Dog, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Nowadays, dogs are extolled for their loyalty, faithfulness and unconditional love for their masters. In Medieval Christianity, they were also depicted as symbols of loyalty and faithfulness due to their reputation as faithful companions to humans. This loyalty was often seen as an allegory for the faithful devotion that Christians should have towards God and His teachings.

Dogs' instinct to protect their owners and territories made them symbols of guardianship and protection. This aspect of their nature was often used to represent the role of Christians in guarding against spiritual dangers and defending the faith.

Dogs are known for their keen sense of smell and hearing, as well as their vigilance in watching over their surroundings. As such, they were also seen as symbols of vigilance and alertness, reminding Christians to be watchful for temptation and spiritual threats.

Their ability to distinguish between friend and foe, as well as their obedience to commands, made them symbols of discernment and discipleship. Christians were encouraged to discern between good and evil and to follow the teachings of Christ obediently, much like a well-trained dog follows its master's commands.

References to dogs in the Bible include both positive and negative connotations:
Positive References: Dogs are occasionally portrayed positively in the Bible, such as in the story of the faithful dog accompanying Tobit on his journey as we see in Tobit 6:2-8: “The young man went out and the angel went with him; and the dog came out with him and went along with them. So they both journeyed along, and when the first night overtook them they camped by the Tigris river. Then the young man went down to wash his feet in the Tigris river.”
In some contexts, dogs are associated with impurity, scavenging, and contempt as we see in Exodus NKJV 22:31:

“And you shall be holy men to Me: you shall not eat meat torn by beasts in the field; you shall throw it to the dogs.”

and in Philippians NKJV 3:2:

“Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers, beware of the mutilation!”

.

Transcription

Translation

Canis nomen latinum grecam ethimologiam habere
videtur. Grece enim cenos dicitur. licet quidem a canore
latratu appellatum existiment. eoquod insonat. Unde et
canere dicitur. Nichil autem sagatius canibus. Plus enim sensus
ceteris animalibus habent. Nam soli sua nomina recognoscunt.

The Latin word cănis, dog, seems to be of Greek etymology. The Greek word for dog is κύων/κυνός (kyon/kynos). Some may think dogs take their name after their melodious barking. Its barking is similar to singing, which is cănĕre in Latin. However, nothing is more intelligent than dogs; they have more understanding than other animals, for they are the only ones that recognize their own names, when heard,

ff29v

Dominos suos diligunt. Canum sunt plurima genera. Alii ad
capiendum investigant feras silvarum. alii ab infestationibus
luporum vigilando greges ovium custodiunt. Alii custodes domorum
substantiam dominorum suorum custodiunt. ne forte rapiatur in noc-
te a latronibus. Etiam pro dominis suis se morti subiciunt. Volunta-
rie ad predam cum domino currunt. Corpus domini sui; etiam mortuum;
custodiunt. et non relinqunt. Quorum postremo nature est; extra
homines esse non posse.

and love their masters. There are many kinds of dogs. Some scent the trails of animals in forests in order to catch them. Others shepherd flocks to protect them from wolf attacks. Others guard the houses and the possessions of their masters, lest they be stolen by thieves at night. They even sacrifice their lives for their masters. They willingly run along with their masters after a prey. They even guard the body of their masters when they are dead and do not abandon it. Their nature is such that they cannot exist without man.

ff30r

Legitur canes in tantum dominos diligere; ut garramantem regem
ab inimicis captum ac in custodia mancipatum; ducenti canes
agmine facto per medias acies inimicorum reduxerunt. preliantes
adversus resistentes. Iasone licio interfecto; canis eius eius asper-
natus cibum; inedia obiit. Lismachi regis canis; se in flammis
iniecit. et accenso rogo domini sui inflamma pariter et igne com-
sumptus est. Apio. Iunio. Pictimo consulibus. dampnatum dominum;
canis cum abigi non posset; comitatus in carcerem mox percussum;
ululatu prosecutus est. Cumque ex miseratione populi romani potes-
tas ei fieret cibi; ad os defuncti escam tulit. Ultimo idem deiectum
in tyberum; cadaver adnatans sustentare conatur. Cani vero
ubi vestigium leporis cervi ve repperit; atque ad diverticulum
semite semite venerit; et quoddam variumvel viarum added compitum quod
partes in plurimas scinditur. obiciens singularum semitarum exor-
dia tacitus ipse secum pertractat. velut sillogisticam vocem
sagacitate colligendi odoris emittens. aut in hanc partem inquit
deflexit; aut in illam. aut certe in hunc anfractum se contu-
lit; Sed nec in istam nec in illam; ingressus est. Superest igitur ut
in istam se partem contulerit. Et sic falsitate repudiata; inve-
nit veritatem;

We read that dogs love their masters so much that when King Gărămās was captured by the enemies and taken as hostage, two hundred dogs formed a troop and brought him back through the midst of the enemy's ranks, fighting against those who resisted. When Jason was killed, his dog refused food and died of starvation. The dog of King Lysimachus threw itself into the flames when its master’s funeral pyre was lit and was consumed by fire along with him. During the consulships of Appius, Iunius, and Pictimus, there was a dog that could not be taken away from its convicted master and when the latter was being taken to prison, the dog accompanied him and howled during the execution. When the people of Rome fed the dog out of pity, it carried the food to the mouth of its deceased master. Lastly, when the master was thrown into the Tiber, the dog tried to keep it from sinking. In truth, when the dog scents the trail of a hare or a deer and comes to a crossroad or junction branching off into many directions, it places itself at the beginning of every single path and silently examines them thoroughly as if it were uttering a syllogistic bark. Then, it infers to itself, relying on the sharpness of its sense of smell: “the animal turned into this or that path, or certainly took this bend. Neither into this nor into that did it turn. Therefore, the fact remains that it turned into this path”. Thus, having rejected the wrong assumptions, it finds the truth

ff30v

Sepe etiam necis illate evidentia canes ad redarguendos
reos; indicia prodiderunt. ut muto eorum testimonio;
plerumque sit credendum. Antiochie ferunt in remotiore parte ur-
bis quendam virum crepusculo necatum. qui canem sibi ad-
iunctum haberet. Miles quidam occisus est astabat canis. questu
lacrimabili; domini deflebat erumpnam. Mane occurrunt turbe
multe ad spectaculum. Inter quas occurit et occisor; ut fidem
innocentie faceret. et velut miserans; appropinquavit ad
funus. Tunc canis sequestrato paulisper questu doloris;
apprehendit eum et tenuit. et velud in eum insultans mi-
serabile carmen inmurmurans; universos convertit in lacri-

When a murder has been committed, dogs have often provided evidence and helped to convict wrongdoers. Their silent testimony is mostly believed. In Antioch, a man was reported to be about to be killed at dusk in a remote part of the city and had a dog accompanying him. When a certain soldier was killed, his dog stood near with tearful wails, lamenting the death of its master. Early in the morning, the crowd gathered for the spectacle, among whom the killer appeared to prove his innocence. Feigning grief, he approached the funeral. The dog, having ceased wailing briefly, seized and held him. After jumping on him, it started to wail plaintively and moved everyone to

ff 31r

mas. et tamdui tenuit; quousque ille cum non haberet
quid responderet; crimen professus est. et sic ultionem per(dots underneath)
perpessus est. Canis quo3 ubi vestigium leporis cervi ve rep-
perit; atque ad diverticulum venerit. ubi fuerint capita
plurimarum viarium; ad singula odorat nare sagaci. et sic
falsitate repudiata; viam veritatis ingreditur; donec
predam inveniat. Preterea lingua canis dum lingit vulnus
sanat illud. Catuli lingua; vulneratorum intestinorum solet esse
saluti. Item natura eius est; ut ad vomitum revertatur;
et iterum commedat. Item modicus victus cani sifficit. Item cum
canis flumen transnatat. carnem vel aliquid tale in ore te-
nens. cum viderit umbram os suum aperit. atque dum properat
carnem aliam sumere; ipsum quam tenet perdit. Preterea
linces dicuntur canes qui ex lupis et canibus nascuntur. cum inter
se forte miscentur. Solent et inde femine canes noctu in sil-
vis alligate admisci ad tygres bestias. a quibus insiliri et
nasci ex eodem fetu canes acerrimi. et adeo fortes; ut com-
plexu leones prosternant. Cuius figuram in quibusdam
rebus predicatores habent. qui admonendo semper ac exercendo
que recta sunt; insidias diaboli pellunt. ne thesaurum
dei. idest animas christianorum rapiendo ipse auferat. Lingua
canis dum lingit curat; quia peccatorum vulnera predica-
tione sanctorum curantur. et secreta cordis sepe mundantur
opere et sermone doctoris. Item quod ad vomitum reverti-

tears. It held him for so long until the man confessed the crime, having nothing to say, and had to endure the dog’s vengeance. As for the dog, when it finds the trails of a hare or a deer and comes to a crossroad branching off in many directions, it sniffs the air at the beginning of each path, rejects the wrong assumptions and walks the path of truth until it finds the prey. Furthermore, the tongue of a dog heals wounds when it licks them. The tongue of a puppy is said to be a remedy for the health of an aching and wounded intestine. It is characteristic of a dog to return to its own vomit in order to eat it again. A moderate diet is sufficient for a dog. When a dog swims across a river holding meat or something of the kind in its mouth, it opens the mouth upon seeing its own shadow, and whilst rushing to take another piece of meat, it loses what it was already holding. Furthermore, cubs born from the crossbreeding of wolves and dogs are called lynces, lynxes; female dogs are said to mate with tigers at night in the woods. From the crossbreeding, savage dogs are born that are so strong that they can overpower lions in a fight. Preachers have this characteristic in certain things, always admonishing and exercising what is right, driving away the devil’s snares, lest he steal and seize God’s treasure, i.e. the souls of Christians. The tongue of a dog has healing properties, for the the preaching of holy men heals the wounds of sin, and the secrets of the heart are often purified by the work and speech of teachers. Just as a dog returns to its vomit,

ff 31v

tur. quia multi post peractam pmam; iterum ad pecca-
tum redeunt. Item modicus victus ei sufficit. Quia pre-
dicator crapulam detestatur. Nam in saturitate panis
sodoma periit. Item cum canis flumen transit et cetera; signifi-
cat stultos. qui propter cupiditatem rei ignote; quod pro-
prii viris est amittunt. Canis dicitur a canendo. cuius
consuetudo est illa loca descendere in quibus se norit ali-
moniam invenire. Cuius figuram gerunt figuram(dots underneath) fideles
doctores. qui persecuntur infideles. fures abigunt. ovilia sancta
custodiunt. lupos occidunt. De quibus in libro regum legitur. Qui
mortuus fuerit de baasa; in civitate; comedent eum ca-
nes. Et qui mortuis fuerit ex eo in agro; comedent eum vo-
lucres. agri(dots underneath) celi. De baasa; idest de corpore diaboli confusio-
ne penissimo. Ille in civitate est mortuus; qui in ecclesia fide-
tenus perseverans; criminaliter vivit. Hic ore canum la-
ceratur; idest sententiis patrum et sanctorum doctorum
increpatur. arguitur. dampnatur. Unde. Ut canes circui-
bunt civitatem; ecclesie. Illi ex baasa in agro moriuntur; qui
extra ecclesiam ydolatrie vel heresi; ore et opere nephano deser-/ viunt. Hos volucres celi comedunt id est demones qui secus via’
sparsum semen comedunt. qui honustos peccatis secum ad eter-
num interitum rapiunt. Vel totum in malum accipi potest.
Quia canes malos comedunt; dum demones sibi peccatores incor-
porant. blanditiis sibi eos allicientes. Hii bene in civitate mo-

many return to sin, after eating their meals. A moderate diet is sufficient for a dog, for a preacher detests carousal. Sodom perished in a surfeit of bread. The fact that a dog crosses a river symbolises foolish people who, owing to their desire for unknown things, lose what belongs to them. The word for dog, cănis, comes from cănendo (singing), the custom whereof is to go to places where it knows it can find food. This characteristic is peculiar to the faithful followers, who persecute infidels, drive away thieves, guard the holy sheepfolds, and kill wolves. The book of Kings says of it: “The dogs shall eat whoever belongs to Baasha and dies in the city, and the birds of the air shall eat whoever dies in the fields.”(1 Kings NKJV 16:4). Baasha represents the confusion of the body of the devil. Those who have died in the city, persevering in the Church in accordance with the precepts of faith, live criminally. Those who are mauled by the mouth of dogs, that is, rebuked by the invectives of the fathers and the followers of the faith, are accused and condemned. Therefore, just as dogs circle the community of the Church, those from Baasha die in the field and devote themselves to idolatry or heresy as well as heinous language and deeds outside the community of the Church. The birds of the sky will eat them, i.e. the demons who devour scattered seed along the way and drag the honest to eternal death along with them. The whole thing can be interpreted negatively, for dogs eat evil ones, whereas demons become incarnated in sinners, enticing them with flattery. These people die well in the city,

ff 32r

riuntur; dum in ecclesia vel in anima decipiuntur; Item
canis cum aquam lambit; genua non flectit. Item super om-
nia cetera animalia; amorem domini sui servat. ita utaffectus
ipsius nec amore alterius. nec terrore nec iniuriis flecti pot.
Tales sunt electi qui postquam ad aquas baptismi venerunt. quasi
canis discretionem boni et mali tenent. mala reprobando;
et bona diligendo. et sermone et opere fidem quam acceperunt;
tenent. qui gressus rectorum operum ad necessitates corporeas q2
terrenas flectere nesciunt. qui vitiis non indulgent. nec pro
peccati sitim sternuntur proni. Item pro contemptu canis habetur
Sic fideles contemptibiles videntur mundo; sed deo probati
sunt. et humilitate se custodiunt. Quia contemptibilia et igno-
bilia elegit deus. David quoque tanquam contemptibilem se canem ap-
pellat. Similiter prop contemptu habetur canis; Ut ibi. Non est. bo-
num sumere panem filiorum et mittere canibus. et cetera. Item canis ma-
gis sequitur consuetudinem; quam rationem. ita seudo predicato-
res consuetudinem legis tenent. et contra veritatem irrationabili-
ter latrant. et mordent. Ipsiquoque sunt mali operarii zizania
seminantes et frumentum calcantes. Idem sunt conscisi. quia
a christo cesi sunt. et seperati et alios scindunt et separant. Et sic per
canes. et boni et mali predicatores designantur; De malis
predicatoribus; scribit apostolus ad philippenses. Videte
canes. videte malos operarios. videte conscisionem;.

but they are misled in the Church, or deceived in the soul. When a dog licks water, it does not bend its knees. Above all other animals, it preserves the love of its master so that the affection for its master cannot be changed by the love of another master, nor by fear, nor by injuries. Such are the chosen ones who, after bathing in the waters of baptism, were able to know right from wrong like a dog, rejecting evil and loving good, and received the faith through the Word and through deeds. Such are also those who do not know how to divert their path from rectitude to earthly and corporeal needs, who do not indulge in vices, nor do they abase themselves for the thirst of sin. Just as a dog may appear contemptible, so may the faithful appear contemptible to the world, but they are proven by God and keep themselves in humility, for God chose the contemptible and the despicable. David also calls himself a contemptible dog . Similarly, a dog is considered contemptible, as we see in Matthew NKJV 15:26: ‘But He answered and said, “It is not good to take the children’s bread and throw it to the little dogs.”’. A dog is an animal more of habit than of reason. Thus, false preachers have the habit of following the law and irrationally bark against the truth and bite. The same are evil workers who sow tare and trample the wheat. The same are also the circumcised whose bond with Christ is severed and they are separated, dividing and separating others. Dogs represent both good and bad preachers. The apostle writes of bad preachers to the Philippians: “Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers, beware of the mutilation!” (Philippians NKJV 3:2).

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Quotienscumque peccator vult factorem suum
placere; necessarium est. ei et utile ut tres spirituales
conductores querat. qui tres spirituales legatos cum tribus
donis spiritualibus ad reconciliationem sui coram factore con-
ducant. Qui conductores et legati cum suis donis spi-
ritualibus ita disponuntur. Primus legatus est; cordis
ploratus. Secundus; vera confessio. Tertius; vera pe-
nitentia. Conductores eorum sunt amor dei. bona vo-
luntas. rectum opus. Bona spiritualia sunt; munditia
corporis et anime oratio pura. boni operis perseverantia.
Qui legati et conductores cum spiritualibus donis sic coram
trinitate procedunt. Coram deo procedit ploratus cum
amore dei deferens mundiciam corporis et anime. Coram
filio; vera confessio cum voluntate bona puram oratio-
nem deferens co(erased) Coram spiritu sancto; penitentia vera cum
recto opere perseverantiam boni operis portans. Sicut corpori debilitato necessarie sunt potiones ad sanandas illius
infirmitates. ita anime peccatrici necessaria est. potio per
quam spiritualis oris corruptio exit. Fit autem potio
anime ex quatuor speciebus id est cordis ploratu. vera confes-
sione. penitentia vera. operatione recta. Que ita compe-
tens est ad sanandas illius infirmitates. quod dum ab ea
anima inungitur; statim a suis infirmitatibus sanatur.
Sed sanata si sine honesto indumento relinqueretur; quomodo in
celesti curia ubi debet presentari. coram factore suo presenta-

Whenever a sinner wishes to please his creator, it is necessary for him to seek out three spiritual masters, who will send three spiritual messengers with three spiritual gifts in order to lead him to reconciliation before his creator. These guides and messengers with their spiritual gifts are arranged as follows: The first is the bewailing of the heart, the second true confession, the third true penance. Their masters are the love of God, good will, and righteous deeds. Good spiritual things are purity of body and soul, pure prayer, and perseverance with good deeds. The messengers and the guides appear before the Trinity as follows: before God, there appears the bewailing of the heart with the love of God, bearing the cleanliness of body and soul. Before the Son, the true confession with good will, bearing pure prayer. Before the Holy Spirit, the true penance with righteous deeds, bearing the perseverance with good deeds.

ff 33r

retur; Opportet ergo ut homo qui ad regendum et indu-
endum eam suscepit; ita honeste et competenter induat;
ut laudabiliter coram angelis in celo eam presentare va-
leat. Primum vero indumentum unde anima vestiri debet; est. mun-
dicia. Nulla enim in celesti curia presentatur; que vel hic vel
in futuro non mundetur. Alia vero indumenta sunt;
pietas. misericordia. cetereque virtutes quibus vestiri debet
Vestita vero talibus indumentis; cum tribus conductoribus. idest
cogitatione pura. verbo bono. opere perfecto. in celesti glo-
ria honeste poterit presentari. Ubi remunerabitur illa
beatudine; quam optinent angeli. Ad quam obtinen-
dam; deus hominem creavit. et tres consiliatores ei tribuit
Scilicet spiritualem intellectum. potestatem bene agendi.
et sapientiam. Quibus si adquiesceret; regnum celeste non
amitteret. Sed quia illis non adquievit; hereditatem
suam amisit;

Just as potions are necessary to heal the infirmities of a weakened body, so is a potion necessary for a sinful soul to heal spiritual corruption. Such potion is of four types: the bewailing of the heart, true confession, true penance, and righteous deeds. This potion is able to heal the infirmities of the soul to such an extent that the soul is immediately healed when anointed therewith. If the soul were left unclad once healed, how could it be presented in the celestial court where it must be presented before its creator? Therefore, the man who has undertaken the task to guide it and clothe it also needs to dress it decently and competently so that he can present it commendably before the angels in heaven. In truth, the first garment wherein the soul should be clad is cleanliness, for nothing is presented in the heavenly court that is not cleansed neither in this moment nor in the future. Other garments are piety, mercy, and other virtues wherein one should be clad. Clad in such garments, with three guides, i.e. with pure thought, good word, perfect deeds, the soul can be presented decently in the heavenly glory, where it will be rewarded with that happiness which angels enjoy. For this beatitude, God created man and gave him three counselors, namely, spiritual understanding, wisdom and the ability to do good. If he acquiesced in this, he would not lose the Kingdom of Heaven; however, he lost his inheritance, for he did not acquiesce in them.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Dog, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast181.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

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Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

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Footnotes

1 Garamas, also called Amphithemis, son of Apollo and Acalle, daughter of Minos. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphithemis

2 He was an officer and a successor of Alexander the Great. In 306 BC, he became king of Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedon. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysimachus

3 In reality, David calls himself a worm in Psalms 22:6: “But I am a worm, and not human; scorned by others, and despised by the people.”

4 It is referring to sowing discord.