Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and Spolia

by Jacob Harry Scott, B.A., ACIfA Student number 159052709 Submitted for the degree of Master of Arts in Archaeology & Heritage School of Archaeology and Ancient History University of Leicester 9th June 2021 Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 1 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Abstract Can the earlier forms of Rochester Cathedral and the medieval Priory of St Andrew be virtually reconstructed from the evidence of sculptural and architectural fragments gathered into the Lapidarium (depository of stone) and from reused sculptural spolia? Excavations and Ground-Penetrating Radar surveys have proposed much of the floor-plan of the c.604 cathedral and the c.1080 east end of the Early Norman cathedral and cloisters. A fire in 1137 is thought to have occasioned a major redecoration campaign in Caen stone and another major fire in 1179 resulted in the expansion of the east end by the end of the century. Subsequent medieval additions and alterations and C18th-C19th restorations have demolished or remodelled smaller portions of the building. A photographic and Structure from Motion three-dimensional modelling survey produces a detailed record of ex situ and in situ fragments for the purpose of conservation, public interpretation, and in the production of a series of informed virtual reconstructions of extinct architectural features. Word count: 13,914 words Acknowledgements Dissertation supervised by Deirdre O’Sullivan, lecturer in medieval archaeology at the University of Leicester. Thanks are extended to the volunteers, staff and friends of Rochester Cathedral without whom this work would not have been possible, and to the members and associates of the Research Guild for advising on everything from painted decorative schemes to heralds and manuscripts. Foremost of all to Anneliese Arnold in her efforts to compile the Lapidarium collection in the 1980s and 1990s, and to Jerushah Jardine and Joseph Miller for geological assessments. Years of advice and guidance of Graham Keevill, Rochester Cathedral Archaeologist, and of Alan Ward have been crucial for this study. Essential software, equipment and facilitation have been provided by the Chapter of Rochester Cathedral and the Friends of Rochester Cathedral. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 2 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................... 1 List of figures ................................................................................................ 3 1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 7 1.1 Architectural history .......................................................................... 7 1.2 The Lapidarium ............................................................................... 16 1.3 Study context .................................................................................. 27 1.4 Methodology ................................................................................... 29 1.5 Reconstructions .............................................................................. 32 2 Benedictine refoundation c.1083 ........................................................ 42 3 Romanesque Caen features c.1125-1179 ........................................... 45 3.1 Cloisters .......................................................................................... 45 3.2 Nave aisles and clerestory .............................................................. 47 3.3 West façade .................................................................................... 49 3.4 East end .......................................................................................... 50 4 Gothic features c.1179-1350 ................................................................ 52 4.1 Shrines and reliquary ...................................................................... 52 4.2 Cyma-recta altar ............................................................................. 53 4.3 Bishop John de Sheppey chantry ................................................... 54 4.4 Piscina ............................................................................................ 57 5 Late medieval and Early Modern ......................................................... 59 6 Heritage ................................................................................................. 62 6.1 Spolia and retention ........................................................................ 62 6.2 Exhibitions ...................................................................................... 63 6.3 Conservation and further study ....................................................... 65 Appendix ..................................................................................................... 67 Bibliography ................................................................................................ 68 Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 3 Jacob H. Scott 2021 List of figures Illustrations and photographs are by the author unless stated otherwise. Hyperlinks are provided in the digital report (in bold) to 3D models published on the Sketchfab platform (sketchfab.com/rochestercathedral, see collections ‘Reconstructions’, ‘Lapidarium’ and ‘Spolia and reused stones’) and to interpretive content hosted on the Rochester Cathedral website (rochestercathedral.org). 1.1 Virtual reconstruction of Bishop Justus’ 604 cathedral at Rochester developed for the current Big History exhibition in the Cathedral crypt (annotated 3D model online at skfb.ly/6SZJE). 1.2 Virtual reconstruction of Bishop Gundulf’s cathedral and priory cloistral buildings c.1100 CE (see skfb.ly/6ZG8C). The location of the c.604 cathedral is highlighted in pink, the c.1200 east end is marked in green and the c.1490 Lady Chapel is marked in blue. 1.3 Ground-floor plan of west end of Rochester Cathedral, after a measured survey conducted by Carden and Godfrey (2009). Building phases colour-coded after St John Hope (1898 and 1900), with revised dates from more recent studies. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 4 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.4 Ground-floor plan of east end of Rochester Cathedral after a measured survey by Carden and Godfrey (2007). Building phases colour-coded after St John Hope (1898), with revised dates from more recent studies. See key in fig. 2.1. 1.5 Portion of circa 1820 sketches of spolia reused in the spandrels of the GreatWest Window and removed during its restoration in1825 (Arnold 1994). 1.6 Sketch of 1825 discovery of north quire transept tomb, effigy of Bishop John de Sheppey, and fragments recovered from the rubble blocking(Arnold 1994, folder d2 ‘Cottingham-era sketches and lithographs). 1.7 Anglo-Saxon period stones recovered from excavations but not identified in the Lapidarium collection; left: recorded by Livett (1889) and right: Harrison and Williams (1979). 1.8 Monochrome photograph c.1860 of stones gathered over the nineteenth-century into the crypt (Rochester Cathedral Library glass slide 6750 1(b). 1.9 Monochrome photograph c.1900 of stones gathered over the nineteenth-century into the crypt (Rochester Cathedral Library 6750 1(b). 1.10 Monochrome photograph c.1900 of fragments gathered into the room below the Chapt er Room (Rochester Cathedral Library 6750 1 b). 1.11 The Treasury Lapidarium established by Anneliese Arnold et al. c.1992, photographed in 2018 shortly before the fragments were transferred to the chamber over the South Quire Transept. 1.12 The north side of the Lapidarium established in 2017 over the south quire transept, comprising stones1-252 catalogued in 1992. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 5 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.13 (Overleaf) The south side of the Lapidarium comprising stones added to the collection post-1994. 1.14 3D model of east pinnacle of south nave transept compiled by aerial photography by Geoff Watkins, Aerial Imaging South East, showing patch repairs from 2008 and used to identify the provenance of stones since scattered around Kings Orchard(online at skfb.ly/o6QCJ). 1.15 Standard photography of a stone fragment taken in series from all angles. The stone is then reversed and photographed. 1.16 3D model screenshots of C8th beast and interlace fragment (no. A2533). 1.17 Fragment 2531; drawings(left) by Livett c. 1888, and (right) Swanton in 1979, monochrome photograph by Canon Wheatley c.1930 and close-up inset showing damage affecting the area and a 2021 3D model close-up. 1.18 Fragment A2532 (Above) 3D model screenshots(below, left) reconstructions of the interlace design(Harrison and Williams 1979) and 3D reconstruction produced from edited model data. 1.19 Scale screenshots of fragment no. A2531in the Scandinavian Ringerike style.The model is oriented on the tentative evidence of the inscription ending ‘…E AMEN’. 2.1 Front and above view of no. PL-3, a Tufa stone voissour featuring C12th painted plaster recovered from Crypt vaulting (Lithgow 2014). 3.1 Portion of drawings by J. W. Turner showing west range of the cloisters abutting the south quire aisle and nave transept (British Library). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 6 Jacob H. Scott 2021 3.2 The Old Deanery complex to the east of the Cathedral and cloisters, largely dating to 1770 and featuring spolia apparently originating in the contemporary demolition of the cloisters. 3D model compiled from aerial photographs provided by Geoff Watkins, Aerial Imaging South East. 4.1 A portion of the lid of the tomb tentatively ascribed to Bishop Gilbert de Glanville may be part of the reliquary of Ss Paulinus, Ithamar and (post-1201) William of Perth (model at skfb.ly/o6Pnx). 4.2 A two-thirds length altar slab fragment reused as a bench in the Cathedral Precinct, identified in 2016 (Keevill and Scott 2017).The remaining fragment was identified and recorded during this survey. 4.3 Virtual assembly of four fragments of a C13th piscina recovered from a Precinct property featuring four bishops 5.1 Heralds and plaques hanging in the room below the Chapter Room before the refurbishment of the space in 2014. 6.1 Big History crypt exhibition of some of the finest items from the Lapidarium collection. 6.2 Models of stone A2533 (above, left) pre-break, (above, right) post break, (below, left) high-resolution model of damaged area supplied to London City & Guild’s students, (below, right) fragments from the break. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 7 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1 Introduction This study of the Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium collection (stone repository) and spolia (reused sculptural fragments) within the cathedral and cloistral remains of the medieval Priory of St Andrew will inform a series of virtual reconstructions drawing together data from historical sources, excavations and surveys. The development of the architectural-historical model of the site is first assessed and the evidence of attitudes of Early Modern restorers is reviewed providing context to the history and provenance of the Lapidarium collection. The methodology developed for recording ex situ and in situ fragments for this study is detailed, particularly in regards to the use of resulting data as a conservation record and in the production of informed reconstructions. Reconstructions of extinct features are proposed in chronological order in the following chapters. The retention and reuse of spolia is discussed as an insight into developing attitudes of legacy and heritage at the medieval and Early Modern cathedral and the preservation this has accorded extinct architectural aesthetics and forms. A discussion of the archaeological and public interpretation value of this corpus and of the resulting reconstructions concludes the study. 1.1 Architectural history Despite a strong collection of pre-Conquest charters and the exceptional Textus Roffensis, little is known of the earliest cathedral at Rochester other than scant annal references in the Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Bede c.731). In 604 Æthelberht, King of Kent, granted land in and around the previously Roman town of Rochester to Justus (first Bishop of Rochester 604-624), on a mission from Rome to convert the Kentish peoples to Christianity. A small chapel was known in Canterbury from Roman times and it seems unlikely that the stories of Christ were unheard of in sub-Roman Kent. However, Bede records that Justus constructed a cathedral dedicated to St Andrew ‘from the foundations’ implying a new build, albeit probably from re-used Roman materials in the absence of a developed stoneworking Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 8 Jacob H. Scott 2021 economy at the time. The foundations of an apsidal east end of a rectangular structure believed to be this first cathedral at Rochester was discovered during underpinning of the West Façade in the late nineteenth century (Livett 1887). These foundations were further excavated in the 1990s (Ward and Anderson 1990). The apse indicates a lineage originating in the ideal of a Roman Basilica, with a bishop seated at the raised east end of the structure, overseeing proceedings in the nave. However, the modest 40-foot nave featured no discernable aisles. Bede records that after the death of the kings Ethelbert in 616 CE, their successors ‘restored idolatry’; Justus was forced to depart Britain, albeit returning under invitation the next year. Justus’ successor Bishop Paulinus (625-644) is credited with converting King Edwin of Northumbria to Christianity and the resulting Christianisation of the kingdom, later becoming the first Bishop of York, although dying shortly after and buried at Rochester. The first English-born bishop is recorded as Bishop Ithamar in the mid-seventh century. Paulinus and Ithamar would be revered at Rochester as founding saints and both were known to have shrines erected in the Norman and later medieval cathedral. One other reference to an early Bishop, Tobias (between 699 and 716 to 726) is being buried ‘in portico’, is presumed to mean in a fashion similar to annexes built off the nave and chancel at contemporary ecclesiastical sites such as Canterbury and St Marys, Reculver. However, no evidence of these was identified in the excavations primarily focused on the apse portion of the structure. These contemporary or chronicle references, together with evidence from the 1888 and 1990s excavations, have previously been used to inform a conjectural reconstruction of the Cathedral circa 750 (fig. 1.1). William St John Hope (1898) produced the first comprehensive architectural history of the cathedral, based partly on first-hand observations during the late nineteenth-century restorations under Sir George Gilbert Scott, of James T. Irvine clerk of the works, and the cathedral precentor Revd Grevile M. Livett (Halsey 2006, 62). St John Hope’s architectural history produced the first building phase plan of the cathedral, linking almost contemporary records of the patrons of work, typically the presiding bishops or priors, with Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 9 Jacob H. Scott 2021 the phases and styles observed in the architecture. It has been evident to most antiquarians, architectural historians and archaeologists, and perhaps to some extent the monastic community in the Middle Ages, that the standing fabric results from at least two major building campaigns. The moulding-rich Romanesque Caen stone west end dating to the mid-twelfth century and the early Gothic east end c.1200 featuring Caen and Reigate stone interchangeably and Early English dog-tooth and billet moulding designs. Although estimates of the dates of these portions have been revised by various authors, most assessments agree that they were separated by less than a century. The patron of the earliest form of the standing building is recorded as Bishop Gundulf (Textus Roffensis c.1123, f. 172). Gundulf’s episcopacy lasted from 1075 until his death in 1108. Livett suggested Gundulf’s Cathedral largely constructed in tufa stone had been cased and redecorated in Caen stone following a recorded fire on the 3rd of June 1137 1.1 1.1 Virtual reconstruction of Bishop Justus’ 604 cathedral at Rochester Virtual reconstruction of Bishop Justus’ 604 cathedral at Rochester developed for the current Big History exhibition in the Cathedral developed for the current Big History exhibition in the Cathedral crypt (crypt (annotated annotated 3D model online at 3D model online at skfb.ly/6SZJEskfb.ly/6SZJE).). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 10 Jacob H. Scott 2021 in which the entire building was said to have been burnt (Gervase of Canterbury c.1200). Probing in the crypt by St John Hope (1898) and excavations in 2014 confirmed the floor plan of the east end of Gundulf’s cathedral and together with results from a Ground-Penetrating Radar survey in 2018 (Keevill and SUMO Survey 2018) and further excavations in the cloisters around this time, a conjectural virtual model has been produced of the above-ground form circa 1100 CE (fig. 1.2). McAleer (1996, 158) concurred with Livett that the Caen stone nave campaign apparent today was a result of the fire of 1137, occurring c.1139-1142, although St John Hope revised this to 1114-1124 (1898, 218) (fig. 1.3 and 1.4). Studies of the architectural styles and decorations of the Caen stone west front generally agree that it immediately followed the redecoration of the nave arcades around the middle of the twelfth century (Worssam 2005), with some elements being insertions of only around ten years later. The surviving portions of the Chapter House and Dorter within the east range of the cloisters have been dated to the episcopacy of Bishop Ernulf (1114-1124), inferred from the accumulation of several plots of land to the east of the cathedral during this time (St John Hope 1900, 7). Subsequent estimates place the remnants of the east range to around 1160, although two phases are apparent, the earlier much fire-reddened (McNeill 2006, 186). This is around the time of the major cathedral Caen redecoration campaign after 1137 (Worssam 2005), however variances in sculptural decoration are interpreted as evidence that a different workshop produced the surviving east range of the cloister than the almost contemporary work on the nave arcades. The east end of the cathedral comprises the quire, presbytery, quire transept and crypt. Studies agree the tufa western portion of the crypt dates to the Gundulf’s foundation in the 1080s, with the minor transept and sanctuary crypt (now referred to as the Ithamar Chapel) dated to after the fire of 1179 recorded as damaging the east end of the Cathedral (Cotton MS. Vespasian Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 11 Jacob H. Scott 2021 A. 22, f. 30.). St John Hope (1898, 233) suggested the east end dates to between 1200 to 1215 as Bishop Gilbert de Glanville is recorded as finishing the quire from the proceeds of a new shrine to St William of Perth (d.1201), and a 1227 date for the monks' entry into the quire marking the completion of the east end work. Recent revisions to St John Hope’s architectural-historical model tend to agree with this division of building phases, although attempt to closer reconcile the dates for the Early Gothic fabric with contemporary references to the 1179 fire (Draper 2006, McAleer 1996). Unburnt Caen stone and Reigate ashlar are used interchangeably in these parts of the building, with the contrast between the yellow Caen and the grey-green Reigate used for decoration. Reuse of much fire-reddened Caen stone is apparent throughout the crypt and cloisters. The quire aisles, nave transept and the three easternmost bays of the nave are dated to the mid-thirteenth century (St John Hope 1898), with recent studies placing the conclusion of the separate campaigns around 1240 1.2 1.2 Virtual reconstruction of Bishop Gundulf’s cathedral and priory Virtual reconstruction of Bishop Gundulf’s cathedral and priory cloistral buildincloistral buildings c.1100 CE (seegs c.1100 CE (see skfb.ly/6ZG8Cskfb.ly/6ZG8C). The location of ). The location of the c.604 cathedral is highlighted in pink, the c.1200 east end is the c.604 cathedral is highlighted in pink, the c.1200 east end is marked in green and the c.1490 Lady Chapel is marked in blue.marked in green and the c.1490 Lady Chapel is marked in blue. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 12 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.3 1.3 GroundGround--floor planfloor plan of west end of Rochester Cathedral, after a measured of west end of Rochester Cathedral, after a measured survey conducted by Carden and Godfrey (200survey conducted by Carden and Godfrey (20099). Building phases ). Building phases colourcolour--coded after St John Hope (1898coded after St John Hope (1898 and 1900and 1900), with revised dates ), with revised dates from more recent from more recent studies.studies. Anglo Anglo--Saxon church of 604Saxon church of 604 Conjectural remains of Gundulf’s church Conjectural remains of Gundulf’s church Later Norman c.1137 Later Norman c.1137--11601160 New East end c.1179 New East end c.1179--12001200 Liturgical quire c.1200 Liturgical quire c.1200--12271227 Contemporary work in quire aisles etc Contemporary work in quire aisles etc North nave transept c.1240 North nave transept c.1240--12551255 South nave transept etc from South nave transept etc from 12801280 Alterations etc. from 1300 Alterations etc. from 1300 Fifteenth century works Fifteenth century works Post Post--Reformation and ModernReformation and Modern Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 13 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1. 1.44 GroundGround--floor plan of east end of Rochester Cathedral after a measured floor plan of east end of Rochester Cathedral after a measured survey by Carden and Godfrey (2007). Building phases coloursurvey by Carden and Godfrey (2007). Building phases colour--coded coded after St John Hope after St John Hope (1898), with revised dates from more recent studies. (1898), with revised dates from more recent studies. See key in fig. 2.1.See key in fig. 2.1. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 14 Jacob H. Scott 2021 (Alexander 2006). After the construction of the nave transept the tower had been built up only high enough to carry the weight of the roofs. Bishop Hamo de Hythe is credited with completion in 1343, placing within four new bells and adding a wooden spire (St John Hope 1898, 277). Hamo is also credited with a number of rearrangements of the building and some of its finest features including the Sanctuary sedilia and the Chapter Room Doorway in the South Quire Transept. A large annexe to the south nave transept Lady Chapel dates to the 1490s and it is possibly in this campaign that the Romanesque clerestory of the nave was rebuilt in the perpendicular style. This concluded the major medieval building campaigns, resulting in much of the standing fabric dated to four phases: a Gundulfan c.1080-1100 earlier Norman cathedral and cloistral buildings comprising mainly tufa stone, a later Norman redecoration campaign c.1137-1160, an Early English east end c.1179-1200, a nave transept and quire aisle campaign following this c.1200-1240, a major reordering and refurnishing under Gilbert de Glanville c.1340, and a late fifteenth-century annex to the south transept Lady Chapel presumably preceding a major redesign of the nave and west façade clerestory and around the same time that a large Perpindicular window was inserted in the east end of the presbytery. Tracking the fate of the cathedral and the ethos of architects, renovators and restorators over the Early Modern period is crucial to an understanding of the provenance of the Lapidarium collection and of the retention of authentic medieval designs within redecoration campaigns. The possessions of the priory were surrendered to the King and the monastery dissolved in 1540, with provisions made for a Dean and Chapter established on 20th June 1542. The maintenance and works records of the Dean & Chapter have been notarised in the voluminous index by Holbrooke (1989). Records begin shortly after a fire destroyed a ‘greate part of the chancel’ in 1591 (DRc/Emf/1). Details in invoices and notes are scant before the mid-eighteenth century although appear to comprise a largely comprehensive record of dated campaigns. A note of interest from a lease granted to Philip Heath dated 5th October 1596 includes the stipulation ‘reservation is made by Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 15 Jacob H. Scott 2021 the lessors of all stone, mortar and stuff in the wall of the Church. Forfeiture of lease incurred on digging stone out of wall or any part of foundation to the hurt or weakening thereof'. Although remarking that the Cathedral appeared well-kept on his visit in 1635, a Lieutenant of a Norwich military company (Lansdowne MS 213) noted that ‘....the monuments, diverse otherse also of antiquity, so dismembered, defac'd and abused…', implying damage had occurred to the memorials before the English Civil War. The collection of brasses were probably defaced during the sixteenth century when resale to metal markets on the continent was commonplace, to which this may be referring. Of the war itself, ‘Monuments of the dead, which elsewhere they brake up and violated, stood untouched; Escoucheons and Armes of the Nobilitie and Gentry (upbraiding eye-sores to broken, mean Citizens and vulgar Rebells) remained undefaced…’. However, a gang of seamen are recorded as battering down ‘the images and glass’. The Cathedral is noted as having fared poorly during eighteenth-century rebuilding campaigns and over the course of the century many areas fell into ruin or were replaced with anachronistic forms, such as the north tower of the west façade and the crossing tower. Three major restoration and redesign campaigns occurred over the nineteenth-century, works under Lewis Nockall Cottingham occuring from 1825 to 1830, Sir George Gilbert Scott from 1871 to 1877 and James L. Pearson from 1888 to 1894. Cottingham was responsible for much internal rearrangement of the Cathedral, some subsequently replaced by Sir Gilbert Scott’s characteristic heavy-handed restorations. Cottingham’s work in particular resulted in the genesis of much of the Lapidarium collection as it has existed for 200 years in several settings. Much of Gilbert Scott’s exposed work at roof-level was starting to decay by the end of the twentieth century and the piecemeal replacements of pinnacles of coping has resulted in many of the stones catalogued by this study but not added to the Lapidarium collection (see 1.3. Study context). Pearson’s restoration of the west façade was generally sympathetic, although notes from this time preserved in the Chapter archives and early photographs Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 16 Jacob H. Scott 2021 of the west façade show many Romanesque mouldings and sculptural forms were illegible before this time. Further details on these campaigns will be provided as required for understanding the provenance of much of the Lapidarium collection. 1.2 The Lapidarium Many Romanesque sculptural decorations within the Lapidarium collection today were removed from the spandrels either side of the large perpendicular Great West Window during restoration work in 1825. These were themselves spolia reused around the time of the insertion of the window c.1490 and are presumed to have originated in the Caen stone refacing of the west façade c.1150, if not reused from the original c.1080. Cottingham’s sketches record the locations of the stones as they were removed, apparently with the intention they be replaced in the future, although no such campaign occurred (fig. 1.5). There are notes that the collection of fragments taken from the west front was consulted during Pearson’s restoration campaign some 80 years later. Although their interpretation is at times ambiguous, several of the Romanesque fragments in the collection today can be traced back to Cottingham’s time through these sketches (for example, the grotesque face). Further stones are theorised to have resulted from this campaign, although their locations are only tentatively identifiable in Cottingham’s sketches (nos. 122, 129 and 130). The sketches also include stones and moulding forms no longer evident within the Lapidarium collection today. Also in 1825, ‘the brick wall that had (we know not when) been built up over the doorway, leading to St. William's Chapel, and that reached quite up to the roof, was taken down’ (Medway Archives DRc/Acz). A tomb of an unknown person was discovered with an exceptional painted effigy of Bishop John de Sheppey (d.1360), blocked up with rubble and a number of fine sculptural fragments. Cottingham had a remarkable series of sketches and lithograph copies produced of the tomb, effigy and fragments as discovered apparently intending to illustrate a report, although no resulting publication is known (fig. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 17 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.6). Identifiable within the series of sketches are 41, 42, 83, 105 and 108). This valuable record shows most items within the Lapidarium collection have suffered considerable damage and loss of material in the intervening two centuries. The heads of statue fragments 42 and 108 have been lost, and the uppermost portion of fragment 83. Not including broken pieces, eight fragments are no longer identifiable within the Lapidarium today. Stones within the collection evidently resulting from a similar context suggests the sketches may not have included all the items recovered during this discovery (for example, 29 and 86). 1. 1.55 Portion ofPortion of ccirca irca 1820 1820 sketchsketcheses of sof spoliapolia reused in the spandrels of the reused in the spandrels of the GreaGreatt West Window and removed during its restoration inWest Window and removed during its restoration in 1825 (Arnold 1825 (Arnold 19941994).). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 18 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Further items were added to this assemblage. Fragment A2533 was recovered during underpinning of the west façade (Livett 1889), although three smaller fragments of another item of sculpture recovered during these excavations seem to have been lost (fig. 1.7). Several foliate voussoirs in the Lapidarium today seemingly resulted from Pearson’s restoration of the west façade, although the majority were heavily weathered elements in need of replacement. William St John Hope noted in 1898 ‘In the vault beneath the chapter-room are deposited a large number of carved and moulded architectural fragments, some of considerable beauty and interest, that have been found from time to time at successive “restorations”. Until quite lately these were scattered about the crypt, but have now been reduced to some kind of order by the care of Mr George Payne, F.S.A. They have yet to be 1. 1.66 Sketch of 1825 Sketch of 1825 discovery of discovery of north quire transept north quire transept tombtomb, effigy of Bishop , effigy of Bishop John de Sheppey, John de Sheppey, and fragments and fragments recovered from the rubble blockingrecovered from the rubble blocking ((Arnold 1994Arnold 1994, folder d2 ‘Cottingham, folder d2 ‘Cottingham--era sketches and lithographsera sketches and lithographs).). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 19 Jacob H. Scott 2021 sorted and labelled, before all record of them is forgotten’. No catalogue is known to survive from this time, although nineteenth-century photographs of the north end of the crypt room beneath the Chapter Room show the stones incidentally (fig. 1.8) with one close-up (fig. 1.9). These photographs have been used to identify the date of accession to the Lapidarium collection and in particular discerning what stones result from Cottingham’s works on the west façade. An early twentieth-century photo from around the time of St John Hope’s remark presumably shows the order referred to (fig. 1.10). A handful of the fragments in the Lapidarium collection can be identified from these photographs, although most remain obscured or indiscernible. A letter from Payne to the Chapter dated 9 October 1905 (DRc/Ac/21) records the ‘..abstraction by a stranger from Crypt of fragment of carving in stone representing head of our Lord’. Payne subsequently recommended the finest ‘relics’ be deposited at Rochester Museum, to which Chapter eventually relinquished. This seemingly comprised a collection of C17th militia uniforms and weapons, and possibly fragment no. A2533. The Rochester Museum and its successor the Rochester Guildhall Museum eventually became the repository of the three pre-Conquest sculptural 1.7 1.7 AngloAnglo--Saxon period stSaxon period stones recovered from excavations but not identified ones recovered from excavations but not identified in the Lapidarium collection; left: recorded by Livett (1889) and right: in the Lapidarium collection; left: recorded by Livett (1889) and right: Harrison and Williams (1979).Harrison and Williams (1979). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 20 Jacob H. Scott 2021 fragment recovered from the Cathedral and Precinct (nos. A2531, A2532 and A2533, known by their Guildhall Museum accession number). The area below the Chapter Room became a vestry before World War I and the crypt was used as an air raid shelter through both wars. A note by Letharby dated 8th March 1921 (DRc/Emf/135) suggests to ‘bring a few choice fragments from the store and attach to the walls [of the South Quire Aisle’. No stones are recorded as ever being exhibited in the South Quire Aisle, so this effort may have resulted in the heralds of the Cayley and Somer tombs hung in the crypt vestry/slype area until the 2015 renovations to this area (see fig. 5.1). Further additions to the collection are evidenced and occasionally recorded, such as fragments from a fine late medieval tomb or shrine (nos. 31, 32 and 33) recovered from excavations in 1924 within the C13th tower to 1.8 1.8Monochrome photograph c.1860 of stones gathered over the Monochrome photograph c.1860 of stones gathered over the nineteenthnineteenth--century into the crypt (Rochester Cathedral Library glass century into the crypt (Rochester Cathedral Library glass slide 6750 1(b).slide 6750 1(b). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 21 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.9 1.9Monochrome photograph c.1900 of stones gathered over the Monochrome photograph c.1900 of stones gathered over the nineteenthnineteenth--century into the crypt (Rochestercentury into the crypt (Rochester Cathedral Library 6750 Cathedral Library 6750 1(b).1(b). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 22 Jacob H. Scott 2021 the north of the cathedral known colloquially as ‘Gundulf Tower’. Anneliese Arnold, wife of Dean John Arnold (1978-1989), noted that despite Payne's efforts the majority of fragments had since been scattered again, a few preserved elsewhere in the cathedral, but many ‘simply piled up on a ledge inside the ruined Chapter House, exposed to the weather. Some of the best have disappeared, doubtless taken as souvenirs or ornaments.’ Following discussions with Cathedral Architect Emil Godfrey in 1981 Arnold established the Lapidarium in a chamber over the east of the North Quire Transept. A portfolio in the Chapter Library records the logistics and concerns at the time (Arnold 1994). The Cathedral Campers repaired and redecorated the space in 1986 and repaired the walls and floor. Cathedral Surveyor Martin Caroe designed the shelving erected by the Royal School of Military Engineering and Claire Walker and Leslie Hudson are credited with 1.10 1.10Monochrome photograph c.1900 of fragments gathered into the room Monochrome photograph c.1900 of fragments gathered into the room below the Chaper Roombelow the Chaper Room (Rochester Cathedral Library(Rochester Cathedral Library,, 6750 6750 11b).b). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 23 Jacob H. Scott 2021 collecting 245 stones and moving them up to the space via a spiral staircase in the North Quire Transept (Arnold 1994). Arnold’s numerical catalogue of the stones begun in 1992 records 252 stones including a nine very large stones remaining around the Cathedral floor at that time, as well as smaller collections of tile, wood and assorted finds. This 1992 catalogue corresponds to tip-ex markings on the stones and it is this numbering system that has been extended by this survey. Additional fragments, excavation finds and historic bric-a-brac accumulated in the Treasury Lapidarium over the next 25 years to the point that navigability of the space was restricted (fig. 1.11). Arnold’s Lapidarium catalogue has been supplemented with many fragments recovered from various excavations, particularly those within the cloisters and crypt in 2014 (Keevill and Ward forthcoming). Stones are regularly unearthed by the gardeners, or else identified reused as garden features. Today, the collection comprises over 500 stones ranging in date from the eighth to the nineteenth centuries. The contents of the Lapidarium were moved to a space opposite over the South Quire Transept (figs. 1.12 and 1.13) after the refurbishment of this space in 2018, a process concluding at the time of this survey. The appropriate housing of the Lapidarium collection represents an enormous logistical achievement over many years. However, what has been gained in shelf space has been lost in accessibility. The new Lapidarium is accessed via an adventurous route up and across the roof spaces and down through two spiral staircases and a landing installed in 2018. Nevertheless, the new Lapidarium presents a permanent home for this significant collection and Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 24 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.11 1.11The Treasury Lapidarium established by Anneliese Arnold et al. The Treasury Lapidarium established by Anneliese Arnold et al. c.1992, c.1992, photographed in 2018 shortly before the fragments were transferred to photographed in 2018 shortly before the fragments were transferred to the chamber over the South Quire Transept.the chamber over the South Quire Transept. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 25 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.12 1.12The north side of the Lapidarium established in 2017 over the south The north side of the Lapidarium established in 2017 over the south quire transept, comprising stonequire transept, comprising stoness 11--252 catalogued in 1992.252 catalogued in 1992. 1.13 1.13(Ov(Overleaf) The south side of the Lapidarium comprising stoneerleaf) The south side of the Lapidarium comprising stoness added to added to the collection postthe collection post--1994.1994. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 26 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 27 Jacob H. Scott 2021 should prevent further disintegration or losses from the assemblage in future. 1.3 Study context Studies of the Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia collections have been relatively sparse and limited to specific items (for example, Swanton 1973, Covert 1988, Arnold 1986 and 1988, and Perry Lithgow Partnership 2014). Investigations have waned further since Arnold’s stewardship of the collection ceased. In 2010 a lending program to London City & Guilds stone conservation students was initiated with stones transferred to be worked on over the course of an academic year. This has led to the cleaning, consolidation and classification of a significant portion of the stones catalogued in 1992. Initial investigations have highlighted surviving fragmentary paint and surface features and expanded item descriptions. This survey is best appreciated as a component of the Virtual Cathedral Project, following the ethos of recording and improved virtual access to the fabric and collections. Two laser scan models were produced in 2013 during the planning phase of the most recent Heritage Lottery Funded program of works including those in the crypt and cloisters (Edwards 2014). High-resolution models of the fifteenth-century tomb of Lord and Lady Arundel, now covered by the construction of a large two-storey storage unit, and an eleventh-century door (‘Gundulf’s Door’ in the North Quire Transept), which due to its fragility it has not been possible to place on public display, were produced for the purpose of conservation and academic interpretation. These accurate and high-resolution laser scan models have set the benchmark for the modelling work during the Virtual Cathedral Project, mostly utilising the alternative virtual modelling technique Structure from Motion (SfM). SfM uses series of photographs to produce three-dimensional data. It is typically used in the absence of laser scanning equipment and as a quick and cost-effective means of recording in 3D, seeing use in crash investigation and crime scene recording. Recent years have seen SfM employed more widely in the archaeology field to record excavations. The Virtual Cathedral Project, Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 28 Jacob H. Scott 2021 directed by the author, aims to highlight the potential of SfM and 3D modelling techniques as practical and particularly engaging for large, typically ecclesiastical sites with many components and features. Although resource-intensive at least in terms of time, the record results in all features and elements available to view in high-resolution from any angle. These models also serve as a valuable record of irreplaceable medieval art at risk of further weathering or damage. This study is undertaken in tandem the wider Virtual Cathedral Project and its findings will be used to inform the recently developed Virtual Tour of the cathedral. Photography for the Virtual Cathedral Project has seen extensive use of aerial work platforms and other working from height equipment, and more recently the use of precision aerial photography by drone. The record at time of writing includes almost all figurative sculpture and major architectural features and comprises over 500 models. Recent recording has included aerial photography for the production of models of the cathedral’s numerous pinnacles. Some 200 stones on the site have resulted from replacing these pinnacles in several campaigns. George Gilbert Scott replaced most if not all of the presumably original pinnacles during a project to lower the cathedral roofs and restore the clerestory level in the 1870s. By the end of the twentieth century, most were in need of significant conservation. The two pinnacles over the South Nave Transept feature patchwork repairs from 2008 (Worssam 2008), not visible from ground level (fig. 1.14). The north-west pinnacle of the north nave transept tower and the south-side presbytery buttress pinnacle were replaced in 2018. This SfM and photographic record has afforded the means to discern the nineteenth-century stonework around the Cathedral Precinct and keep this distinct from original medieval designs which are now added to the Lapidarium collection. Close-up photography and the development of the SfM record of in situ architectural features has been essential to stylistic comparison and Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 29 Jacob H. Scott 2021 typological classification in identifying the provenance of items in the Lapidarium collection and in placing them into context for public interpretation. 1.4 Methodology Guidance and standard procedures for the recording of stone fragments have been issues by various bodies (Cathedrals Fabric Commission for England [CFCE] 2001, Council for British Archaeology 1987, Schofield and Samuel 2010), typically using scale photography and text descriptions. The methodology for this survey has been adapted from that developed during the Virtual Cathedral Project for recording architectural features. This methodology employs Structure from Motion photogrammetry software to construct three-dimensional virtual models from sequences of photographs 1.14 1.143D m3D model of odel of east pinnacle of south nave transepteast pinnacle of south nave transept compiled by aerial compiled by aerial photophotography by Geoff Watkins, Aerial Imaging South Eastgraphy by Geoff Watkins, Aerial Imaging South East, showi, showing ng patch repairs from 2008 and used topatch repairs from 2008 and used to identify the provenance of stones identify the provenance of stones ssince ince scattered around Kings Orchardscattered around Kings Orchard (online at (online at skfb.ly/o6QCJskfb.ly/o6QCJ).). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 30 Jacob H. Scott 2021 from different angles (therefore establishing the ‘Motion’). The 500 spolia fragments are recorded in the same manner, with 25-50 photographs of each fragment, producing a high-resolution photorealistic three-dimensional model of each stone and its immediate context. Scale photographs of each fragment in elevation and (where relevant) plan are also produced and include colour balance. Raw photographic files are retained in all instanced. The scale photo record is crucial for accurate measurements and checking against errors introduced during the SfM process. Recording of spolia has provided myriad access challenges with works scaffold opportunised and recording from an aerial work platform required for many features. Outstanding areas not yet covered by this survey include the school buildings of St Andrew’s House attached to the Old Deanery and the south nave aisle wall which poses challenges to accessing via the aerial work platform. Whilst in situ architectural features pose their own challenges of access, few require recording in multiple models. While scale photography can provide a record for establishing dimensions and reconstructing fragments of simple geometries, complex ex-situ architectural fragments require three-dimensional recording in 360 degrees. Virtual models of the ex-situ fragments of the Lapidarium collection produced by this survey require 50-100 photographs per stone in a recto position, typically recording five of six faces or elevations of the stone, and a further 25-50 photographs in a verso position recording the final elevation. These models are then trimmed and merged in post-processing to produce a complete rendering of the stone in 3D. The advantage of this record is a high-resolution facsimile of a file-size volume that is both accessible online, and can be reprocessed or accessed at a higher resolution by researchers. A primary challenge of this methodology has been data processing and management. This survey of around 1200 fragments has produced some 50,000 photographic files and includes model data totalling 300GB. In 2021 this still represents a considerable volume of data to store, sort and process. Each model requires between 15 and 30 minutes of recording and between 15 minutes and up to two hours of processing with SfM software, not Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 31 Jacob H. Scott 2021 including time for post-processing with 3D graphics software. A time investment of between 20 minutes for recording the simplest spolia fragments and over two hours for ex situ fragments is likely to be considered prohibitively time-intensive for most large sites. However, the detail afforded by such techniques is of a significant value to archaeological study and as a conservation and interpretation record. Such a methodology could well be employed more manageably in piecemeal recording wall-by-wall when 1.15 1.15StandStandard pard photograhotographphyy of a stone fragment taken in seriesof a stone fragment taken in series from all from all anglesangles. The stone is then reversed and photographed again.. The stone is then reversed and photographed again. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 32 Jacob H. Scott 2021 access and scaffold allows, or in recording items of especial significance. Ultimately, consumer-end laser scanning technology is likely to improve in quality and decrease in cost to become the preferred method for conservation recording. Although offering benefits over two-dimensional scale photography, virtual modelling (or the production of virtual facsimiles) also faces inherent limitations. Tactile and microscopic evidence of stone surfaces is not preserved. Only crude approximations of raking light study can be achieved. The intensive recording process outlined in this study introduces errors and artifice to the facsimiles, and ultimately the 3D models and scale photographs produced by this survey must always be seen as imitations for the purpose of cataloguing and as a conservation record. Measurements should be taken directly from the artefacts themselves, and access to the Lapidarium should not be restricted to researchers. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this study and the heritage aims detailed in the conclusion of this report, the methodology employed has provided the means to reconstruct extinct architectural features from a significant portion of the Lapidarium and spolia collections. Initial classification of the 1992 Lapidarium has been expanded and revised as required and evidenced from the detailed record produced. Typological classification and stylistic interpretation is significantly aided by an accessible record, as are public interpretation elements. An array of media for reproducing 3D virtual data can now be explored (see Exhibitions), but these must be employed with consideration in the use of artifice and facsimiles. A typology of moulding fragments has been produced during this survey and these alphanumeric codes are used as the fragment accession number. 1.5 Reconstructions In producing a conservation and interpretation resource, this study of the Lapidarium collection and of spolia has paid particular attention to producing evidenced, informed (or authentic) virtual reconstructions as far as is Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 33 Jacob H. Scott 2021 practical. There are inherent limitations to reconstructing from partial evidence. It is not possible to reconstruct figurative sculpture from the internal evidence of a surviving fragment. Unknowns always surround personal style and the choices of the artist as well as practical or material unknowns. External evidence can be proposed in the form of analogies or style, but these are based on interpretation and must remain secondary to internal formal evidence. To propose conjectural reconstructions or to visualise theorised reconstructions based on analogies runs the risk of confounding classification and typological study. This is not to say that conjectural reconstructions have no value, particularly in public interpretation. However, as an archaeological study, this work limits itself to evidence-based reconstructions. Where interpretation or artifice is employed in virtual reconstructions this has been highlighted using a translucent rendering. The three earliest stones within the Lapidarium collection are illustrative of the archaeological value of this corpus, and also the inherent limitations of reconstructing sculptural and architectural features from fragmentary evidence. Fragment A2533 was discovered around the area of a grave to the north-east of the apse of the Anglo-Saxon Cathedral. It features two fragmentary panels of an architectural frieze or grave marker, one bearing the hindquarters of a tailed beast and the right-hand panel an interlace design. The fragment is notable within the Lapidarium collection for having a long recording history, allowing the tracing of wear and a study of how this can significantly affect interpretation. A lithographed drawing featured in the 1887 report shortly after discovery and a photograph taken in the early twentieth century provides a record of the fragment in the years and decades immediately after its discovery. The fragment was later described and drawn by Swanton (1973) (fig. 1.17). Integral to the interpretation is a portion of the beast relief similar in width to the tail and possibly coiling back over the beast, as is arguably implied in Livett’s image. The coil as evidenced from records after Livetts could be interpreted as a portion of a snake or of a tail coiling back around the body of the beast or belonging to separate flora or Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 34 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.16 1.163D model 3D model screenshotsscreenshots of C8th beast and interlace fragment (no. of C8th beast and interlace fragment (no. A2533A2533).). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 35 Jacob H. Scott 2021 fauna entirely. If the coil is a snake, the interpretation of a beast and serpent relief is more assured. If a tail, while not ruling out a beast and serpent depiction, but it leaves the interpretation open to a range of zoological proto-Christian imagery. In Anglo-Saxon sculpture, a lion actively engaged in combat with a serpent is interpreted differently from one triumphant over a serpent, the latter typically representing a later motif. The early Christianisation of ancient and Antique motifs and traditions of beasts in combat are understood to predate depictions of Christ triumphant over the serpent/Satan or, still later depictions of Christ in Majesty rooted in the Babylonian imagery of the gospels. The early twentieth-century photograph shows that at some point before this time this portion of the relief had been lost. Swanton is careful to illustrate the fragment as it appeared then, although noting that damage seemed to have occurred from Livett’s time. Similarly Livett’s drawing does little to indicate the topography of that portion of interlace as being unlikely to match that of the remaining design. Swanton’s report is again more conservative, but rather than illustrating what was visible by that time, this drawing omits that portion of the interlace entirely. Rather than placing too much criticism on either artist, these two records illustrate the limitations of two-dimensional recording of three-dimensional sculpture and architecture. Drawings rely on the interpretation of the object by the artist, and subsequent interpretations based on this record are likely to copy or magnify this. Two-dimensional photography, while based less on the interpretation of the artist, still compresses three-dimensional evidence into a two-dimensional record, losing data and complicating interpretation. Accurate three-dimensional recording of sculptural fragments promises to largely eradicate the issues of dimensionality and provide an accurate three-dimensional record of fragments for the purposes of interpretation and conservation, but it cannot reverse entropy and reconstruct what has been lost. An archaeological study cannot propose one singular evidenced reconstruction of figurative sculpture based only on internal fragmentary evidence. Analogies can be drawn and external or informed conjectural reconstructions can be proposed, but this must remain secondary to the formal evidence of the fragment itself. In the case of the beast and Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 36 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.17 Fragment 2531; drawings (left) by Livett c. 1888, and (right) Swanton in 1979, monochrome photograph by Canon Wheatley c.1930 and close-up inset showing damage affecting the area and a 2021 3D model close-up. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 37 Jacob H. Scott 2021 interlace fragment, as with much of the figurative sculpture in the Lapidarium collection, the minutest of portions and breaks can significantly influence the interpretation of these artefacts, as can inaccuracies or unevienced reconstructions. Formally evidenced reconstructions can be proposed for regular architectural or geometric designs. Fragment A2532 was recovered from excavations at Prior’s Gate House, not far from the site of the c.604 cathedral and within the cathedral Precinct (Arthur and Williams 1976). Apparently featuring one-quarter of a vertically mirrored interlace design within a border of one band along one surviving edge and four bands on the other, with the hint of another panel remaining beyond the four bands. No evidence shows conclusively the location or orientation of the fragment within the feature. The reddening of the limestone on the forward face resulting from intense fire damage indicates the fragment may have originated from inside the cathedral, although much evidence exists at contemporary ecclesiastical sites of memorials and crosses originating outside of the structure being reused within. The geometric nature of the design allowed Swanton to propose a reconstruction drawing, now reproduced in three dimensions from the data produced by this survey (fig. 1.18). Similar to sculptural reconstructions, the virtual reconstructions of architectural features produced by this study are rendered distinctly from the fragment record. As with many voussoir fragments from later centuries, as it cannot be known what orient ation the f ragment was in situ, any orientation of the virtual model is liable to be misleading. By placing the fragment along the vertical suggests the fragment occurred from the stem or shaft of the cross, whilst a horizontal orientation suggests either (hypothetical) arm. As the Sketchfab platform requires a fixed orientation for virtual models this unknown is stressed instead within the model description. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 38 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1 1..1188 Fragment A2532 Fragment A2532 (Abo(Above) 3D model screensve) 3D model screenshotshots (below(below, left, left) ) reconstructions of the reconstructions of the interlace designinterlace design (Harrison a(Harrison and Williams 1979) nd Williams 1979) and 3D reconstructionand 3D reconstruction produced produced fromfrom edited edited model data.model data. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 39 Jacob H. Scott 2021 1.19 1.19Scale screenshots of fScale screenshots of fragragment no. A2531ment no. A2531 in the Scandinin the Scandinavian Ringerike avian Ringerike stylstyle.e. TheThe modelmodel is oriented on the tentativis oriented on the tentative evidencee evidence oof the inscriptionf the inscription ending ending ‘‘……E AMENE AMEN’.’. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 40 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Rochester’s sculptural fragments by their nature are of no lesser value than complete or representative architectural stones as each provide an insight into cultural diffusion and a powerful impression of aesthetics at the site. However, the only remaining pre-Conquest sculptural fragment recovered to date illustrates the requirements of restraint and a firm appreciation of the limitations of fragmentary evidence in archaeological virtual reconstructions. Identified by Mary Covert in 1979 reused in the wall of the staircase within the south tower of the West Façade (Covert 1988), the sheltering afforded the fragment has preserved its original painted polychrome. On removal of the fragment the end of a Latin inscription ‘…E AMEN’ with a crucifix character was found around its edge, and possibly part of a cross design features on the ‘reverse’, together suggesting a standing semi-circular headstone. The staircase, with its lower portions in Tufa Stone, dates to between c.1080 and c.1150. Covert provides a vivid description of the identification and removal from the wall, the hole for which remains unfilled. The fragment was dated stylistically by Swanton to c.1015 CE by the curling elaboration characteristic of the Scandinavian Ringerike style. A small fragment of a large headstone, the design closely resembles an early eleventh-century gravestone discovered in the churchyard of London’s St Pauls Cathedral. The St Pauls gravestone depicts a grotesque horned beast, possibly a stag, enraptured in tendrils to the point of indiscernibility. Stags are a common motif in Ringerike art. By the eleventh century, the Scandinavian world was Christianised and, similarly to the Celtic world, Norse mythology was appropriated and reinterpreted within a Christian ideology. Horned beasts have been associated from at least Antiquity with vanity in stories revolving around being trapped in foliage and becoming game for hunters. This first cathedral is recorded as standing for nearly 500 years before the remains of saints Paulinus and Ithamar were translated into the newly constructed Norman cathedral and the building was demolished. The fabric of the Cathedral, and apparently a portion of the churchyard monuments, would have been reused in the construction of the west façade which partially overlies it. As all over the country, the demolition and replacement with the Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 41 Jacob H. Scott 2021 much larger Norman Cathedral was a statement of political power but also a brutal sweeping away of what had come before, apparently including the gravestones of the relatively recently departed. The fragment was reused in a portion of the interior wall of the tower stairs so that it was covered when the door was open. Accessible only to the monks and hidden away in the dark for almost 1000 years, this fragment became the only above-ground visual record of the Cathedral site before its refoundation as the Cathedral of a Benedictine Priory. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 42 Jacob H. Scott 2021 2 Benedictine refoundation c.1083 The form and layout of Bishop Gundulf’s refounded Cathedral and Benedictine Priory at the end of the twelfth century is a matter of recent and ongoing research. Gundulf’s cathedral established the basic floor plan of the western portion of the cathedral as it survives today. However, the extensive redecoration after the 1137 fire and the rebuilding and extension of the east end after another fire in 1179 have obliterated or obscured many features of Gundulf’s original structure. The eastern portion of the crypt, now the Crypt Exhibition Area, and the plain arcade of the south side of the nave is believed to survive from this time, providing a glimpse into a plastered Tufa Stone structure with rounded Romanesque arches, tympana and vaulting. Just three items within the Lapidarium collection have been ascribed a provenance in Gundulf’s cathedral. Fragments PL-1, PL-2 and PL-3 (fig. 2.1) are plastered tufa stone, two with vividly painted decoration surviving. As discussed, the fragments were recovered by the Perry Lithgow Partnership reused in the vaulting of the Ithamar Chapel (the easternmost portion of the crypt). A general understanding of the form of Gundulf’s crypt from the surviving easternmost bays, the evidence from probing and excavations and spolia establish both a floor plan of the space and indicate the forms of the architectural superstructure. The provenance of PL-1 and PL-2 within the Cathedral is unidentifiable from internal evidence, although the unburnt nature of all three suggests they originate from crypt-level rather than the ground floor or the first floor of the east end which would surely reveal smoke darkening. PL-3 is a voussoir featuring the head and shoulders of a bishop with a halo. At this early date, it likely represents either Bishop Paulinus or Ithamar. The plaster has preserved the arc segment remarkably well, indicating an arch circumference of over one metre. The surviving windows in the north and south walls of the easternmost crypt bays are smaller. This is similar in size to the archways forming the north and south arcades of the crypt but the voussoirs do not match PL-3, being larger in profile. Assuming the eastern bays of the crypt matched the surviving portions of the north and Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 43 Jacob H. Scott 2021 south walls, only one arch is identified within the established architectural-historical model as a possible candidate for provenance - that into a small eastern annexe off the centre bay theorised to have functioned as a reliquary for Paulinus and Ithamar after their translation from the c.604 cathedral around the turn of the twelfth century (St John Hope 1898). Excavations in the area by St John Hope and during 2014 recovered bones and timber 2.1 2.1Front and above view ofFront and above view of no. no. PLPL--33, a , a Tufa stone Tufa stone vovoiissourssour fefeaturing aturing C12th painted plaster C12th painted plaster recovered from Crypt vaulting recovered from Crypt vaulting ((Lithgow 2014Lithgow 2014).). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 44 Jacob H. Scott 2021 proposed by St John Hope as being buried after the Dissolution. The finds recovered in 2014 await radiocarbon or radioisotope dating. Tentatively ascribing a provenance for PL-3 in the eastern annexe of Gundulf’s crypt allows us to draw in two of the few other artefacts dated to Gundulf’s time. Dendrochronological dating of a portion of a door in the North Quire Transept established a date in the early C12th (Edwards 2014). Miles and Tatton-Brown (2002) propose that such a fine door, featuring ironwork in the form of St Andrew’s saltire cross, would most likely have a prominent position within the building. Its survival indicates this was unlikely to have been at ground level, affected by the fire, and perhaps also originates by the entrance to the eastern annexe from the crypt. That so few items within the Lapidarium collection are ascribed to this period may be a result of the limited understanding of stone materials employed in the late-twelfth century at the site, and it has been noted by various authors (for example, West 1996) that fine Caen grotesques from the west façade may have seen reuse in the mid-twelfth century. Nevertheless, it seems logical that Gundulf’s cathedral, thought to consist largely of Tufa stone and with comparatively few sculptural details, would be less represented in a corpus retained for the finesse of its sculpture. Topographic circumstances have undoubtedly played a role as well, with plaster less resistant to handling and damage during the two successive medieval fires than finished stone surfaces. Nevertheless, c.15cm diameter tufa drums were recovered from the 2014 cloisters excavations and further investigations in advance of scheduled drainage works may facilitate their understanding. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 45 Jacob H. Scott 2021 3 Romanesque Caen features c.1125-1179 Differences in sculptural detail of the west façade of the Chapter House and dormitory range have been studied to propose a different team at work to those on the almost contemporary redecoration of the cathedral in the mid-C12th (McNeill 2006). Discerning these two corpora is crucial to contextualising many spolia and stones within the Lapidarium collection, which for much of the twentieth century were scattered around the ruins of the Chapter House and cloisters. 3.1 Cloisters The redevelopment and expansion of the cloistral complex is thought to have been occasioned by the 1137 fire, although St John Hope proposed c.1125 based on the accumulation of plots of land for the purpose at this time. Whether damaged by the 1137 or 1179 fire, much fire reddened fabric has been retained within the Chapter House, which has seen redevelopment with unburnt Caen probably in the mid-twelfth century and work in the later medieval period. Upon the dissolution of the monastery, the cloistral complex was for a period appropriated as a royal residence before largely falling into disuse. The west range of the cloisters served until the early nineteenth century and was recorded in a c.1798 drawing by J. W. Turner (fig. 3.1). The cloister walkway evidenced by the east range façade and corbels in the (reconstructed) south quire transept disappeared before the time of Turner’s drawing. Much burnt Caen stone sculptural fragments are reused within the Old Deanery dating to 1770 and its ancillary structures, abutting and overlying the west range dormitory, now surviving only as the west wall of the building (fig. 3.2). Spolia recorded within the exterior facades of the Old Deanery complex comprise numerous Caen and marble octagonal shaft drums (type BO) and rounded shaft drums (type L). Many chevron voussoirs are present similar to the distinct style of those used in the central doorway of the Chapter House west façade (type AI), and billet moulding voussoirs. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 46 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Almost all stones feature fire reddening as opposed to the surrounding fabric. One Caen stone capital survives in the north range refectory ruins (BM1), unfortunately, weathered almost beyond recognition. Four roll-moulded voussoirs are reused in the archway into what is now a toilet block within the ruins of the east dormitory range, few enough to suppose they may be reused from the reverse of the wall comprising the same. One Romanesque embattled moulding featuring fire reddening is reused in the wall above the south door from the south quire aisle. A Perpendicular window tracery stone is reused in profile in the north range (BI1) Although several other unique architectural forms are present in the walls of the Old Deanery their investigation is often impeded by thick mortar joints and flint galleting. If the numerous spolia can be seen as representative of forms from the cloisters 3.1 3.1Portion of Portion of drawings by J. W. Turner showing west range of the cloisters drawings by J. W. Turner showing west range of the cloisters abutting the south quire aisle and nave transept abutting the south quire aisle and nave transept ((British LibraryBritish Library).). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 47 Jacob H. Scott 2021 and the form resembled that surviving in the west façade of the east range today, they indicate a billet-moulded cloister walkway façade with alternating round and octagonal shafts and chevron doorways. At this point a conjectural reconstruction of a bay of this walkway can be proposed, but an evidenced reconstruction is dependent on allegorical comparisons to other sites. 3.2 Nave aisles and clerestory The walls of the nave aisles apparently stand on the same lines as the late-C11th foundation, although the extant windows are Gothic replacements (McAleer 1985, Halsey 2006). The south nave aisle wall exterior features a date stone of 1664 recording its partial rebuilding and recasing, at which point the Antiquarian John Thorpe suggested most of its ‘ancient features’ 3.2 3.2The Old DeaneryThe Old Deanery complex to the east of the Cathedral and cloisters, complex to the east of the Cathedral and cloisters, largely dating to 1770 and featurin spolia apparently originating in the largely dating to 1770 and featurin spolia apparently originating in the contemporary demolition of the cloisters. 3D model compiled from aerial contemporary demolition of the cloisters. 3D model compiled from aerial photographs provided by Geoff Watkins, Aerial Imaging Soutphotographs provided by Geoff Watkins, Aerial Imaging South East.h East. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 48 Jacob H. Scott 2021 were obliterated (St John Hope 1900). An agreement dated 21st April 1670 between Robert Cable and the Dean and Chapter (DRc/Arb/3) requires the taking down and rebuilding of a forty-foot portion of the North Nave Aisle wall ‘from ye ground and finishing at ye Battlements of ye whole wall from left to right and for finishing ye old wall within and without with the windows and all things belonging’. Irvine’s notes of an excavation on the south side of the nave in 1876 (DRc/Emf/135) notes that here ‘the rebuilding appears to have been with the old materials and if so seems to prove that Gundulph's work had been mostly rebuilt when the late Norman work of the nave was executed, as the many Norman fragments used as walling stone in it seems to prove. Indeed there seems to be little doubt that this wall contains so much of its old ornamental dressings used as wall stones that if it was ever taken down from any cause, probably an entire recovery of the old design might be made.’ Romanesque pilaster buttresses and a section of string course survive on the interior elevations to the east. Perhaps due to their size and rough nature, the exterior facades of both north and south walls feature the most spolia of any area of the site. Flint galleting again impedes some investigation, although to a lesser extent on the north than the south wall and that of the cloisters, both more exposed to the elements. Spolia reused in the north wall comprise numerous narrow Caen stone recessed shafts (type E), scalloped capitals (type AQ) and narrow plain bases (type AB), indicating a plainer design for the windows than those surviving in the west façade. Numerous billet moulding fragments are also present and a large portion of chevron moulded string course (AN1). The windows would presumably fill the spaces between the lower and upper string courses. However, as the Caen stone windows are thought to be a recasing of late-11th century work, their dimensions may not have been typical. As the wall has been noted for being full of fragmentary rubble, a representative sample may not be apparent. That the seventeenth-century buildings took pains to replace spolia visibly within the wall is of interest in tracking the ethos of spolia retention over the Early Modern period. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 49 Jacob H. Scott 2021 The nave clerestory, rebuilt c.1490 from its presumably surviving Romanesque form, similarly features an abundance of spolia, although apparently of a distinct assemblage from the north and south nave aisle walls and the west façade. The clerestory spolia assemblage comprises mostly free-standing shaft drums, with several examples of heavily weathered chevron voussoirs. As will be discussed below the spolia forms, although enough to provide an impression of the decoration in use, is unable to suggest the superstructure of the Romanesque nave clerestory. 3.3 West façade Cottingham’s restoration of the window and removal of sculpture from the spandrels has resulted in much of the finest Romanesque sculpture in the Lapidarium collection today. A series of correspondence between Rev. Grevile M. Livett to Pearson (Medway Archives DRc/Emf/137) indicates the collection was consulted in the restoration of the towers, pinnacles and the lower portions of the west façade in the 1880s and 1890s, although the decision making process appears somewhat protracted, occasionally arbitrary and many anachronistic designs were employed regardless. As such the nineteenth-century components cannot be considered direct evidence of the heavily weathered elements they replaced. In addition to the bulk of material within the Lapidarium collection, many spolia are recorded from the triforium passageway running across the west of the north nave aisle. In particular a number of Caen recessed shafts (type L) and bases are present, although under a heavy layer of pollution and calcite. During the restoration work itself evidence was found of the lowest arcade replaced by the Perpendicular window. In a letter from the Dean to Irvine dated 24th June 1894 (DRc/Emf/77/106), it is recorded that ‘in the course of removing and replacing the face of the front around and above the doorway other similar shafts entire (4'6") were discovered, one was in situ in the jamb of the great window (upon the 2nd string) (sketch). It was split by the iron dowel. Its position indicated a double plinth like those of the arcade inside the Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 50 Jacob H. Scott 2021 W. end. There is abundance of fragments from the destroyed portion of the original front— (now occupied by great window) sufficient to restore on paper the whole within small limits of error.’ Despite the dean’s enthusiasm, such a reconstruction is limited to paper if not informed from the point of structural engineering and comparative analysis of contemporary architecture. Complications in understanding the previous form of the west façade are further posed by other sculptural elements moved around during various restorations. Although there has been some confusion with the identity and provenance of a statue that was moved from another location on the west front in the seventeenth century (Arnold 1986), given its once prominent position it likely depicts either early Bishops and Ss. Paulinus or Ithamar. There is a notable Roman dress and so Paulinus (a missionary from Rome) is the forerunner. The statue originally resided in the northern niche beside the Great West Door portal, now filled with late nineteenth-century statues to Bishops Gundulf and John. 3.4 East end The central portions of the cathedral crypt and the spiral-stair tower leading off the North Quire Transept feature similar reused Caen stone fragments with fire reddening, although again an apparently distinct assemblage with distinct forms to those identified within the west end of the cathedral. It seems most probably that these originated in the previous east end of the cathedral damaged in a fire of 1179 and replaced by the present east end comprising quire transept and presbytery. Spolia are most apparent within the crypt and the interior of the north quire transept north-west tower stairs. The spolia of the crypt includes many unidentifiable forms in profile, and one example of an (in situ?) pier capital identical to those surviving in the eastern portion of the crypt dating to the late-eleventh century (no. L1), previously evidencing the uniformity of the piers throughout the crypt at this time. The north quire transept spiral staircase features a large number of reused pier drums of both Reigate stone and Caen, each little more than 10cm in Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 51 Jacob H. Scott 2021 diameter. The provenance of these stones has not been discerned at time of writing. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 52 Jacob H. Scott 2021 4 Gothic features c.1179-1350 The rebuilding of the east end of the Cathedral on a grander plan with the addition of a minor transept after the second major fire damaged the east end of the Cathedral in 1179 comprised the second major building phase of the standing fabric. Few architectural features from this phase are known to have been demolished, other than during nineteenth-century restoration campaigns, and this is reflected within a general dearth of gothic architectural fragments within the Lapidarium collection and spolia corpus in comparison to Romanesque. A major reordering of the building and refurnishing campaign is known to have occurred during the episcopacy of Bishop Hamo de Hythe (1317-1352). Several assemblages within the Lapidarium collection result from smaller liturgical or funerary features such as altars, tombs and shrines. Reconstructions can be proposed of vivid features and spaces, but locating the provenance of these extinct features is less straightforward than with elements from the superstructure. 4.1 Shrines and reliquary The shrines of Ss. William of Perth, Paulinus and Ithamar disappeared after the Reformation. On investigations before the renovation of Gundulf Tower in 1922, a letter from Eeles to Lethaby (DRc/Emf/144) records ‘among other objects [including a small fragment of a bell found in Gundulph's Tower are the letters Pa -, for Paulinus?] found when excavating in the Tower were some Purbeck marble fragments of a tomb or shrine’. These fragments are recorded in the 1992 Lapidarium inventory alongside several stones of superficially similar material. Twelve intact tombs and at least three stone coffin lids are situated in the bays of the north and south walls of the presbytery (Scott 2017). Bishops John de Bradfield and Hamo de Hythe’s tombs in the quire aisles were probably placed after all the spaces in the east end were filled. Although named bishops are proposed for each of the medieval tombs around the Presbytery (St John Hope 1898), it is apparent that many effigies atop tombs Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 53 Jacob H. Scott 2021 have been moved. It was common to import stone effigies from workshops on the continent, so they bear no resemblance to their owners and were often produced before their death, complicating dating from their architectural styles. Instead, presiding bishops have been proposed based on the estimated completion of the east end and a seriation established based on the prominence of position in proximity to the medieval High Altar (one bay west from its current position) (St John Hope 1898). Ownership aside, it has been noted that a portion of the tomb lid in the third from the furthest-east bay on the north side typically ascribed to Bishop Gilbert de Glanville is particularly out of place, bearing different mouldings and forms from the base and at least two bishops, and was perhaps once part of the late-twelfth century reliquary of Ss. Paulinus and Ithamar (fig. 4.1). As with many liturgical and funerary features of the buildings separate from the superstructure, with no scars in the fabric there is no evidence with which to identify the provenance or location of the feature within the building. 4.2 Cyma-recta altar In 2016 then Cathedral Gardener Scott Norwood Witts sat for lunch on a stone bench in the corner of King’s Orchard, noticing three incised consecration crosses on the top of the large stone ‘seat’ of the bench and subsequently identifying this was in fact a two-thirds of a full-length fragment of an altar slab. This fragment measures 561mm in width, 1140mm in length and 84mm thick and features three remaining consecration crosses all measuring 52mm in diameter and a cyma-recta moulding along what is presumed to be its front edge. It is composed of an architectural marble and small inclusions ranging from 1 to 10mm in length were apparent at the time. There are two 15mm diameter 25mm deep holes on the underside of the remaining corners for fixing the slab to its supporting frame, likely of wood. The estimated date of origin for this altar is the 13th century, based on the style of the consecration crosses Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 54 Jacob H. Scott 2021 and material (Keevill and Scott 2017). The remaining third of the slab was identified during this survey propped against a modern fence in the garden of the recently refurbished Deanery. This fragment has been afforded more protection from the weather than the two-thirds fragment reused as a bench, with crisp details and an abundance of fossils of diverse forms. Both fragments are scheduled for conservation by London City & Guilds students and reuse within the cathedral. 4.3 Bishop John de Sheppey chantry The fragments discovered in the blocking of the tomb under Cottingham’s restoration works were interpreted at the time as likely to have originated in the chantry chapel recorded as being established by Sheppey after his death. A note dated 15 January 1825 (DRc/Emf/135) states ‘it seems more than probable that Bishop Sheppheie was buried and his effigy fixed up in some other part of the Cathedral as the monument and chamber of the tomb where the effigy now lies are not of the character and style of sculpture according 4.1 4.1A portion of the lid of the tomb A portion of the lid of the tomb ttentatively aentatively ascribed to Bishop Gilberscribed to Bishop Gilbert de t de Glanville Glanville may be part of themay be part of the reliquary of Ss Paulinreliquary of Ss Paulinusus, Ithamar and (post, Ithamar and (post--12011201) William of Perth) William of Perth (model at (model at skfb.ly/o6Pnxskfb.ly/o6Pnx).). Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 55 Jacob H. Scott 2021 with those of the age in which he died. When the effigy was discovered, it was lying in a rather slanting direction upon two cross iron bars and upon the rubble with which the chamber of the tomb was filled’. Despite this, the effigy was fixed to the tomb base, the canopy restored and the tomb now known as 4.2 4.2A twoA two--thirds length altar slab fragment reused as a benchthirds length altar slab fragment reused as a bench in the in the Cathedral Precinct, identified in 2Cathedral Precinct, identified in 2001166 ((Keevill and Scott 2017Keevill and Scott 2017).). The The remaining fragment was identifiedremaining fragment was identified and recorand recorddeded duringduring this surveythis survey.. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 56 Jacob H. Scott 2021 that of John de Sheppey. Four fragments recovered from the blocking belong to a fine fourteenth-century reredos (fig. 4.3). The centre canopy was filled with a statue of Moses, although sadly the horned (blessed) head has been lost since Cottingham’s drawings. Cues in the manner that the tracery fitted together provide a broad outline of the form of the reredos, although the precise location of two fragments is indeterminate in the absence of further evidence. Angels decorated the top horizontal portion of the tracery. One 4.3 4.3Four fragments of Four fragments of a chantry chapel reredos, believed to have orignated a chantry chapel reredos, believed to have orignated in the in the midmid--fourteenthfourteenth--centcentury ury chantry of Bishop John de chantry of Bishop John de SheppeySheppey.. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 57 Jacob H. Scott 2021 statue featuring vinescroll in a similar form to the reredos base may belong to the left-hand niche. 4.4 Piscina The Cathedral archaeologist recently identified three fragments of a stone piscina reused as a garden feature at a property in Crow Lane, just outside the cathedral precinct, The owner had moved from a property in Minor Canon Row to the south of the cloisters and not realising its antiquity moved the feature to the new property. The fragments reconstructed represent most of the forward Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 58 Jacob H. Scott 2021 relief, featuring four bishops holding croziers, three in mitres and one sporting a tonsure (surely Paulinus, Ithamar, John and Benedictine Gundulf). 4.3 4.3VVirtual irtual assembly of four fragments of a C13th piscina assembly of four fragments of a C13th piscina recovered from a recovered from a Precinct propPrecinct propertyerty featuring fourfeaturing four bishopsbishops.. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 59 Jacob H. Scott 2021 5 Late medieval and Early Modern As has been discussed, the c.1490 campaign including the addition of the western annexe to the south nave transept Lady Chapel also rebuilt the nave clerestory in a notably brutal fashion. Although much restored and replaced, the form of much the resulting fabric from this campaign remains, aside from the insertion of a large Perpindicular window in the east clerestory of the presbytery thought to be broadly contemporary with this campaign. Records from the C16th and C17th detail periods of neglect and iconoclastic defacement, particularly to late medieval and Early Modern mural memorials and tombs. A significant portion of fragments in the Lapidarium collection apparently originate from memorials, although few survive reused in the fabric which by the Early Modern period was little altered. Re-laid on in the floor of the north quire aisle is a brass casement, broken in several places and with cement repairs, featuring indents of two hearts upheld by a pair of hands. The slab has been re-used for an inscription in Roman capitals: 'Here lieth body of Mr. William Streaton, gent'. Sadler (1975) suggested the heart brass was laid in his memory but destroyed during the English Civil War soon after his death, subsequently, the inscription was incised on the slab to identify it. The tomb situated in the north bay of the north quire transept is that of Bishop Walter de Merton (c.1205-1277), founder of Merton College, Oxford. A slate plaque once hung in the room below the Chapter Library (fig. 5.1) bears an inscription recording its restoration after being ‘deformed by rabid fanatics’ by Merton College in 1662. The 1846 opening of the tomb was recorded by Canon E. Hawkins: ‘A new stone prepared by the College was at this time placed over the coffin. The original monument, from old records, contained an effigy of the Bishop, in Limoges enamel. The art is lost ... The existing alabaster effigy appears to have been of 1662’, and is notable for featuring a distinctly C17th ruff. A note dated the 27th May 1907 in the archives of the Dean and Chapter (DRc/Ac/22) ‘appeared that the stone removed when new tomb erected remained in Cathedral but bore no record of place from which taken. Ordered Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 60 Jacob H. Scott 2021 some record be placed on it. Inscription be cut on stone with date of its removal (24/06/07). No such inscription appears on the stone today, 5.1 5.1HHeralds eralds and plaques hanging inand plaques hanging in the room belothe room below the Chapter Room w the Chapter Room before the refurbefore the refurbishment of the space in 201bishment of the space in 2014.4. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 61 Jacob H. Scott 2021 however. The remaining studs for the Limoges effigy bear no evidence other than its rough dimensions. This slab for a time was on stone stilts in the eastern aisle of the north quire transept, and indeed St John Hope misidentifies it as a slab from the shrine of William of Perth featured in low relief reused at the site of the shrine in the centre of the transept in a watercolour from 1840, as do some later authors. Aside from the restoration plaque, at least three items in the Lapidarium collection are identifiable from the 1662 reconstruction (nos. 43 with a broken portion, 44 and 104), their locations identifiable win a contemporary drawing. However, a formally evidenced reconstruction of the elements not recorded or surviving within the Lapidarium would require drawing comparisons to contemporary tombs elsewhere. This is significantly complicated by its canopy being a faux-gothic reconstruction and an analysis of the competence and authenticity of the nineteenth-century reconstruction is beyond the scope of this report. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 62 Jacob H. Scott 2021 6 Heritage The current understanding of previous forms of the building revealed by this study has been limited by a lack of expert advice, particularly in regards to architecture and structural engineering. Nevertheless, before the interests of antiquarians and C19th Gothic revivalists, the ample evidence surviving of medieval and Early Modern reuse of sculpture fragments suggests an apparently conscious decision to retain an impression of previous forms of the cathedral fabric with the reuse of sculptural fragments. Particularly abundant evidence exists of reuse of Romanesque Caen stone fragments from a C12th redecoration of the cathedral after a particularly devastating fire in 1179. This campaign dates to shortly after the refoundation of the Cathedral as a Benedictine priory and would have had an especial significance to the medieval monastic community. 6.1 Spolia and retention A note from the time of the discovery of the north quire transept tomb, the Bishop John de Sheppey effigy and fragments in the blocking ponders (DRc/Emf/135); ‘that the concealment of this effigy and of these fragments must have been effected by friends, there can, I conceive, be little doubt, and yet, though extraordinary fear and haste might have occasioned the careless and disorderly manner in which they were thrown in, it does appear difficult to account for the quantity of stones and chalk and mortar that was thrown in with them, to the great injury of the sculpture especially when there seems to have been no necessity for the inserting of this rubbish, as the walls built up on each side sufficiently concealed from the public eye what was deposited within. That friends should take such pains to injure what they wished to preserve is certainly unaccountable.’ Although the Lapidarium collection owes much to the interests and interventions of nineteenth-century restorers, the retention of such a large quantity of spolia throughout the site raises much the same questions as the tomb rubble. It is apparent that the modern notions of conservation were far removed from medieval and Early Modern Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 63 Jacob H. Scott 2021 building campaigns, several of which swept away large portions of medieval fabric with grander, cruder on more fashionable forms. The reuse of stone undoubtedly also has both a practical and economic imperative. It seems plausible this is a major factor in the localisation of spolia assemblages to their feature of provenance, saving time, energy and material by not removing and disposing of large quantities of stonework. Despite this, there is abundant evidence of intentional reuse of sculptural fragments in a fashion that retains some element of the aesthetic of the previous form. Of the hundreds of examples recorded by this survey, the majority of stones could have been placed into the wall in a fashion that may appear neater. The impression received is that if sculptural or architectural stone was within the vicinity, typically resulting from a feature just demolished, it was in some way deemed worthwhile to retain the visibility of sculptural forms. In the case of the cloisters, quire, crypt and the north-west tower pier of the nave, the fire-reddened fragments provide particularly vivid evidence of the major (and presumably traumatic) fires of the twelfth-century that saw much of the cathedral and cloisters replaced, undoubtedly seen as major episodes in the history of the site before the development of the modern architectural-historical model. The use of spolia to retain an element of the heritage and aesthetic of previous forms can be seen in tandem with the architectural evidence of the new east end, often interpreted as a sympathetic addition to the previous square-end albeit on a much grander plan and with the addition of the minor transept. 6.2 Exhibitions The 2018-2019 Fragments of History exhibition in the Cathedral Crypt curated by the author was the first opportunity to showcase the finest items in the Lapidarium collection and raise the profile of this then-little known collection (fig. 6.1). Despite the majority of the Lapidarium collection being twelfth-century Romanesque in form, stones are present from all the major building campaigns of the cathedral and most periods of history over the Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 64 Jacob H. Scott 2021 past 1,400 years. The exhibition served to initiate visitors into the periodisation and diversity of medieval stonework forms, with cases arranged chronologically along a large tactile timeline. Choice items were retained and for the 2020 Big History crypt exhibition extended due to Covid19 restrictions through 2021. Many of the items in the Lapidarium collection are engaging exhibitable artefacts in their own right, but are also of considerable value in diversifying exhibit content of items that may have few other contextual items with which to build exhibition interpretation, such as medieval manuscripts. A particularly engaging example has been designed to provide the prominent Anglo-Saxon legal encyclopedia and cartulary Textus Roffensis with pre-conquest sculptural fragments from around the time of the law codes contained within. An application to exhibit Textus in this fashion has been submitted to the UK Supreme Court. In this way, the Lapidarium fragments are seeing reuse in the same manner as many of them were before their removal as spolia – to provide direct 6.1 6.1Big History crBig History cryypt ept exhibition of xhibition of some of the finestsome of the finest items from the items from the Lapidarium collectionLapidarium collection.. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 65 Jacob H. Scott 2021 evidence of forms and art and context to artefacts and spaces of what has come before. 6.3 Conservation and further study The survey has aimed to identify the archaeological value of stone material on the site and has provided a conservation record of significant items to add to the Lapidarium collection established in 1992 . Stones which are 6.2 6.2Models of stone A2533 (above, left) preModels of stone A2533 (above, left) pre--break, (above, rigbreak, (above, right) post ht) post break, (below, left) highbreak, (below, left) high--resolution model of damaged area supplied to resolution model of damaged area supplied to London City & Guild’s students, (below, right) fragments from the break.London City & Guild’s students, (below, right) fragments from the break. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 66 Jacob H. Scott 2021 impractical to move to the Lapidarium have been recorded in 3D and moved to a blocked brick stairway leading west from the cloisters refectory doorway. A temporary lean-to roof over this area would provide further shelter from the weather whilst a strategy to reuse the stones as garden features is developed with the Cathedral Gardener, Architect and Archaeologist. Improving works to the Garth over the next five years are likely to include reopening this brick stairway. With a proposal for relaying brass casements displaced by works in the north nave transept altar recess, the situating of the stone coffin lid fragments stowed in the crypt into a bay in the presbytery, and the disposal of nineteenth-century stone resuting from works on the pinnacles as detailed in the Introduction (Study context), all ex-situ fragments will be sheltered or reused, representing a considerable logistical and conservation achievement. This is not to say that the move and recording process has been without trauma. The author had just finished recording fragment A2533 when it fell from its plinth and was significantly damaged along the lower-right edge of the relief (fig. 6.2). This portion is critical in understanding the form of the interlace pattern. The stone was packed with its smaller fragments and transferred to London City & Guild for consolidation. This study has been limited and restrained in the reconstructions it has proposed. Where conjecture is required this has been avoided if possible so as not to confuse the typological record. The survey of the stones has raised an array of curiosities and opportunities for further study. This is afforded by the continued efforts of City & Guilds stone conservation students. Opportunities for expert analysis and particularly of paint and sculptural forms should be seized as they arise. The likelihood of such opportunities in the future are hoped to be improved by this survey and record. A blog series is planned for the cathedral website to showcase items within the Lapidarium collection monthly. Considerable conservation challenges for the in situ spolia reused in the exterior of the Cathedral, cloisters and Precinct remain. Within the vicinity of the temporary shelter for the oversized stones, running between the C16th Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 67 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Cloister Gateway and a recently relandscaped Knot Garden to the south, a portion of quatrefoil arcading and coping was identified by Arnold (1994) as being a reused portion of late C15th clerestory-level arcading once running below the large perpendicular east Presbytery window. Vegetation clearance during landscaping revealed the arcading to be in very poor condition and representing a considerable safety concern for passers-by on the cloister walkway below. Despite its significance, in-keeping with the aesthetic of the knot garden, and it running along the boundary of the cloisters Scheduled Monument protected area, a full conservation of the arcading is deemed to be prohibitively expensive and unlikely to retain original material to a satisfactory level. The Architect has proposed a handrail to run along the boundary as forming a part of the safety requirements of opening up the knot garden to the public. A series of clamps along the handrail should hold the remaining arcading in place to prevent collapse. However, as with many examples of spolia on the Cathedral exterior, prevention of further deterioration is impractical. The conservation record of this study will inevitably remain the record of these fragments at their most complete. Appendix Files are archived to the standards of the Archaeological Data Service with archive reports available on Dropbox (RCL18r08 Lapidarium and RCL17r14 Spolia) and shortly through the Rochester Cathedral website (rochestercathedral.org/collections). i Lapidarium catalogue and index of spolia records (.xls) ii SfM models (.obj) and source photographs (.jpg and .raw) iii Scale photographs (.jpg and .cr2) iv Spolia keyplans (.PDF) Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 68 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Bibliography Contemporary Bede, the Venerable, Saint, 673-735. Bede's ecclesiastical history of the English people. Cotton MS. Vespasian A. 22, c.1200, London, British Library, f. 30. Gervase of Canterbury, c.1200, Opera Historica, Rolls Series 73, i. 100. London, British Library. Lansdowne MS 213. London, British Library. Textus Roffensis, c.1123, Rochester, Cathedral Library, MS A. 3. 5, f. 172. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 69 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Academic Alexander, J., 2006, ‘The Gothic West Transepts of Rochester Cathedral’, in Tim Ayers and Tim Tatton-Brown (eds) Medieval Art, Architecture and Archaeology at Rochester British Archaeological Association Conference Transactions, xxviii, Leeds, 146-163. Arnold, A.,1986, The moving statue; A case of mistaken identity?, Friends of Rochester Cathedral annual report for 1988. Arnold, A., 1988, The shrine of St. Paulinus at Rochester, Friends of Rochester Cathedral annual report for 1990-1991. Arnold, A., 1994, The Lapidarium, unpublished archive report, Rochester Cathedral Chapter Library. 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(eds), Faith and Fabric; A History of Rochester Cathedral 604-1994, Rochester: Boydell and Brewer, Friends of Rochester Cathedral, 149-184. McNeill, J., 2006, ‘The East Cloister Range of Rochester Cathedral Priory’, in Ayers, T. and Tatton-Brown (eds), Medieval Art, Architecture and Archaeology at Rochester, 97-113. Messenger, A. W. B., 1927, Rochester Cathedral Heraldry before A.D. 1800. Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 39, 113-129. Perry, M. and Lithgow, R., 2014, Rochester Cathedral Crypt Medieval Paintings and Plasters - Conservation Project, The Perry Lithgow Partnership Ltd. archive report. Sadler, A. G., 1975, Indents of lost monumental brasses in Southern England Part II, p. 7-27. London: A. G. Sadler. Rochester Cathedral Lapidarium and spolia 71 Jacob H. Scott 2021 Schofield, J. and Samuel, M, 2010, Dealing with architectural fragments. Association of Diocesan and Cathedral Archaeologists Guidance Note 3. Scott, J. H., 2017, A structure from motion modelling survey of medieval tombs at Rochester Cathedral, Rochester Cathedral Research Guild archive report RCL17-01. St John Hope, W. H., 1898, ‘The Architectural History of the Cathedral Church and Monastery of St. Andrew at Rochester; 1. The Cathedral Church’, Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 23, pp. 194-328. St John Hope, W. H., 1900, ‘The Architectural History of the Cathedral Church and Monastery of St. Andrew at Rochester; 2. The Monastery’, Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 24, pp. 1-85. Swanton, M. J., 1973, A Pre-Conquest Sculptural Fragment from Rochester Cathedral. Archaeologia Cantiana, 88.12, pp. 201-210. Ward, A. and Anderson, T., 1990, Excavations at Rochester Cathedral.Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 108: pp. 91-152. Worssam, B., 2000, The building stones of Rochester Cathedral crypt. Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 120, pp. 1-22. Worssam, B., 2008, Building stones of the Lady Chapel and of the South West Transept. Unpublished archive report, Rochester Cathedral Library.