. Bey, the final syllable er, water; to which the letter b, signifying life, motion, &c., being prefixed, makes bey, spring water. Perhaps theoretically rendering as an explanation, what it certainly is geographically, an enclosure near the spring water in the lower place. During an excavation of the adjacent ground on Wednesday last, we discovered a great number of barrows in the immediate neighborhood, not having obtained permission of the proprietor to break the soil, we were unable to ascertain the period of the mortuary deposit.

Across the valley on the side nearest Gravesend was another settlement, an excavation in which has only been developed by the repairing of the vicinal roads during the last month. These earliest Cantian inhabitants like the generality of the Celtic tribes—peaceful habits—war formed no portion of their delights—they wandered from place to place in search of pasture for their flocks, upon which they nearly relied for subsistence. These primeval possessors of the land, about the year 350 B.C., were driven into the interior of the island by an invasion of the Belgae, who, being a warlike race—fierce and intractable by nature and bred from their infancy to contention and violence, not only easily despoiled their peaceful predecessors of their flocks but dispossessed them of their feeding grounds. Richard of Cirencester says that the Belgae entered this country A.M. 3650, and the Celtic occupied the region deserted by the Senones. Divitiacus King of the Æduii afterwards passed over with an army and subdued great part of the kingdom; and shortly after, the Britons who were expelled by the Belgae, emigrated to Ireland, where they formed a settlement, and were thenceforward called Scoti. According to Caesar, several bodies of the Belgic Gauls had, within a short period of his invasion, crossed over the channel and wrested from the inhabitants the tracts of land adjoining the coast. That they retained the distinguishing name of their mother states, we may infer, since there were in Britain, as well as in Gaul, tribes called Belgae, Attrebatii, Parisii, Onomagii, &c., &c. Caesar moreover says the Belgae were the posterity of Germans who long prior had emigrated to the south of the Rhine on account of the fertility of the soil. Descrying Britain which they shortly after passed the narrow channel which divided it from the Continent. These Belgae retained the...

Folio 522

Practices of their native clime and cultivated the soil in contradistinction to the nomadic aborigines. Being more civilized, their habitations were necessarily much improved, and Caesar tells us (lib. v.) "the country was extremely populous and contained numerous buildings not dissimilar to those of the Gauls." The huts or summer residences of the Britons were composed of logs and wattles plastered down with clay of different hues, red, blue, yellow, and white, giving them a gaudy appearance. They were of a conical form; the roof rose in a kind of cone to a lofty apex and was covered with straw. In the center of these huts, which were of great size, the roof was supported on four pillars of wood; a kind of wattled door, woven with osiers and plastered with clay, moved on pivots in a mortised frame and admitted smoke through the conical point of the roof. This conical shape was very favorable for shedding rain, and the huts were warm and free from damp.

The street plan by partitions of planks or hurdles separated the interior, and were lighted by small open windows. They were designed to provide refuge for stock and cattle, as well as grain. They also served as hiding places from foes. The excavations of their pits and subterranean repositories, where they stored provisions, are a remarkable testament to their ingenuity and methods of survival.

Caesar and Dion Cassius agree that the Britons maintained a communal lifestyle: "They are said to have their wives in common." In fact, heat as it only implies extreme necessity of bipedal beings, but adds much to life from the immemorial indulgences in the cozy practice of burrowing in earth and huddling together.

B.C. 54–6. The invasions of Caesar half a century before the birth of Christ led to an interconnectedness of the manners and customs of the Britons, and thenceforward the Romans took great interest in the isle. War, however, was not only for its use but its pearl. We have no doubt Caesar in his second expedition passed to the settlement at Southfleet and encamped on the heights above after having placed Mandubratius on...

Folio 523

...the throne of the Trinobantes (the hundred of Hoo). In plate 16 in C. R. Smith’s Collectanea Antiqua are delineated some coins, which he represents to be of British origin and of this era; figs. 9 and 10 were found at Springhead. In the same number of that able periodical (a publication we unhesitatingly commend to our readers, as one from whence they will glean an amazing fund of archaeological interest), will be found in plate v, figs. 1, 5, and 6; in plate vi, delineations of coins of the same period found at a place called the Slades, in the parish of Boughton Monchelsea, on the site of a Roman dwelling and cemetery, with Roman coins ranging from Claudius to Gratianus. In figs. 6 and 7 are coins of Constantine the Great, procured with many Roman coins and other Roman remains, by Mr. Thomas Charles, of Maidstone, from the hill above Kits Coty House.

"[A.D. 45.] Aulus Plautius invaded Kent, and having arrived at Springhead, rested with a detachment for his horses between the Medway and Thames, probably encamped in its immediate neighborhood. The course of a few years the country having submitted to the Romans, the lines were fortified, and the railway of the valleys, from the elevated stations previously chosen; and after the Romans had perfected their Watling Street, and founded military stations at Dartford and Rochester, to secure the subsistence of travellers and the transit of the materiel of war, the luxuries of life became gradually introduced. The capabilities and adaptation of this one watering place for cattle on the march between the two stations were quickly perceived; and so the Roman medicinal bath was of the utmost importance. It followed, as a matter of course, that the most limpid stream in the county should be adapted to Roman life of the first order."

That Springhead became a place of great importance may easily be conceived when we simply regard the amazing number of extensive Roman foundations which in the adjacent fields are buried beneath, without taking into consideration the discernment of the treasures which have been disinterred. Some within the last few years, the major part now decayed, may be seen, free of expense, on the premises.

That this mine has not been a new discovery, the following descriptions prove: In another, Custoland Redense, says, "in the lands adjoining Springhead, now called Bark Fields, a great number of Roman coins, some of silver, and many of copper, have at times been turned up by the plough."

Folio 524

Late Mr. Landon, who was rector of Nursted and Ifield, and many years curate of Southfleet, where he resided, had several; one was of the Empress Faustina, very fair, in silver. Also, Mr. Pedder, a farmer (1788), who occupied the said fields, had likewise some Roman coins in his possession; as had one Lane, who kept a public-house in Betsham. Mr. Landon also informed Mr. Thorpe that paterae (or small basins, &c.) had been dug up where the coins were found. A proof that the place was burnt by the Saxons, Mr. Landon writes, "three coins of very fair milt-tone** & were found upright within the ground, about four or five inches below the surface. It was not more than six inches deep. It was two feet and a half long; two of its sides were sixteen inches each, the other two fourteen; the corners were rounded, and the surface was very fair & cut." In Bark Field, in Southfleet, were lately found in a well two coins of the highest beauty, a vessel of earthenware, a fibula, part of a woman's head, with Plautilla and boldly raised on the brass, &c. Such beautiful coins.

At the beginning of the present century (A.D. 1801), was discovered a Roman tomb in the Northfleet parish, evidently capacious to contain 20 gallons. There was also found a stone tomb, enclosing two leaden coffins, a sarcophagus with two glass urns, and two pairs of curiously wrought shoes, all buried within what was evidently a square building, measuring about fifty-eight feet by fifty-five. The length of the tomb was not more than six feet, the coffins of a very simple style and composed of two pieces of lead, bent at the sides and ends to enclose the bodies. These items contained perfect, and, from the smallness of the bones and teeth, appeared to be those of children of seven or eight years of age. In one of the urns was a handsome gold chain, consisting of a number of links ornamented by angular pieces of bluish-green stone, commonly bearing in the middle of every fourth link had been a pearl, all nearly decayed. In the same coffin were two curious rings or gold bracelets, with seven very fine blue crystals, and a smaller ring set with a hyacinth. The sarcophagus was found beneath a pavement of rather roughstone, about a foot below the surface of the ground. It was of a square form, four feet one inch in length, and composed of stones, very nicely fitted in a groove. The internal cavity was elliptical, and therein were two...

Folio 525

Glass urns, the largest being one foot three inches high! In both were considerable quantities of ashes; but that which contained the lesser portion was filled with a transparent liquid, which had neither taste nor smell. Some of the same species of liquor was in the other urn. The shoes were placed between the urns; and, though much decayed, had sufficient embroidery remaining to show the richness of the workmanship, and appeared to have been formed of fine purple-colored leather, reticulated in form of hexagons, and each hexagonal division wrought with gold.

This wood is celebrated all over the world for the peculiar species of plums it produces, called "the Stone Wood Plum." In our innocence we imagined the plums were grown at trees in the forest, and it was not till a personal stray last week that we found ground on which the plantation was situated, and were told by one of the very few gardeners left in its care, a fruit par excellence, that to the right nor the left of it will this fruit arrive at perfection. No buyers in the market are ready to demand and pay premiums unless submitted successfully to be cultivated at Springhead Wood only.

There was also a location upon the hill above the cromlech, Kits Coty House, near Maidstone, where several excavations have been made and noticed by the Association. Later discoveries noticed these pits, but we were unaware that they were in horses, in the woods near Dartford. In Wilmington, Sutton at Hone, and Bexley parishes, we last spring discovered an amazing number of precisely similar appearance at the spot where the tendons of Cavalriandum held great stand against Caesar’s forces in his first invasion. Mr. Barrington says these were three brick-logias of smaller pits, situated about 20 miles west of Little Coxwell in Berkshire, two hundred and ninety-three excavations in the space of forty-five acres; they relate all together, and their depths were from ten to fifteen, where they are 40 feet and upwards in diameter. Hassell in the Mistoling fields also notes pits at Crayford. Mr. Saul also in the North Brit.

A great number of similar excavations, however, exist in the neighbourhood, particularly on a farm in the occupation of Mr. Messrs Hassell, and which are filled up, as we think them to be, during the tilling the land, on account of the dangerous holes they present. Mr. T. Hassell on Friday last acquainted us that a short time previously, whilst ploughing, the horses fell into two yards deep furrows; land works were evidently void, which fortunately did not sink deeper than enabled the three animals more men to extricate them.

They are elsewhere also recorded in tradition. An emboldened "wood" has this traditional volume of people’s imagination to fill. These outside of the wood—in part of which is said to be in Southfleet parish, a wonderful farm divided into twenty acres and extending to the Medway. This work had a well discovered at the bottom, which you enter it is still probably the best antiquities. The woodman told us if you descend for inspection, the space to see it is hollow like a court to the bordering villagers, and they make parties to "go" and regale there, which suggests that they had fifty years ago studied it before. He had not been down there for thirty years, but he says he then saw...

Folio 526

...names and dates thirty years back. Our "traveller" gives a very far-fetched version of the origin of the name, as follows: "The word was a terrible kidnapper or freebooter, who may have lived probably many hundred years ago, and whose name seems to originate, like many other people rumored, from his position as a maker-up of brigands." (It being more known of dwellings and habitations in the two or three arms of soil), the "dwellings" became Clabber, to which they add his profession, napper; hence Napper's wood has been the native home of these robber people. Possibly ever since the Danish era."

At the Anglo-Saxon era, that period most likely saw many Danish [settlements] (as extremely known), all very well inhabited; similarly, we here fix its former locality near Kentish lands, according to survey, and briefly to the wood at or near the Medway. They go so far as to say, that there was underground "wood," and from its subterranean qualities, being a marked locality, is left! Under present appearances, we find it entitled "Clabber." We present upwards of half a score of its stones to excellent geologists and popular ideas. Its foxes that cut were viewed by the curious people. He said the people called its chimney simply an oddity of the cavity. By side the walls, as a noted hole, receiving one family in fire.

Subsequently altered and adapted to similar purposes by the Saxons and Danes. In our former article there was confusion in the sentence in which the Roman camps were mentioned; such have Nevill, the Castra Stativa was Stone Parkwood, the Castra Æstiva, or summer camp, was on Black Heath, six miles from Noviomagus (Dartford).

The Roman baths at St. Columb House were understood as stocking, linen bathing being necessary both for cleanliness and health. The original baths were magnificent with hot, water and cold baths... (Here description leads to historical baths, architecture, practical dimensions...).

Folio 527

Those who bathed were called Aliptae, or Unctorea. The instruments of an alipte were a curymorion or scraper; Strigil to rub off impurities from the body, made of horn or brass; Towels of silver or gold; towels or rubbing cloths, Lintea; a vial or cruet of oil, Guttus, usually of horn, hence a larger name was called Rhinoceros; a jug, Ampulla; and a small vessel called Vasculum. These articles were held in the care of the inmates of the Turgotarium.

Unguentaria.
Amongst the horticultural treasures now in this pleasant resort of Springhead, are growing sturdily the ears of wheat, taken from the Cerelcolets that enwrapped an Egyptian mummy, thus proving the long duration of the germinating power in plants. Close to the river, is a fine willow, raised from a slip brought from Napoleon’s tomb, St. Helena, by Mr. Silvester, jun., the proprietor’s son. A handsome jackal guards one of the entrances to the grounds, from whence, he says complainingly:

With a mixed and mournful sound.

The other portal is guarded by an extremely fine and large dog-box, whose magnificent bark has already become notorious. The lid, wrought from the sacred Indian temple of Solomon, is inscribed on the shield.

Pomponius Mela also asserts that the seas of Britain generate pearls and gems. So also Ælian in his History of Animals, and Origen in his commentary on St. Matthew. Marcellinus too, and the poet Ausonius pretty describe them as white shell beds. These pearls have been since repeatedly mentioned, by different historians, but their harvest has of late years been neglected. Swainson the eminent naturalist has recently expressed much surprise that the regular fisheries, whose existence is thus backed, as being so distinct but abandoned.

There is little doubt but that in primeval times pearls not being such a gem of price as its former uses, pearls are found in the Dork Fresh-water pearl mussel (Anodonta Marginata) and the warm ortto (Anodon Ferrugineus).

All Cremation ceased before the time of Antonius, in consequence of the progress of Christianity. Hence this funeral must have taken place before A.D. 180, and the villa to which the cemetery was appendant must have existed A.D. 160. — J. Dunkin.
Dartford, p. 566.

Folio 528

Dear [Name],

I return your slips with a few corrections, chiefly of errors of the press. I have added a note allusive to Pen Pitt which may perhaps be woven into your remarks.

I enclose also some letters and notes furnished many years ago by Dr. Owen Pugh, the author of the Welsh Dictionary and Editor of the Myvyrian Archaiology. I do not know whether they will be of much use to you, but I thought it not unlikely that you might be pleased to read the opinions of so distinguished an Antiquary. I have no copy of...

Folio 529

... of them and will thank you to return them when they have undergone your examination.

I should be much pleased to hear that you had met my son as you intended. I fear, however, that the chances were against it, as his movements are very much dependent on business. Should you be in London, you will hear of him, if you do not see him, at the Electric Telegraph Office, 345 Strand. That is his present headquarters, as Engineer to the Company.

Folio 530

Wonderful discoveries of Roman remains have been made at East Dean. I shall endeavour to visit them tomorrow.

Your Dear Sir,
Your faithful servant,
H. Hallum

Salisbury, Feb. 6
1846

I hope time will one day bring us together. If I should again visit London, I shall hope to extend my journey as far as Dartford.

Folio 532

Dock

Conquest of Julius Hastings
The acts of Julius Plantus in Kent
Introduction of Christianity
Bury Post
Josephus VI. p. 175 "Wise amanuensis"

Folio 533

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THEIR SOCIAL DUTIES AND DOMESTIC HABITS.

AND THE DAUGHTERS OF ENGLAND,

THEIR POSITION IN SOCIETY, CHARACTER, AND RESPONSIBILITIES.

BY MRS. ELLIS.

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"SHOULD BE FOUND IN EVERY FAMILY, AND BE CAREFULLY STUDIED."

Folio 534

Note: Clemens Romanus "de prima epistola ad Corinth. ad finem."

— He is inclined to the gospel, he went to Britain and brought the Word.
779: Suetonius, Britain is the nursery of superstition.
Britanni sunt... ignotissimi Catullus calls them "perverse," Tacitus also records the superstitions of the Britons. Britain is hardly outside the Roman world — ETT, TGG, ΘΡΙΑΣ.

— To Euphrus writing about the nations converted by Paul:
Λαουρέντιοι, Λυριοι, Σακεβίραι
To Britain and the Isles (Hibernia, Scotia). TGG calls them blessed.

To the Greeks and to the disciples there — Πατρικος refers to Irish sea-related travels. Many attributed works found in Tacitus, Dio Chrysostom also record... διεστεκέναι.

Additional Notes:

Catullus also mentions Britain — TGG confirms their arrival.
Refer to Orceanos and χριστός.

Folio 535

Claudia

Claudia Ceruleis cum sit Rufina Britannis
Edita, cur Latiae pectora plebis habet?
Quale decus formae! Romanam credere matres
Italides possunt, Attides esse suam.

Martial

Translation:

Among the painted Britons, Claudia, born,
By what strange art did you to Rome transfer
What shape, what heavenly charm, what grace
A Roman mother in Italy of Greece might trace?

Venantius Fortunatus

Transitit Oceanum, et qua facit Insula portum
Quasque Britannus habet terras, quasque ultima Thule.

Translation:

The ocean he fled, (unnamed?) and shores
To Briton relumes, to Thule's furthest shore.

Folio 536

Which thanks to him, were
~~(illegible text)~~ (overlapping notes on Claudius heading an army, likely related to Roman Britain).

The army brought by Claudius, including the
death consular, the 2nd 9th and 14th legions, a force
of 52,000 men.

The entire recruitment, brought out by the Emperor and partly
in reserve (text obscured or amended)—according to Zonaras' records.
The armies taking the imperialized stronghold in Britain.
It’s therefore clear that the number required by 10,000,000
men to maintain rule.

The conquest form:

Capture/adventure, logistics, etc.
Subjugation of tribes

Folio 537

Notes

After the defeat of Caractacus, the state of Britain underwent significant changes. The tributary presents, and the dues upon the imports and exports received from the native princes, instead of satisfying the desires, only whetted the avidity for more.

The avarice of the Romans for information respecting Great Britain, of which they possessed but little certain knowledge, and that the repeatedly threatened expeditions of Augustus against the island and its inhabitants were the common subject of conversation, is clearly shown by Horace (Lib. iii, ode 5, and lib. i, ode 29).

The notorious fact that the Romans were, at this period, more desirous of a certain naval fleet than they were even during the Carthaginian war...

*Additional smaller notes and marked clippings are noted throughout, referring to topics like Octavianus, Augustus, and his ambition, alongside the Chronicle of Kent.

Folio 538

Some Account of the Conquest of Kent by the Romans

In Illustration of the Neighbourhood of Gravesend

By Alfred John Dunkin

Although the invasions of Caesar were utterly futile, as far as concerned the conquest of Britain, yet indirectly they led to a gradual revolution of the manners and customs, not only of the denizens upon the banks of the river Ebbsfleet in Northfleet and Southfleet parishes, but also of her more savage inhabitants of the forests around the island. Therefore wars, dissensions, and feuds amongst the neighboring tribes were numerous.

During this period, the country greatly suffered; no security for life or property existed. The power of the Druid hierarchy was also greatly diminished. A species of commerce with the continent arose, as articles of commerce imported to or exported from the island received many presents extorted from the fears and jealousies of certain of its chiefs.

Tiberius and Caligula, the Emperors, being more addicted to sloth and ease than Augustus, took no active part in any efforts against Britain. Claudius, however, in his thirteenth year of reign, considered it expedient to subjugate the country, which he finally succeeded in partially doing.

After the elevation (by the sole influence of the prætorian guards) of Claudius to the throne, his salutary mission was broken off by the focus of rising dissensions amongst the people, delaying Roman conquest for nearly ten years.

Beril, a chief among the princes of Kent, visited Rome to implore its protection against neighboring tribes, which, in part, provoked Claudius to launch campaigns targeting Britain, thus setting the stage for the Roman control which ultimately ensued.

With their new-found alliances, the Romans organized structures for taxing their colonies, managing administration, and spreading their laws. By this strategy, they gradually imposed a degree of governance and influence over Britain, starting with Kent.

Folio 539

Preliminaries for the Roman Invasion

The legions chosen for the expedition were the second, ninth, fourteenth, and twentieth, which, including the cavalry and auxiliaries, must have composed a force amounting to 60,000 men; these were divided into three distinct bodies. The troops, however, expressed great disinclination for the enterprise, and greatly protracting the preparation, could hardly be induced to participate in the undertaking, alleging the emperor reiterated his commands because, they said, "it was great folly to make war beyond the limits of the known world." But this reluctance vanished as soon as the army was assembled in the direction of the British coast, which they hailed with shouts of joy.

A number of British chiefs were aware of the growing judgment collecting upon the continent for their situations; these, nevertheless, rejected indignantly any arrangements, and resolutely joined in the preparations to repel the invasion. They formed no confederacy, elected no commander-in-chief, and consequently failed to coordinate their efforts.

The great cause of the apparent supineness to foreign aggression will be found in the family divisions that prevailed among the tribes. Certain chiefs assumed the title of kings (a term derived from the Celtic origin by Latin law, termed Gael-kind) and divided their territories between sons, disregarding the claims of daughters, which, although a common danger threatened all, frequently became feuds for the inheritance of their possessions. It was their defective education to produce such rivalry, or petty tyranny, which the Romans eagerly exploited. With this, as a clue, Julius Caesar had previously done it.

"Arduae res diris geras a Palatino prefectorum; Ad reges Irlandum commune, ubi gentes errant Pallante fovit et posuit in montibus urbem Pallante fovit et posuit Pallantium..."

— Latin inscription

It is not unnatural to find the townships and districts, not only in this country but throughout Britain, under different leaders, and often at otherwise opposed aims, and at war with each other. We have a good hint of the cause of such disunion in the Xenedii (lib. viii.).

Gibbon says: "Of the various forms of government which have prevailed in the world, an hereditary monarchy seems to present the fairest scope for ridicule. It is royalty itself, no precepts or sages too, fits nature's drives if oaths ultimately routes bad laws shipwreck ramshackled systematic aliens not finalizing grand stability." Such a counterforce localizes affairs under Roman oversight. An adapted war often organized duties under baronial Rome-wise; contested attrition reformed taxes against barriers. In short, civilization resettling progressive yet leadership midst socio-territory dissolving unity conflicts likewise here.'

Folio 540

... from the stupendous monuments, which, after exposure to the fury of the elements for upwards of two thousand years, would have remained even now almost unscathed by the touch of stern old Time, had not man iconoclastically lent his assistance to their demolition.

The introduction of carts, wagons and carriages, either for trade or pleasure, occurred during this epoch, although we advisedly place their adaptation to military purposes much later. As a fondness for frippery or magnificent costume was innate in the breasts of the people, all who had the means profusely adorned themselves with glittering ornaments, such as gold or silver armlets, chains and torques. Their dress in summer, consisted of close-fitting tunics, either of gaily-colored cloth, or tinctured with the far-famed Tyrian purple. In winter, the garb was composed of wool, interwoven with threads of gold. To further decorate their persons, they used furs, dressed skins, and the plumage of birds, even as they are worn at the present day.

Upon the destruction of Tyre, it would appear that the maritime power of the inhabitants of Tarshish decayed for a time, that the prophecy of Ezekiel might be fulfilled—"and the isles that are in the seas shall be troubled at thy departure," until it was resuscitated after the invasion of the Belgae.

Hanno, the Carthaginian, in his famous expedition which comprised a fleet of threescore sail, and thirty thousand men, visited the Kentish shores rather more than four centuries before the Christian era. After establishing communication and planting several colonies in various parts of the island for commercial...

Folio 541

Note:

The wary policy of Augustus led him, in his endeavors to ameliorate the turbulence of spirit, which, during his ascent to supremacy, distracted the character of the Roman people, to encourage amusements and pleasures. By an indiscriminate expansion of the Roman capital, the necessity for a more renovating civilization, combined with debauchery, was for a few ages caused to die away in Europe. Once launched into the forms of luxury and refinement, other parts of the world were harassed and aggrandized; other cultures, as slaves, bore witness to the truth. Their works, their trades, their futures, and their lives were thrown into the streams of imperial dominion.

The magnificent Thermae erected by the later emperors remain monuments of architectural magnificence. In them were combined baths not only for personal accommodation but for public entertainment — grand halls for athletic games, forums for public reading, and even theaters for philosophical lectures and discussions.

It is said by Tacitus, the greatest historian of the time, that these works eventually played a part in the fall of Roman moral dignity, as the repeated indulgences took their toll on a society that once prided itself on discipline and austerity.

Folio 542

"Ossian alludes to 'the bossy iron shield,' with this fearful instrument we are told the Batavians ~~struck &~~ mangled the faces of their enemies."

Folio 543

Dr. Stukeley, however, asserts that the Roman Roads were made upon the Emperor's undertaking their progress. He says John the Baptist preaching provided the drawn illustrations of an allegorical nature from the circumstance.
Isaiah XL. 3–4: "The voice of him that crieth."
Copy both verses.

Folio 544

Folio 545

The Acts of Aulus Plautius in Kent

In Illustrations of the Neighbourhood of Gravesend

By Alfred John Dunkin

(As published in the Kentish Independent, Sept. 1845.)

Two of the most important acts, from their results to the neighbourhood of Gravesend, of the talented Aulus Plautius, during his stay in Britain, were doubtless the erection of the British ship-building yard on the western side of the river Ebbs, into Roman navalia, and the construction of one of the great British trackways, into a via militaris, or military road, from the ports of Richborough and Portus Lemanis (Lymne) into the interior. The brief period he remained in the island prevented him, however, from little more than successfully conceiving and commencing the departure of the Emperor Claudius, the Roman general proceeded rapidly with the alterations he had commenced in the British trackway called the "Watling-street," which he now made perfectly straight through the country, for the purposes of conveying his supplies and material of war from the coast into the interior. The lesson he had learned in his first campaign not only taught him that the abilities necessary for legislation, but the reginastic abilities to successfully lead and combat the Roman legions; it had also impressed upon him the necessity of leaving strongholds in his rear—for experience had shown him that, had he not been well entrenched at Holwood, he could not have maintained his position in Britain, until the arrival of the reinforcements. Before, therefore, he attempted any operations in the interior, he carefully secured and fortified the Kentish coast, probably commencing with Richborough Castle, to protect the Portus Rutupia, followed at the latter end of the year by the completion of military works at Portus Dubris (Dover), supported by a similar undertaking at the Portus Lemanis (Lymne).

The town of Durovernum or Canterbury, and its...

Folio 546

Roman Acquisitions

Succession, the Dua John, had been one of the earliest acquisitions of the Romans, and it was now made one of their stations or municipia, and called Durovernum. To this important town had bent the old trackways from the various barriers on the coast. These roads, the Romans, to render useful in military points of view, materially altered, and in places retracted. The central situation of this station with regard to the numerous ports on the south-eastern coast rendered its possession by the Romans of the utmost importance, as it gave them a position in the island where they could concentrate their strength, and from whence rapidly advance to protect a threatened port.

The etymology of the ancient name of this town of Durovernum was derived from the word Dur (a river) and Vern (a sanctuary). The Romans, when adapting the British words to their own pronunciation, naturally transformed the name of the town into Durovernum.

In the Kentish Chronicles, from which we are quoting, it was stated that the great British road from the sea coast led through Aylesford — a fact which has not yet been impugned. On the Boxley Hills, near Maidstone, existed a British city, which formed the nucleus of the Roman station Madus.

During the construction of the road, the advantages possessed by the valley of the Ebbs became too apparent to be highly regarded. Aulus Plautius, accordingly determined to adapt the British settlement to Roman purposes and convert the ship-building yard of the Belgic Britons into Roman navalia. This project was warmly supported by Scribonius, who likewise recommended the valley to be chosen for the fresh buildings, instead of the heights whereon stood the original town. He also suggested the erection of rough wooden buildings for huts, or thermae, for the use of the soldiery.

The seizure of the ship-building yard can hardly be overrated, for the Romans, from the days of Augustus, had been anxious to possess a fleet, and their desire was now in a fair way for being accomplished.

"It seems an anomaly that Italy, almost surrounded by the Mediterranean, should not early have assumed a high-rank in the creation and maintenance of a mighty navy. But the ambition of her warlike generals had been confined to land exploits, and the coast existed as a subject of fear rather than of security."

Two reasons may be assigned for this circumstance: the first, the deficiency of good natural harbours upon...

Folio 547

Roman Naval Developments

... the coasts of Italy; and secondly, the tideless nature of the Mediterranean. Now, it is quite clear that a tideless ocean like the Mediterranean was less calculated to form good seamen than the ever-stormy sea described by Solinus, “which flows between Britannia and Ireland.”

The Emperor Claudius attempted to correct the deficiency of nature and formed at the mouth of the Thames the celebrated artificial harbour of Ostia. But, to improve upon his predecessor's half-pressed attempts, he now authorized the construction of ships. These new board crafts were similar to small boats and privileges were extended upon those Britons who built vessels for trade.

It was now the object to create a fleet of large craft. The advantages communicated to those which contained two thousand Roman soldiers, or about three hundred and fifty rowers per century.

When one curiously considers the brief history of the entirety, it cannot fail to be surprised at the rapid growth under intelligent hands now spurred by Augustus. Furthermore, the influence extended past the Germani, it impressed the early Saxons deeply as well.

The exact degree of agriculture benefited Rome as additionally native Kent domains resisted.

Folio 548

Roman Road Systems

... feet; that men usually ride along on the ditches below to avoid it (Roman roads invariably had fosses on each side), and leave the old Roman way, which, in many places, is therefore overgrown with bushes or wood.

The great width of Roman roads, in places, certainly ensured their adaptation for use in our history for the march of armies, though the unsettled portion of our history, after the departure of the Romans, led to the roads falling into disrepair. The security of these roads and their conditions maintained great importance, even as Britain transitioned.

The greatest difficulty that agriculture had was receiving the distinct advantages of the growing populations. In the passage of time, these Roman roads were adapted to make regional connections, as Aylesford or the present day acts as one of the Roman stations.

To my view, initially translated, the winding river the Romans called the "Britain's ford," stood not far off. The site was immediately clear as the highest and noblest stake of the grave-how to head off the river.

Widely, Aylesford is immediately adjacent to many Druidical stations, evidence of earlier man’s worship.

Aylesford is the same way of many neighboring historical affinities, adapted to the camp-like state, the ancient road routes rise at the base of the hill, in almost a straight direction from the sea.

This manner of imagining supports the reality that during the late centuries of the invasion, evident the construction of hillforts contributed toward memory protection, but these no longer survived. Over time, these monuments became fortified to better-fit Roman customs. As noted, their placement throughout transformed as agriculture took root, and Aylesford was in proximity to Roman customs.

The Romans concealed their ignorance and error under the disguise of religious knowledge. – Tacit. Germ. c. 9.

The Greeks considered most Asiatic nations as barbaric but their arts, although Egypt, Phœnicia, Babylon, and Carthage had preceded them in civilization. – Sharon Turner, v. 10.

Folio 549

The Romans in Kent

In Illustrations of the Neighbourhood of Gravesend

By Alfred John Dunkin

Upon the arrival of Aulus Plautius at Rome, the senate decreed him, as a reward for his victorious career, the honour of an ovation or lesser triumph, in which the Emperor, simply clothed, walked, "as Augustus," by the side of the splendidly attired general, "to his passage into the capitol."

The administration of the island was then entrusted to the first governor, who usually departed in the absence of special legates or commanders of legion, whose policy of rule was solely conducted according to each other's plans. We are, therefore, left to conjecture regarding the three succeeding years, as affairs in Britain appear unapprised in the native chronicles, save for the introduction of a few legal regulations.

The Britons, indignant at these measures, revolted under the guidance of Caractacus and Togodumnus, sons of their late ruler, Cunobelinus, who, according to legend, perished in A.D. 40, before the arrival of the Romans. These former years had held on steadfastly to Roman allegiance, though efforts were forced to succumbing invasions and defending territories.

[Handwritten notes in margins: "unexpected onslaught," "compelled professions," and other annotations]

Folio 550

The Loss of the Chieftain

The loss of their chieftain did not, however, intimidate the Britons, who undaunted, waged a cruel and vexatious war against the Romans. So destructive was the excitement and labour, together with the perpetual and obstinate attack, that, worn out with fatigue, Ostorius sank under the exhaustion they entailed upon him, and expired, it is said, from the very haste that the war which had brought him to an untimely grave.

Paulinus Suetonius

Paulinus Suetonius, the next Governor, A.D. 59-60, succeeded with greater severity than his predecessor had commenced. Acting with greater severity, his operations nearly extirpated the population that a precarious remission was the consequence. The Britons, headed by Boudica, fell upon Camulodunum and Verulamium and utterly destroyed them. Their achievements were landed as they freed themselves from the Roman yoke.

Roman Sites

At this time, it is improbable that medicinal use was attached to these springs, and hence they became propugnaculum, and, by degrees, a Roman watering place sprung up. Similarly to modern fashions attached not only realising springs, but more.

Folio 551

Cneius Julius Agricola

The mild and equitable sway of Cneius Julius Agricola, who succeeded Frontinus in the government of Britain, A.D. 78, tended to reconcile the Britons to the Roman sway. He endeavoured to raise amongst them a spirit of emulation by bestowing great rewards and commendations upon those who yielded to his advice, in joining the Roman stations and practising the Roman customs. Their sons were caused to be instructed in the learning, language, and sciences of the Romans, and afterward their adopted arts were introduced—not asserting that they possessed a genius superior to the Gauls. Even those who preferred the dwelling places of their forefathers, and did not yield to the persuasion of better civilization, were obliged to deliver up the woods which they had grown; and not only learn their companionship in commerce, but also derive their own social benefit. His humanity and equanimity gradually diminished the burden of servitude and gained the affections of the Britons. His actions, therefore, proved advantageous as much to the favour of the latter.

Change in Social Order

The fruit of his political conduct was soon ripened; for the influence of his sway changed, and since to follow naturally, that to the imperial stream in the West admitted great trade benefits. This period witnessed a flourishing return in Roman pursuits, and adjusted toward reformation of rule. Consequently, the place stated as the seat of Scribonius became educational headquarters, after better Roman schools were built. His noble views thus harmonized regional tranquility.

Folio 552

Agricola's Early Career

He was sent as Quaestor into Asia, when Salvius Titianus was pro-consul, but he remained uncorrupted in this situation, though allied with a greedy pro-consul, in a region notorious for corruption. This distinction greatly raised his name and was a turning point in his career. In this station, notable for maintaining his integrity, he also afforded his great capability to the laws, both in administration and moral education.

Governorship of Britain

The year of his tribuneship he passed with ease and tranquility, well knowing the disposition of Nero's court, his youth affording room for prudence. As a consul, Agricola's prudence was to align military strategy with governance, a fine quality recognized by Galba. Agricola took measures to adjust British life, making attempts to introduce Roman ideals while limiting unnecessary cruelties. This reconciliatory approach gained him the respect of both the Roman Senate and local populations.

Reflections

His administrative changes reformed education, courts, and taxation. Agricola's legacy became a model for proper provincial leadership, marked by a disposition to serve the people and regions with balance and foresight.

Folio 553

Reflection on the Britons of the Past

The religion of the Britons of this period, after receiving Aulus Plautius (A.D. 43), was the prevailing tradition. It is worthy as we shall in a future chapter show, to grant ample scope for the education of the theory of Britain being peopled by some great religious influence.

Grounded in spiritual identity, these traditions have maintained that the circumstances existing under which they entered the Christian religion can be traced to the religious seeds already sown in their climes; the difference being as slight between it and Druidism.

Folio 554

Notes on Aulus Plautius and Britons

Margin Notes:
"Aulus Plautius, commanding 33 legions, assumed control..."
Additional handwritten notes are visible along the margins and are partially obscured.

Clipping:
The clipped article is inserted upside-down and provides additional insights on early Roman occupation and their methods of governance. Key terms like "civilization" and "Britons" are discernible but need further transcription for clarity.

Folio 555

Notes and Clippings

Header Note:
"Look to Lewis's Chronicle of the Burnt Church, Hamilton, 33 Portman Square."

Clipping 1: "Perseus and his Philosophers"

"We have here a strange medley. Well may the author say that he knows not whether to call his book 'a novel, a tale, a moral discourse, or a metaphysical rhapsody.' Of philosophy it has little, but some vigorous thought and occasional wit the book can certainly lay claim to. The story is very slight. Under the guise of the narrative of part of the life of Perseus, son of the chamberlain of an ideal king of an ideal people, the author brings forward his views on sundry affairs, domestic, social, and political."

Clipping 2: "Burgess, Bishop of St. David’s"

"Burgess, Bishop of St. David’s, says, pp. 43, 66, 70, in his 'Tracts on the Origin and Independence of the Ancient British Church on the Supremacy of the Pope and the Inconsistency of the Doctrines Jurisdiction with the British Constitution,' of the difference between the Church of England and Rome. The Bishop shows that it existed as a separate body in the time of the Apostles, and maintained its independence from the Romans by the appointment of Bishops, Priests, and Deacons. St. Paul, writing to the Colossians, mentions the British Church (referred to as the Church of the Isles)."

"He also adds, 'The different customs of the Christians introduced by Augustine, the seven Bishops which he found here, and the adoption of the practices of the Saxon Church, proved that Christianity was acknowledged and acted upon long before the arrival of Augustine.'"

Margin Notes

Additional handwritten notes along the side mention "ecclesiastical independence," referencing early Christian practices in Britain, and observations on their unique governance system compared to Rome.

Folio 556

Dr. Stukeley, however, asserts that the Roman Roads were made upon the Emperor's undertaking their progress. He says John the Baptist preaching provides illustrations of an allegorical nature from the circumstance.

Isaiah XL: 3-4 — "The voice of him that crieth."

Copy with verses.

Folio 557

The Introduction of Christianity into Kent

In Illustrations of the Neighbourhood of Gravesend

By Alfred John Dunkin

At the planting of the first Christian Mission in the kingdom, intimately associated with the history of Gravesend, the Emperor Claudius, Aulus Plautius having advanced into Kent, A.D. 43, and his generals building stations and settlements agreed by the Roman fleet colonizing. This secured the valley of the Medway from its rising to its mouth. The conquest facilitated the conversion of the British settlers in Stone-Park, fitting into the framework of spreading Christianity into the region.

The Emperor Claudius, according to his mandate, decreed that the plains adjacent to the conquered area should cultivate Roman practices, firmly associating the natives with the customs and the faith of Rome.

Among the testimonies, it is affirmed by Eusebius and Jerome that St. Paul preached in Britain during his travels. St. David, the learned Bishop, argued in his epistles that if apostles reached these shores, it was for the purpose of enlightening both Romans and natives alike. He further concludes that St. Paul, upon his return from imprisonment in Rome, brought Christianity to this region.

Folio 558

The Antiquity of the British Church

The committee cannot conclude their report without deploring the severe loss the society has sustained by the death of their patron, the late Lord Bishop of the Diocese. He was always ready, by every means in his power, to encourage the taste for archaeology; and from the first establishment of the society, he gave it his decided support.

The time has come for the present meeting to nominate a successor to the office of our late lamented patron.

The Rev. D. Jones read a paper on the antiquity of the British Church, in which, having strained the facts from an independent author, the Britons were the Christians before Augustine; and having cleared some objections and obstacles against this view of history, proceeded to the Welsh sources which place Christianity in these regions well within the age of Apostolic men, if not of Apostles. And first, he considered the name of the Apostle, which names him as "the man with the useful basket." The learned author finds that this "man of Cynwyd" was St. Paul. Secondly, he finds from the way in which Aristobulus is pronounced "Llediath," that this missionary came before the Britons were aware of Latin. Lastly, the reader offered the summary of "Llediath"—"the man with the borrowed tongue"—to demonstrate that the Welsh had seen missionaries within the Apostolic age. These names are explained as corresponding to distinct missionary acts, and are by the evidence rendered clear. The reader came to the conclusion that the British Church was the work of the early part of the first century of the Christian era.

He then exhibited tracings of two inscriptions, lately found by Mr. John Jenkins in his grounds. The first is on a stone or tablet, dedicated to the Goddess Fortune, "by the Prefect of the Camp." Unfortunately, its name is not very distinct, and cannot be perfectly ascertained.

The other inscription is a singular one—at least if the view taken by Mr. Lee to connect the Goths is to be at all entertained: "To Mithras the British God." This would seem to infer part of the rites of Mithras are illustrated. What remains of the inscription, however, appears to warrant the reading "British Mithras." The second inscription translated into Latin would read, "To Jesus (or J. Esus) erected by the body of Mithras, when under Vespasian, Emperor."

Mr. Lee stated that both history and inscriptions proved that the worship of Mithras was not only known to, but practiced by the Romans even in their colonies. In his tracing, this was fixed by a rough outline of a singular altar found at York. The symbols there represented the Mithraic mysteries, and this was compared with the outline of an antique gem found at Rome, which seemed to correspond in almost every particular.

It is remarkable that these rites are said by the early authors to have in some degree resembled those of Christianity, and they were thought the more dangerous on this account.

Folio 559

St. Paul and Claudia

It is not at all improbable that St. Paul took an interest in Britain from the circumstance of his acquaintance with Claudia, a British lady, the wife of Pudens. In the second epistle of Timothy, there is mention made of Pudens and Claudia.

This Claudia was some believed to have been the daughter of Caractacus. That she was of British extraction appears from the poet Martial, Lib. xi, Epig. 54:

Claudia caeruleis cum sit Rufina Britannis
Edita, cur Latiae pectora plebis habet?
Quale decus formae! Romanam credere matres
Italides possunt, Attidiesque suam.

That this Claudia was wife to Pudens, appears by another passage in the same poet, Lib. iv, Epig. 13:

Pudens Claudia coniugis aurum
Felicis nodo nectis, et aereo
Potentem, bis senis ingenitam fascibus annum
Restitut, secuitque rudes.

Now, civil further observes Dr. Collier, as Claudia appears when Nero was Emperor of Rome, and most probably towards the end of his reign, the second epistle of St. Paul to Timothy was written, in which the salutation of Pudens and Claudia is mentioned; and thus, notwithstanding any chronological reasons insisted on by Parsons, St. Paul’s and Martial’s Claudia may be the same person.

Neither venerable Bede, nor Gildas, nor any of the authentic chroniclers mention this lady. Eusebius, in his third book of the "Evangelical Demonstration," undertakes to prove that the apostles "could be no impostors" and, among other reasons, he urges the improbability of men possibly not much more than ordinary fishermen, who could bring with them no good nor improbable relation, yet vast distance traversed and sojourned almost illiterate regions, who would not scruple to reason their intelligence with absolute receiving of the world by preaching this doctrine in the most distant countries. Among Indians, and Romans, Parthians, Persians, Arabians, Bactrians, and Scythians, he particularly alludes that some of the apostles called over thence to the British Isles.

Folio 560

Gildas Hist. Brit. § 7, lib. iii.

This way of appealing was frequent among the Romans; and was introduced to defend and secure the lives and fortunes of the populace from their exchequers, whilst it served rigorously every one of the magistrates whereby, by law, in cases of oppression, to appeal to the "People for redress." It was a cheering harmony among appeals referred to the wisdom of the variable human statesmen. We see in writings, by appellatory libels given in, wherein it was common for an accuser at the appointed term of hearing to come forward on occasion selected his appeal, and wherein the relative proceedings were laid open.

Points to Note:

His consistency in the Adriatic sea, but Malta a considerable distance from it.
Hidden distance from the shore of the Adriatic then any likely landmark far of the way; and cooling sea drove men northwards or back westward, to divert between.
It suits the view where, if lost records interpret visits; or ties distinct seafarer evidence spot St. Paul – finally affirm Acts viii, mentions west strand approach "wrecked condition recalls now."
Direction of Alster fields near certain similar quarter to both fragments from recent archeological rediscover work site now comparing peculiarly below Drs claims re-assume Cicero hint, Appendix Cases!
[See editorial, conclusion subsections line verify corpus suggest meander areas traces ad-field.]

Folio 561

Apostles, expressly mentions the Britons. Theodoret’s testimony is confirmed by St. Jerome, in his Commentary upon Amos, where he tells us "That St. Paul (for it is principally this Apostle who is alluded to, and whose visit to Kent we may almost safely credit), having been in Spain, sailed from one ocean to another; that he passed into the isles of the sea, and there preached the word of righteousness."

There is another important circumstance, which, although we have left it to the last, is extremely probable, and strengthens the impression that it was St. Paul who visited Britain. Pomponia Graecina, the wife of Aulus Plautius, during whose government the Romans began to acquire an ascendancy in Britain, was accused of "foreign superstition," which could not be other than Christianity. That accusation was supposed to be a stigma, having annexed strange rites and usages to the Christians, and especially an extraordinary regard for the dead. (Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 32.)

Pomponia lived many years after this trial, but always led a gloomy and secluded life. We have now only to add, that the "foreign superstition" in Pomponia’s case was Christianity; the Roman historian could not have misunderstood the true meaning of the phrase, as during the reign of Claudius, and from the policy of that emperor, all foreign superstitions were supposed to be expunged.

The introduction of the Christian faith to Britain is supposed to have been gradual, commencing in a few years after its promulgation in Judea. This, we repeat, could hardly have been brought about otherwise than by the Apostles themselves. Of this, the preaching of St. Paul in the forest of Kent affords strong evidence, and his name and doctrine were early identified with British Christianity.

The Christian preachers of the Gospel were not only educated, but ardent in their pursuits. They soon brought the Britons within the pale of their sacred calling, as they supplied them with writings to teach them to read, write, and speak the Roman language; the public charge was so general as to confirm the statement of Gildas.

It was no longer thought to be "Roman policy" to take away the circulating medium, as neither copper, gold, or silver, was stamped with Caesar’s image. The Apostle Paul, after being detained prisoner for two years (Acts xxvii. 27), by Felix the Governor of Judea, upon the accusation of being "a pestilent fellow," was, through the interference of the Jews through Porcius Festus to the proctorship, appealed to the Emperor Nero (A.D. 60), upon the accusation preferred by the Jews at Jerusalem; and when brought before the Emperor, his accusers failed in proving their charge.

The Apostle was set at liberty, and in his mission to the Gentiles accordingly, he was permitted to "preach to the bounds of the west." In proof of St. Paul’s travels to Britain, the venerable Bishop Burgess has given a continued series of testimonies to the fifth and sixth centuries.

Folio 562

Preaching the gospel everywhere, as he onward travelled through Gaul, he arrived opposite the Kentish shore, and crossed over to the British Isles. St. Richborough at this time being the principal port used by the Romans for receiving supplies of men and material of war from the continent, was, most probably, the spot where the Apostle landed. Attempts have repeatedly been made to prove that Paul planted the first Christian Church at Canterbury, by hypotheses not devoid of considerable probability. Hence, however, his further course and proceedings are traced in their consequences, till he comes to the new and flourishing settlement of the Druids at Ebbsfleet, where we know that there were many candidates for the work of conversion to Christianity. The names of the two leaders, Aulus Plautius and Pomponia Graecina, in conjunction with the progress made among the Britons to receive the faith, mark the conversion of the Southern provinces as one of the most important epochs in the history of Britain.

This wood is celebrated all over the world for the peculiar species of plums it produces, called "the Stone Wood Plum." In our innocence we imagined the plums were part and parcel of the fruit made from which the plantations were afterwards formed. To the right or the left of footway, it is a strange fact, but elsewhere no plums like the produce of this fruit, from this or from other causes, have been cultivated with equal success.

Romans xv, 20: "St. Paul was always ambitious of preaching the gospel in countries where even the name of Christ had never been heard; let no man build upon another man’s foundation."

Folio 563

Original Correspondence

To the Editor of "The Kentish Independent"

Sir,—The notice of the Emperor Carausius in your last number of The Kentish Independent, induces me to send you some verses upon "the celebrated first British Admiral," by an equally celebrated individual of an earlier view. I allude to Dr. Stukeley, one of the most learned and judicious antiquaries Great Britain ever produced.

Yours truly,
Archaeologicus.

As when the furious dames, in days of yore,
At Bacchic orgies raved, with frantic cries,
The Thracian bard divine, in pieces tore;
While Hebrus resounded with the noise;

The mangled limbs besmeared with reeking blood,
His sacred head in Hebrus’ stream they threw;
The vocal harp rolled with them down the flood,
And taught the waves to murmur out his woe;

The Muses then their much-loved poet mourn;
His sad remains collect—in order joined,
Commit to earth, a hallowed tomb adorn’d,
Where honours to deathless verse consigned;

So we, in filling up a thoughtful hour,
The steps retrace of time wreck of time,
The lost restore—illustrate the obscure—
Construct the body of fair History.

Accept, illustrious Prince, with placid mien,
These pages rescued from the wreck of time;
Your noble spirit, and your actions keen,
Carausius courts you, in a rural rhyme.

A Monarch cool in thought—in action warm,
Manly in personage, of graceful mien;
A soul well united to his outward form—
Magnanimous, and prudent, and serene.

Stern Diocletian and Herculius cease
‘Gainst his superior arms—unequal war;
Glad to accept his offer’d terms of peace,
Acknowledge him their brother Emperor.

See his vast fleets to every quarter bear
Terrific pomp, o’er all the ocean wide,
From coast to coast threaten impending war;
And in the midland seas triumphant ride.

Note: It need not be repeated that Carausius was the first British admiral. He was appointed by Maximian and Diocletian to command a fleet against the Franks and Saxons. The Emperor’s appointment, however, raised his ambition, and with the Saxon pirates of the fleet of which he swept the seas of the Baltic, he soon rendered the shores of Northern France, Spain, and Britain subservient to his rule.

Folio 564

Annotated Manuscript Notes

"He was too much amalgamated by the great intellectual complexity, a race of men, who very early appeared to understand the governing power of the people by the previous little arts of outward forms, which they were always keen to apply to the instincts of the general."

"Mysticism and symbolism of many actions in one that the simple faith of an eternal truth might be veiled from the eyes of the vulgar."

"To an inquiring people was like one provisionally built remarkably well—but not as we shall see in our next ascension, in the large unwonted mass adapted solely to the dislocation of the social fabric."

To be continued...

Folio 565

French Manuscript Note

Comes littoris Saxonici

De l'Hercule Romain je domptay la fierté,
Je rendis aux Bretons leur chère liberté.
Je fis par ma valeur tomber la lance et l’onde,
Si le traitre Allectus, envieux de mon sort,
Sous prétexte de mes bienfaits n’eût avancé ma mort,
J’aurais été parvenu à l’empire du Monde.

Folio 566

Historical Note

This province extended over the whole breadth of the land where it is broadest—from the Land’s End, in Cornwall, to the shores of Kent.

In fact, the city on the banks of the Ebbsfleet was, in the 3rd century, to London what Gravesend is at the present day. And should the reader be curious to be told in what the Roman city is the present day, it is now the place where the Gravesenders and Londoners go, nobly, to eat water-cresses and strawberries.

Gannascus, chief of the Chauci, about A.D. 47, is noted as having commenced those piratical operations for which, in after ages, the Saxons entered so notorious a reputation. He devastated and plundered the coasts of Gaul with light craft.

Folio 567

Exploits of the First British Admiral

No ridicule of extraneous circumstances can make Queen Victoria’s voyage other than a sensible movement. It unites her person with the great heart of her dominions. It makes her actions feel the throb of a maritime people; and it sets the helm of state in the hand of one who realizes her rule. Thus, it is welcome to see critics remark upon her proceedings, provided it is with good nature. Looking well at home, as she appears to be doing, the Queen must be hailed with admiration. Let her kingly abode not, like that of James II, be always in Windsor, nor yet, like Anne’s, “amid the oaks and hawthorns of Kent.” While the good Queen Elizabeth played her foot with Essex and killed him for playacting, Victoria by decree is more wise. She is, indeed, both practical and domestic, and is only outdone in her progress to Gravesend by the mention of her presence there, long ago, in early life. Queen Victoria’s example is so truly below the average, in taste and decorum, that she may fairly ask the good will of her vast empire, as she prepares for the greatest of blessings upon state institutions.

"Her Majesty's motto is to browse at Windsor, roam at Windsor, eat oysters at Dover, and be sensible."

Poem by Stukeley

Caractacus courts you...

He his vast fleets to every quarter bear

Terrific pomp o’er all the ocean wide,

From coast to coast streams impending war,

And in the midland seas triumphant ride.

During the hundred years succeeding the government of Britain by Agricola, the Roman policy but little affected the larger population in this country, except in Southwark and other metropolitan districts. This continued until Hadrian, about A.D. 131, who abraded the exorbitant power of initiated decrees to the British Assembly, while balancing the Empire.

The traffic to the Continent continued to traverse the town on the banks of the Ebbsfleet. The noble estuary by which it was reached, a fashionable watering-place, was rarely without government vessels of war.

Folio 568

Maximian

* Eutropius, the next classic author who alludes in any way to the existence of the Saxon people, does so without accounting for the rebellion of Carausius and his assumption of the purple. He states the Saxons to have become intolerable to the Romans from their piratical enterprises.

We have already, in a previous note, mentioned these Roman vessels. Of the vessels of about 350, see No. 302. Bosquet, Hist. Grèce, de la Mon. de France, p. 153. Impero, Quinto Itali, Græcia de jam; Carthage, Batavia, p. 52, as well as the Annals of Tacitus.

It is a point in capable of proof... that the foundations in the high bed of the roads of Northfleet Church and Instone were the remains of the Palace of the Comes Saxonici Litoris.

Note

* A harrier, Carausius was, in his Roman name, Aurelius. Tiberius his name of office, deriving from his conquests immediate power. Maximian, Valerius from Diocletian, is the mystical portmanteau of fame and dignity.

Folio 569

Maximian

Towards the close of the third century, innumerable squadrons of light brigantines, belonging to the Franks and Saxons, incessantly ravaged the British coasts. They sailed up the Thames and its tributary streams, daily making descents upon the contiguous shores, committing in their predatory career horrid depredations, besides inflicting dire wounds on the commerce of the Roman colonies.

The Ebbsfleet particularly suffered. From having no other protection than the Pruars and the morodes, whose estuary it became an easy prey to these desperadoes. The Romans, accordingly, heralded it as an essential naval dock. The Emperor Maximian employed the existing Roman maritime stations and docks, extending to repress these piratical expeditions. He stationed the Comes Saxonici Litoris—whose duties should be confined to repelling daring rovers—guarding the infested shores and correcting the various inroads which disturbed the Roman peace.

To fully accomplish his intentions, the Roman Emperor Maximian established a naval station at Gesoriacum, in the straits of Calais, and (A.D. 296) passed the channel himself, to set foot to a Britain of gentle, if not royal, blood. His administration and his fate owed not so much to his arms, as to the stratagems of governance and commercial reform which he extended across the sea.

Exasperation and Treachery

Exasperated at these malicious reports, Maximian subsequently sent orders for the assassination of his officer, Carausius, when he determined treachery was meditated, through the man’s focus proceedings. Carausius suddenly moved across Britain, and exposed the murderous designs. His known treachery, however, regained popular respect within Britain.

Thus, he once assumed the imperial power. To maintain his power amidst his enemies, Carausius not only repelled foreign invaders but also extended commerce and cultural security. Upon his declaration of governance across Britain, his fleet was stationed to the Thames, Boulogne, and various vital sectors.

Many of his coins have been discovered within Southfleet as early symbols of trade. The mint further bore witness to the cultural trade transitioning between the Roman lineage throughout Britain.

Folio 570

Notes

X294. AD Carausius sailed with a powerful fleet into the Mediterranean, visited the Juviguentiani, a native outpost, and gained recognition from several Britons. Maximianus, the rising hero, sent treaties to take control over the fleet. However, Carausius faced challenges and setbacks in October AD 290 and 291.

Additional Observations

Records highlight Carausius's activities in the Saxon and southern British territories, including efforts to fortify his naval dominance and build connections with local populations. Historical accounts suggest his legacy continues to be a subject of interest in studies of Roman-British relations.

Folio 571

Carausius: Sovereign of the Ocean

For seven years, Carausius supported the imperial dynasty and reigned as the undisputed Sovereign of the Ocean, or as Ossian poetically expresses, "the King of Ships." During this time, there was a division of the empire between the two emperors Diocletian and Maximian. The two Caesars, Galerius and Constantius, were adopted into the government. Constantius immediately resolved to recover the provinces of Britain from the hands of Carausius.

The important havens of Gesoriacum or Boulogne were seized against the imperial authority. Constantius launched attacks against numerous stone military forts along the coast, including a portion of the fleet of Carausius. After a prolonged siege and maritime battle, the victorious Roman forces reclaimed the strongholds from the usurper.

Fall of Carausius

In AD 296, Constantius turned his attention to the final stronghold of Carausius on the Isle of Wight. Despite initial success, Carausius was betrayed and assassinated by his ally Allectus, who then seized power. Allectus, however, was ultimately defeated by the forces of Constantius, bringing an end to this turbulent chapter of Roman-British history.

"Hail to Augustus!—
Thou kingly name of deathless fame,
How do I joy to see thy merits crowned,
With the bright circle of imperial power!
While the Britain, queen among the nations, reigns,
By thee enthroned, the sovereign of the deep."

- Penn, "The Imperial Pirate."

Folio 572

Saxon Depictions by a Fifth-Century Writer

A writer of the fifth century offers a vivid description of the Saxons:

"You see so many practical leaders as you behold oars, for they all command, obey, teach, and learn the art of pillaging. Their anxiety for retreat is equal to their eagerness for plunder. These chiefs of their clans, seated at the stern, steer and row alternately. Fiercer than any other tribe, if you give up unopposed, they strictly reproach; if they take you, they bind you; if they conquer you, they destroy the unwary; if the people flee, they outdo them. If they are shipwrecked, they swim; if drowned, their comrades are lifted by the waves and thunder upon their enemies."

- Sidonius Apollinaris, Epist. VII, Lib. 5

Insights from Gildas

Gildas strikingly reflects on the Saxons, remarking:

"They were men eager to defend their relaxing faces in tawdry hair, linen, and even their girdled and decent clothing."

Folio 573

The Saxons in Kent

In Illustration of the Neighbourhood of Gravesend

By Alfred John Dunkin

The reattachment of Britain to the Roman Empire having been perfected, it seems to have enjoyed tranquility until the death of Constantine, A.D. 337. But long previously, the occurrences described in the latest chapter have laid the horizon of the Roman power like a storm lowering, and towards the close of the fourth century, the storm burst—extirpating crime and desolation through every port of the empire. This partial revolution usurps the story of Carausius to give additional evidence of its inclination to weakness and decadence. Many cities had, however, contributed to its wars and civil dissensions, combined with the demoralizing luxuries which urban social life always seeks to regulate.

The Saxons were an inherently audacious maritime nation. That historian, therefore, is correct who assigns the isles in his descriptive account of Germany. Some years later, the geographer Ptolemy mentions them as dwellers on the narrow neck of the Cimbric peninsula, and the Isles of Heligoland, North Strand, and Eyderstedt. A century subsequently, another writer, Eutropius, alluding to them, states the Saxons continued to expand their influence from their maritime dependencies and incursions on northern Europe.

The successes of the pirate Saxons in their earliest depredations centered on the population of the Cimbric peninsula. They were dreadfully notorious. The fame of Saxon warriors, known far and wide, was characterized by their unsurpassed audacity and sea-faring expertise. It is no wonder their attacks were more feared than those of any other assailants.

From this description, the Saxons of Britain emerge in their fearless role, perpetuating their image as defenders of noble intentions and aspirations.

Folio 574

The Saxons in Kent

In Illustration of the Neighbourhood of Gravesend

After the decease of Constantine, the Saxons became more daring in their attacks upon the ill-defended Kentish shores. In the year 367, they sailed up the Thames to London, and pillaged it, murdering its inhabitants as slaves. Doubtless this onslaught at the town on the Ebbsfleet shared a similar fate. From this disaster it was never recovered. Its principal features as a town were the market, the temples of the sun and of Erectheum, the palace of the Roman governor, and, perhaps, the country residence of the Romano-British squire. The dwellings held the commonalty of the middle classes were principally huts of wood and clay, thatched with straw, or hovels built of earth or shale, well moistened with water and dried in the sun. The public baths, courts, and circuses of the Romanized towns were often rich and elegant. The marks of high decoration can still be traced in the embedded mosaic beneath the surface of the soil.

The following year Nectarides, the Comes Saxonici Litoris, was slain, and Fullo-Falio, the general of the Picts, also lost his life. Stout, sagacious officers took and kept the place of the chief Roman officers, maintaining their outposts, and establishing their forces as a garrison. Yet Britain was restored to peace under this commanding influence.

In 471, the Saxons obtained a rectification from the Romans from whom they did not recourse for some years. After being ejected by Severus, Master-General of the Armies, the leaders returned home to the south, surrendering as prisoners to the Romans, the peace treaty offering loyal warriors, receiving in return a flavor of their power, protection, and room to build their forces. Instead of freedom reigning, the Saxons perfidiously violated the treaty and attacked with large forces. Saxon foes, stationed at the time by the peasantry's strong hands, had large reinforcements, and were reserved to gratify the basic knowledge of examples to sustain national industries.

Folio 575

(a) The Rev. Mr. Beale Post, of Maidstone, observes: "Britain appears to have been very populous before the coming of the Romans." Caesar says that there was "an infinite multitude of people," and other data and data concur in confirming the same purpose. During the first part of the Roman sway, there are no reasons to suppose that there was any considerable decline in the numbers of the population, and the circumstances of the state in the latter period were more favorable than adverse to the general result.

When, however, the Romans retired, and the entire country was left to its own resources, it is impossible to suppose that the population did not greatly decline. The state of the country, as well as emigration to the opposite coast of Brittany, may have caused a diminution of numbers.

There is reason to believe that the Saxons could in no way have prevailed against the natives, if the latter had been powerful and united. Those invaders are believed to have given but little encouragement to increase. This remark is borne out by the universally admitted fact, that for 300 years of Saxon sway, a very small population subsisted.

—"The Hist. of Antiquity of Kent," By A. J. Dunkin, Esq., 1847.

Conclusion.

Folio 576

The active Stilicho, the talented guardian of the infant emperor Honorius, and the ablest general the falling empire possessed, visited Britain in the last year of the fourth century, and rescued her people from herds of savage soldiers, to whom it gave a severe chastisement. But, after his execution, A.D. 408, for similar causes to his predecessor Theodosius, her neglected coasts were left entirely to the tender mercies of their piratical opponents.

After the departure of Stilicho, the ties of Britain became more precarious. To clear the coasts and towns of Alaric, the Goths, upon Rome, took with him the legions of Britain, after reserving to them their full allowance of plunder. The Britons were left to their fate. Although a few Roman officers remained to direct the course of affairs in the provinces, the supreme military officers in their rule of the island. The everyday adequate for securing the Britons some of the usages they had been accustomed to before these desperate invaders. Their leader, by merely showing himself unequal to the task, was ultimately murdered, and for many years the country sunk into a state of utter helplessness.

During this period, one of the piratical bands of the Saxons, stimulated by rapine, having repelled the feeble resistance the inhabitants were able to offer, made good their landing at the town of the unsuspected, and in the surrounding slaughter of the ill-kept defenders, the true spirit of barbarity, fired to the utmost extent, prevailed. The small town of St. Ebba (Ebbaulam) was encircled in smoke and attacked; its besiegers, treacherous, overlooked all the services. But, upon obtaining fuel for the demand, it, and the city, was completed. It is from the frequent want of the memory of the champions engaged in the defence of this ill-starred town also engaged in the defence—charging precisely the fate of its proportion to oblivion.

The Saxons pursued their conquest with the greatest severity. Their panoply of neither sex consisted of gowns and tunics slightly decked with armlets, rings, like necklaces, and their various ornaments, the plundered remains upon those who wore them after their decease. Their modes of battle not only displayed their use of arrows and lances but their uniform method of plunder, devastation, and barbarity. They gained possession of the territories they held, and the country experienced its entire decline, more fully deprived of the rules and regulations of those who conducted affairs with mildness and dignity.

Folio 577

Carrying away captive the miserable tillers of the soil, they wantonly ravaged and destroyed the crops. Naturalized to the boisterous ocean, they only knew the shores in their plundering exploits. The booty obtained by piracy was their only mode of sustenance, and no repute was considered the pursuit, until it was followed by warlike, wide-spread Saxon populations. In truth, we find at a later period than naturally belongs to this chapter, the whole of one of their nations did expatriate themselves to Britain.

In later days, the Spanish Churchman, Orosius, remarks that the Saxons are dreadful for their courage and agility. — Lib. vii. c. 32.

Folio 578

In our previous articles we have freely availed ourselves of Mr. Hatcher's translation of Richard of Cirencester. Mr. appears, according to an article in the "Gentleman's Magazine" for the present month, written by that judicious antiquary, the Rev. Beale Post, of Bydder, near Maidstone, that a very severe attack has been made upon the authenticity of the "De Situ Britanniæ," in a German periodical, the "Rheinisches Museum; neue folge, vierten jahrgangs drittes stück," published at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. British antiquaries ought to rejoice that the refutation of an article, intended to reflect "portentousness" on the work, and to brand it as a forgery or a "wilful falsification," is to receive the talented individuals—Mr. Willichor, librarian of the British Museum, and Professor Charles Julius Bertrum, at Stukeley’s base con Ludersbach by Mr. Post. We regret that our going to press so soon after receiving the magazine, debarred us from making any extracts from it.

“Poor Richard has been very unlucky altogether—the author of the work of imagination has made it the foundation of his argument; but he has fallen into many blunders. We shall be glad to see Mr. Post’s refutation of the German critic.”—Gentleman’s Magazine, October 1842.

Folio 579

WHERE TO LOOK FOR OLD ENGLAND!

To the Editor of the Maidstone Journal.

Mr. Editor,
To some of your readers it may be interesting to know that the contested site of the “Duchies” was in all probability, “Old England,” the land of our (Saxon) forefathers. The following is extracted from Camden’s Britannia, folio edit. 1723, vol. I, page 84:

“In what place the Angles lived is a debated point. Bede has directed us to look for them between the Saxons and the Jutes. The Angles (says he) came out of that country which is called Angulus, and it is said, from that time, to lie waste between the provinces of the Frutes and Saxons.”

“Lying between Jutland and Holsatia (the ancient seat of the Saxons) and under the protection of the kingdom of Denmark, Angul is now a province in Flensburg, called the Danish Angle, which Lindebergus, in his Epistles, terms the first habitation of our forefathers. I have found, indeed, that the name of Angul is not affixed to any other place, the Angles conferring no island. Thus they must have come out from here.”

It was said of Angul: “Angul is situated between Jutland and Holsatia, the ancient homeland of the Saxons, and ever since hath remained in the Danish possession. It lyeth between Flensburg and the flood Sky, wherein the towne of Sleswicke is situated.”

And from this place, saith Herculeus Eantguinus, the Saxons went, that passed over the Sea unto the land of the Britains, so naming them by the general name of Saxons, though otherwise they were called English, and of some, English Saxons.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,
CHAS. LANE.
Wrotham Rectory, July 12, 1848.

Folio 580

IN MEMORIAM

ANN CHAPMAN DUNKIN

Relict of John Dunkin, Gentleman, Only daughter of William Chapman, Esquire, Author of many works on Canals, and Inland Navigation and Drainage.

Born at Spilsby, co. Lincoln, July 21st, 1788, Died at Dartford, co. Kent, Mar. 12th, 1865.

Copy of Brass erected in the Judge Chapel, Dartford. On the eastern side of the lich-gate of St. Edmund’s cemetery, Dartford, reposes the mortal part of

JOHN DUNKIN

Born at Bicester, co. Oxon, May 16th, 1782; Died at Dartford, co. Kent, Dec. 12th, 1846. A good citizen and most industrious antiquary.

His Memory lives in his works, as his Histories of Dartford, Bromley, Oxfordshire, Bicester, &c., sufficiently testify; but lest one who was so careful of the remembrance of others might seem to suffer undeserved neglect, his family have erected this memorial of their affection.

He was the son of John Dunkin, Gentleman, (who died suddenly Nov. 12th, 1823, in the 84th year of his age, and is interred at Bromley, co. Kent;) who was the second son of Thomas, great-grandson of John Dunkin of Merton, co. Oxon, Gentleman, whose loyalty and integrity obtained from King Charles II., Letters Patent, dated Oct. 14th, 1662, confirming the Title and Tenure of his estate in that parish, together with a Grant of the Manor of Merton, to Trustees for the benefit of Dame Katherine Harington, and her children, after the attainder and confiscation of the property of her husband, Sir James Harington, Bart., one of the Judges, in the memorable trial of King Charles I.

Folio 581

Stern Journal and Kentish Chronicle

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Folio 582

Rochester and Chatham Journal

The text from the uploaded image appears to include various reports, including a legal case, court decisions, and other local news. Due to the quality and orientation of the image, some parts of the text may be difficult to transcribe verbatim. Below is an example transcription:

"That there was one to 'tutor' in china and glass, but for greater plaintiff—was owing mainly to Mr. Slater... The defendant’s counsel proposed terms of settlement with the court."

"Mr. Macarthy Stephenson applied for costs in two cases under the following circumstances. The defendants had been duly served but did not..."

"To conclude, the decision made by the Honorable Judge shows..."

Folio 583

Folio 584. Newspaper clipping

Folio 585

Miss Dunkin
Highfield Rise
Dartford

Folio 586

§ Observations: The body of the White Horse, in which the Colossal form remains, rests on the side but it its name on that hill on which it is deeply cut. Fronting it towers a mighty mound of great elevation, called Dragon Hill, partaking in a great degree of the Barrow genus.
But that point virtually has been a natural mountain, in a degree level at its summit far from the protuberance or hollow hills, which thus rendered it circular.
On its summit is a space of sword, which tradition tells us, was occasioned by the poisonous nature of the blood of a dragon shed there. Nor does its reality remain unshaken by the fertility or ~~reason~~ proof shown, when the worship of the serpent could be crowned throughout this district, and tends hereafter to furnish us with the origin of the White Horse. This mound seems formed from the ancient barrows of ~~Carnac~~ in Brittany, Henry Kilt’s Britannia.

Folio 587

Notes:
"Ancient earth" by the Rev. Betham
"A key to unlock ancient Palestine"
The Barrow formations of the plains, and their alignment to the water courses & the filters, formed the deposits as yet to be further studied, proved by careful and determined investigation.

Folio 588

"For we can see the place as it is—ever to pore."
Although the fact attributed brought with them from the East a traditional acquaintance
with the worship of the One true God, the "corrected nature," and deeply entangled the body of man
"may easily fall/cause them to deviate from the struggle path of belief and follow their inventions."
"The serpentine way" which Caselli so beautifully portrays, sideways, even that of respectable form.

The first people were into the world marked the force of the Serpent—its mysterious nature
that grew. The ark carried forward through the waters, but even there the mark was traced by
crossing the mean river and constantly recalling humanity to the knowledge of God.

*Refer back to the above line.

Folio 589

Dear Sir,
You will very much oblige
by letting this out, and returning
it with purpose.
(Very truly yours),
Alfred Dunkin

Send it early in the week — in
order that no delay might take place
Dartford

If you do not use this article,
pray return it.

No 18341
of glass; one of them is covered with a very fine film of gold. A few are of clay or pottery, with insertions of other colours. The chains and necklaces are also very curious, some of them being very massive, in clusters, depending from breast ornaments or brooches, in shape similar to those concave fibula found in the Scandinavian tumuli.

The swords are principally of the large and ponderous straight-bladed kind, common to the Teutonic tribes. The hatchets, small and of various shapes, well calculated for use in the hand, or for casting, like the francisco of the Franks. The urns, though flat, appear to have been made on the potter's wheel. They were found on the right side of the skeleton, and are supposed to have held food, as the pagan Laplanders and Woljaks at the present day place food in the graves of their dead. When the corpse was found to have been subjected to cremation, the remains were not collected and placed in an urn, as in the Sclave and Germanic graves, but left strewn at the bottom of the cist with the implements and ornaments, and with these were sometimes found the bones of horses.

Dr. Bähr tells us that when the Javanese prince Raden Soleti saw this collection at Dresden, he was much interested with many of the ornaments, as they reminded him of many ancient Hindoo bronze objects in Java, preserved in the Buddhist temples. This, together with the fact that the modern Tunisian personal ornaments, lately exhibited in the Crystal Palace, strikingly resemble those found in the Scandinavian graves of the ninth and tenth centuries, shows the value and importance of bringing together the works of art of all ages and countries, and encourages the hope that the trustees of the National Museum are now made aware of the value of such collections.

Folio 594

[March 13]

...evil has yet been discovered. Several, however, are talked of: amongst them is one by which commercial paper is covered with a multitude of microscopic spots or stars, which cannot be removed without changing the colour of the paper; another is to put some coloured matter in the body of the paper, of such a kind as to disappear when washed. Perhaps some English chemist may be able to make a suggestion to the Academy of Sciences on the matter. It would, we are sure, if of value, be thankfully received; and if the author should wish for a medal from the Government, he might no doubt obtain it.

The Paris 'Charivari' contains an article of more than usual point and wit, headed, 'Un Souscripteur au Monument de Washington.' It refers to the announcement that the Papal Government had contributed a block of marble from the ruins of the Temple of Peace to the proposed monument of Washington. After various jokes about the incongruity of the whole affair, and the strange advances thus made by the central power of despotism to the land of civil and religious liberty, the writer adds, with severe satire: "Nous persecutons les patriotes vivants,—quand ils sont morts nous leur offrons les blocs de marbre antique." Un monument à Washington—le fouet et la prison à ceux qui seraient tentés de l’imiter! In such strain the cardinals are supposed to write, in the letter accompanying the marble to be inscribed, Rome à l'Amérique.

The trial of the persons connected with the publication of the Bulletin Français at Brussels, is exciting considerable interest in literary as well as in political circles. M. Beruyer and M. Odillon Barrot are said to be retained for the defence. By a decree of last week the Chamber of Impeachment has ordered the cause to be brought before the Court of Assize. Messrs. d’Hausonville and Alexandre Thomas, the brothers accused of the calumny...

Folio 595. Newspaper clipping

The Kentish

Greenwich, Woolwich, Dartford, Gravesend, Rochester, Chatham

Published at Gravesend and throughout the whole district

No. 184—Vol. IV. Gravesend, Saturday, July ...

Gravesend

Diamond Packets

Sailing Schedule:
... (Specific times and destinations listed here)

Miscellaneous Gardens

Open Every Day

... (Details about events, locations, and pricing)

Royal Tavern Public Events

... (Details of upcoming events and public notices)

Shops and Services:
- German Selters Water Supplies
- John Rose & Company (Teas)
... (Additional business listings)

Folio 596

Folio 597. Back Cover

Iron AgeAntiquarianismNorthfleetSpringhead

KAS