Introduction to the Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Dr Diane Heathe

The bestiary is a medieval book of beasts, in Latin a liber bestiarum or a bestiarium. In the medieval period (400-1500CE) ‘bestiary’ referred to a specific spiritual book that focused on aspects of animal traits in relation to the lessons they provided to people. There were many inter-related versions of the bestiary, in prose and in rhyme, in Latin and in the vernacular. The earliest and main version was the medieval Latin prose bestiary, which was based on a book called the Physiologus, written by monks who lived in the Egyptian desert around the third and fourth centuries. This is why the bestiary includes so many animals from Africa and the Near East. The bestiary allowed the ‘book’ of nature to be read and understood as part of divine creation, as the Book of Job explains:

ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee: and the birds of the air, and they shall tell thee. Speak to the earth, and it shall answer thee: and the fishes of the sea shall tell. Who is ignorant that the hand of the Lord hath made all these things?

Job 12:7-9

This reading of nature became part of what has been called the ‘two books’ trope and was summed up by Alan of Lille (ca. 1128- ca. 1203/5) as

every creature of the world is for us like a book and a picture and a mirror as well.

Alain de Lille²

In its way of reading creation in spiritual terms, the bestiary was a standard text. Its approach linked the literal, allegorical, moral, and spiritual senses of the animal in what was called the ‘allegory of the fourfold senses’, or sensus spiritualis. The bestiary developed from scriptural teachings linked to the classical education of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy). Such teachings sought to understand the Word of God in the Bible and in nature. It sought correspondence between creation and the mysteries of heaven that St Augustine discussed in his De Doctrina Christiana.³ These ideas were applied to animals in the bestiary, to stones in the lapidary, and to plants in the herbals.⁴ Yet there was also a practical element too, creatures, stones and plants were supposed to be described accurately, although drawing from written descriptions allowed artists creative licence – for example, who was to say how accurate an Elephant was when nobody had seen one (until Henry III was given one in the mid thirteenth century).

The bestiary is why we still think of the Lion as the king of beasts and why we say apprentices should be ‘licked into shape.’ The book was the main source of information on animals, particularly non-European animals, for centuries in the Middle Ages. Churches were full of allusions to stories from the bestiary, such as the Lion representing Christ, the Pelican pecking blood from its breast to revive its chicks, and the Dragon as a figure for evil.

Medieval stained-glass Dragon: Trinity Chapel, Canterbury Cathedral, credit: Professor Rachel Koopmans

While many bestiaries were unillustrated, some of the deluxe versions produced for wealthy monasteries and the nobility have sumptuous illuminations by professional artists using the most expensive pigments and often gilded. The Rochester Bestiary is one of the most beautiful of these superb medieval masterpieces and it is still being used as inspiration for artists of all ages today. Having this c. 800 year old priceless manuscript on display in the place where it was made is a terrific opportunity for people in Rochester to see for themselves their wonderful medieval heritage.

DEH
July 2023

Footnotes

1 Douay-Rheims trans. Vulgate.

2 Alain de Lille, De Incarnatione Christi Rhythmus Perelegans, PL 210, col. 579A, ‘Omnis mundi creatura/ Quasi liber et pictura/ Nobis est et speculum’ quoted in E. R. Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (1953), p. 319.

3 R. P. H. Green, De Doctrina Christiana, (1995) 1.2; J. Sailhamer, ‘The Classical and Medieval View of Scriptural Meaning’, The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation (2009), p. 75-80; F. Ohly, Sensus Spiritualis (2005), p. 3.

4 See H. Lubac, Medieval Exegesis, (trans. 1998) 1, pp. 1-14; J. Ziolkowski, ‘Literary Genre and Animal Symbolism’, ed. by L. A. J. R. Houwen, Animals and the Symbolic in Mediaeval Art and Literature (1997), pp. 1-23, p. 9 describes St Augustine’s ideas as ‘codes of meaning.’

Lion, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In Medieval Christian religion, the lion was sometimes associated with Christ in order to emphasise His power and authority over all His creation.  Christ was seen as the saviour and the ruler.  In revelation 5:5, Christ was called the Lion of Judah[1], firstly because the lion was the symbol of the House of Judah and Jesus a descendent of the House of Judah, secondly because he was supposed to be a king and the lion symbolises the king of all beasts.

Lions were also a symbol of the resurrection of Christ after three days. Christians believed that lions’ cubs were born dead and remained as such for three days until their fathers breathed life into them.

They also symbolised purity and virginity owing to the lion’s habit of sleeping with its eyes open as a sign of vigilance and purity. The Virgin Mary was also perpetually pure and virgin and watched over humanity with care.

The text highlights the lion's merciful tendencies, demonstrating instances of restraint and compassion. Lions spare the fallen, refrain from overfeeding and exhibit a peculiar aversion to previous day's meals. Yet, they are not without vulnerabilities, as evidenced by their fear of certain creatures and susceptibility to venom.

Intriguingly, the narrative also touches upon mythical elements, such as the leontophones, small beasts whose ashes have lethal effects on lions. This juxtaposition of natural history with folklore adds layers of intrigue to the Bestiarium, making it a captivating exploration of the animal kingdom's complexities and mysteries.

_Bestiarum uocabulum proprie
conuenit leonibus. pardis. et ti-
gribus. lupis et uulpibus. canibus
et simiis. ac ceteris que uel
ore uel unguibus seuiunt. Excep-
tis serpentibus; Bestie autem
dicite; a ui; qua seuiunt. Fere
appellate; eo quod naturali utun-
tur libertate. et desiderio suo fe-
rantur. Sunt enim libere eorum uoluntates. et huc atque
illuc uagantur. et quo animus duxerit; eo ferantur.
Grece enim leon vocatur. et est nomen nothum. et ex parte corruptum
Leo enim grece; latine interpretatur rex; eo quod princeps est
omnium bestiarum et iuba crispa; imbelles sunt. longi et coma simpli-
ci. acres animos eorum et cauda indicat. Virtus eorum
in pectore. Firmitas autem; in capite. Rotarum timent
strepitus. sed ignes magis. Leo nature sue in superbis feroci-
tatem sui aliarum ferarum generibus miscere nescit.

The term Bestiarium
applies specifically to lions, leopards,
tigers, wolves, foxes, dogs,
and apes, and all other animals that
rage either with their mouths or with their claws.
Excluding snakes, whereas you call these animals beasts
because of the violence with which they rage, you
call them wild animals, for they enjoy their natural
freedom and are carried away by their
instincts. Namely, their will is free, they wander
hither and tither wherever their instinct leads them.
all beasts.

Grece enim leon vocatur. et est nomen nothum. et ex parte corruptum
Leo enim grece; latine interpretatur rex; eo quod princeps est
omnium bestiarum

The word for lion, leo, is of Greek origins and has been adapted into Latin. In Greek, the word for lion is leon/λέων; therefore, it is a spurious and partly corrupted noun. In Latin, indeed, a lion is interpreted as rex (king), for it is the king of all beasts.

et iuba crispa; imbelles sunt. longi et coma simpli-
ci. acres animos eorum et cauda indicat. Virtus eorum
in pectore. Firmitas autem; in capite. Rotarum timent
strepitus. sed ignes magis. Leo nature sue in superbis feroci-
tatem sui aliarum ferarum generibus miscere nescit.

There are three types of this species, among which the short and curly-maned ones are tame, whereas the ones with a simple, long mane are naturally violent (ferocious), which is indicated by their tails. Their virtue lies in their chest, whereas their strength lies in their head. They fear the noises of wheels, but fire even more. The lion, by its nature, cannot mix its proud ferocity with other beasts.

habere. Prima natura est quod per cacumina mon-
tium amat ire. Et si contigerit ut queratur a ve-
natoribus; venit ad eum odor venatorium. et cum cau-
da sua tegit post tergum vestigia sua. Tunc vena-
tores eum investigare nequeunt. Sic et salvator
noster scilicet spiritualis leo de tribu iuda. Radix iesse. fi-
lius david cooperuit vestigia sue caritatis in celis.
donec missus a patre descenderet in uterum virginis ma-
rie. et salvaret genus humanum quod perierat. et
hoc ignorans diabolus. scilicet humani generis ini-
micus; quasi purum hominem ausus est temptare. Etiam
hoc ignorantes qui sursum erant angeli; eo ascenden-
te ad patrem dicebant ad eos qui cum eo ascende-
bant. Quis est iste rex glorie;

The first nature of the lion is that it loves to wander about the mountaintops. If it happens to be tracked down by hunters, it is able to scent them and with its tail, it covers its tracks behind its back. Then the hunters cannot trace it. Similarly, one may know that our Saviour, the spiritual lion from the Tribe of Judah, the Root of Jesse, the Son of David, covered the traces of His love in Heaven until He descended into the womb of the Virgin Mary by the will of His Father in order to save the perishing humankind. As you may know, the devil, the enemy of man, dared tempt him as if He were an ordinary man. Even the angels on high, not knowing this, when He ascended to the Father, said to those who were ascending with Him, "Who is this king of glory?"

apertos habere perhibetur. Sic et dominus noster cor-
poraliter obdormiens in cruce; sepultus est. et deitas
eius vigilabat. Sicut dicitur in canticis canticorum
Ego dormio et cor meum vigilat Et in psalmo. Ecce
non dormitabit neque dormiet; qui custodit israhel.

Its second nature is that it is said to keep his eyes open whilst it is sleeping. Similarly, Our Lord was buried, whilst asleep bodily on the cross, but His divine nature remained vigilant. As it is written in The Song of Songs NKJV 5:2-16 “I sleep, but my heart is awake”, and in The Psalm NKJV 121:4: “Behold, He who keeps Israel Shall neither slumber nor sleep.”

os; generat eos mortuos. et custodit eos tribus
diebus. donec veniens pater eorum insufflat in faciem eorum
et vi vivificat eos. Hic omnipotens pater dominum nostrum
iesum christum tercia die suscitavit a mortuis; dicente
iacob [ ] dormitabit tamquam leo. et sicut catulus leonis

Its third nature is that when a lioness gives birth to her cubs, she begets them dead and keeps them for three days until their father comes and breathes onto their faces and brings them back to life. Similarly, the Almighty Father raised Our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead on the third day, as predicted by Jacob “He will not sleep as a lion, nor will he slumber, and just like a lion's cub

suscitabitur. Circa hominem leonum natura est ut non
lesi nequeant irasci. Ad cuius exemplum rationabiles homi-
nes respicere debent. qui non lesi irascuntur. et innocentes
opprimunt. Cum iubeat christiana lex dimittere liberos. Patet
enim leonum misericordia exemplis assiduis. Prostra-
tis enim parcunt. captivos obvios repatriare permittunt. In viros potius quam in feminas seviunt. Infantes non nisi
magna fame perimunt. Pariter omnes parcunt a sagina. Primum quod alternis diebus potum. alternis cibum ca-
piant. Ac frequenter si digestio non est insecuta; solite
cibationi supponunt diem. Tunc quidem carnes iusto
amplius devoratas; conggregrant. et insertis in ora un-
guibus sponte eas pertrahunt. Sane et cum fugiendum
est in sacietate idem faciunt. Senectam leonum defec-
tio probat dentium. Aversi coeunt. Nec hii tantum;
sed et linces et cameli. et elephanti. et rinocerotes. et tigri-
des. et leene. Fetu primo catulos quinque educant. Deinde
per singulos numerum decoqunt. annis insequentibus et
postremo cum ad unum pervenerint; materna fecun-
ditas rescinditur. Sterilescunt in eternum. Leo ci-
bum fastidit hesternum. et ipsas sue esce reliquias
adversatur. Que autem ei se scire fera audeat cuius

he will be brought back to life”. Concerning the nature of lions towards humans, they cannot rage unless they are harmed or wounded. Rational men should follow suit, they should not rage when unharmed and not oppress the innocent, even though the Christian law sets them free. The lion’s mercy shows itself from endless examples. They spare the fallen and allow the captives in battle to return to their homeland. They mainly attack men rather than women. They only kill infants when extremely hungry. They equally abstain from overfeeding. First, they drink and feed on alternate days. If digestion does not often follow, they usually abstain from eating for a day. Then, when they devour an excessive amount of meat, they gather it and pull it out by inserting their claws spontaneously in the mouth. Indeed, when it is necessary to flee due to satiety, they do the same. Missing teeth reveal the lion’s old age. They mate while facing away. Not only lions, but also lynxes, camels, elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers, and lionesses. The latter raise five cubs at first. Then they reduce the number each year, and finally, when they reach one, the maternal fertility diminishes. They become sterile forever. Lions despise the previous day’s food and turn away from their own leftovers. However, no wild beast dares to face the lion,

voci tantus naturaliter terror ut multa animati-
um que per celeritatem possunt evadere eius impetum;
rugitus eius sonitu velut quadam attonita atque vic-
ta deficiant. Leo eger simiam querit; ut devoret. quo
possit sanari. Leo; gallum. et maxime album veretur.
Leo quidem est rex ferarum. exiguo scorpionis aculeo exa-
gitatur et veneno serpentis occiditur. Leontopho-
nos vocari accipimus modicas bestias Que capite ex-
uruntur. ut earum cineris aspergine carnes sint
pollute. Iacteque per compita concurrentium semitarum; leo-
nes necent. si quantulumcumque ex illis sumpserint.
Propterea leones naturali eas premunt odio. atque ubi
facultas data est; morsu quidem abstinent. sed dilani-
atas exanimant pedum nisibus

whose voice causes such terror that many creatures that can escape its attack through their speed will tremble and become bewildered by its roar, as if overcome by force. A sick lion seeks out a monkey to devour, so it can be healed. A lion fears the cock, especially the white one. The lion is indeed the king of beasts, but it is irritated by the sting of a small scorpion and is killed by the venom of a snake. We have heard of small beasts called leontophones²: when captured, they are burnt; meat contaminated by a sprinkling of their ashes and thrown down at crossroads kills lions, even if they eat only a small an amount. Therefore, they naturally hate each other, and where the opportunity is given, they abstain from biting them but kill them by the pressure of their paws.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Lion, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast78.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Revelation 5:5: “Then one of the elders said to me, “Do not weep! See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has triumphed. He is able to open the scroll and its seven seals.”

2 Leontophones are supposedly small animals that could kill a lion if they are eaten. It comes from Greek leonthophonos (lion killer). When their body is burnt, their ashes can be sprinkled on a piece of meat to bait the lion.

Tiger, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Although tigers were not native species in the regions where Christianity originate and spread, the symbolism associated with them may have been influenced by Eastern traditions.

Tigers might be associated with virtues such as strength of character, resilience and the ability to overcome challenges as well as solicitude of a mother towards her offspring and willingness to risk everything to save them.

In Latin literature, tigers are mentioned in relation to Hircania, a land between Iran and Turkmenistan where tigers abounded there apparently in the Classical Age. Even Virgil, in the Aeneid (IV.365-7), mentions the tigers of Hircania and writes about Dido accusing Aeneas:

“Nec tibi diva parens generis nec Dardanus auctor,
perfide, sed duris genuit te cautibus horrens
Caucasus Hyrcanaeque admorunt ubera tigres. (IV.365-7)”

“You had neither a goddess for a parent, nor was Dardanus the author of your race, faithless one, but the horrible Caucasus produced you from hard crags, and Hyrcanian tigers nursed you."

Transcription

Translation

nominant perse. greci et medi sagittam. Est enim
bestia variis distincta maculis. virtute et veloci-
tate mirabilis. Ex cuius nomine flumen tigris appel-
latur. quod est rapidissimus omnium fluviorum. Has ma-
gis hircana gignit. Tigris vero ubi vacuum rapte sobolis
repperit cubile. ilico raptoris vestigiis insistit. At ille
quamvis equo vectus fugaci; videns tamen velocitate fere se pos-
se preverti; nec ullum evadendi suppetere sibi posse subsi-
dium; terna huiusmodi fraude molitur. Ubi se contigu-
um viderit; speram² de vitro proicit. At illa ymagi-
ne sua illuditur. et sobolem putat. revocat inpetum;
colligere fetum desiderans. Rursus inani specie re-
tenta; totis se ad comprehendum equitem viribus fun-
dit. Et iracundie stimulo velociter fugienti iminet. Iterum ille spere obiectu sequem retardat. nec tamen
sedulitatem matris memoria fraudis excludit. Cassam
versat ymaginem. et quasi lactura fetum residet. Sicque pietatis sue studio decepta; et vindictam amit-
tit et prolem;

The tiger is called so because of her fast running. In fact, the Persians, the Greeks and the Medes³ nicknamed her arrow. It is indeed a beast recognisable by her various spots, which possesses wonderful strength and swiftness. From her name, the river Tigris derives, owing to its being the swiftest of all rivers. The land of Hircania⁴ is the birthplace of more of these beasts. When the tiger has discovered her lair empty after her cub has been stolen, she immediately gets on the thief’s trail. When the thief realises that the beast outruns his horse, however fast such horse may run, and sees that no means of escape is available, he resorts to deception thrice. When he sees that the beast is approaching, he throws down a glass sphere; then the tiger is deceived by her own image and thinks it is her cub; therefore, she withdraws her attack, desiring to gather the cub. Restrained by the false image of the cub, she tries with all her might to catch the horseman. Carried away by her anger, the tiger quickly chases threateningly the fleeing horseman. The horseman slackens the chase by throwing down the sphere a second time; nevertheless, the memory of the deception does not banish the mother’s solicitude. She turns the deceptive image over and sits down with the intention of suckling her cub. Thus, deceived by her own affection, she loses both her revenge and her cub.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Tiger, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast131.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Fŭga means both flight/ escape and fast running in Latin.

2 Sphaera/spaera: sphere

3 The Medes were an ancient Iranian population who spoke the Median language and inhabited a land known as Media between Western and Northern Iran.

4 Hyrcānia was a historical region composed of the land South East of the Caspian Sea in modern-day Iran and Turkmenistan. In Latin literature, it was related to tigers, which were abundant there in the Classical age.

Leopard, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The word leopard comes from Late Latin leopardus, leo is lion and pardus the panther due to their crossbreeding. The Romans imported this beast to Europe in order to use it in amphitheatres, particularly in the venationes games, which involved the hunt and killing of wild animals and during death sentences, damnatio ad bestias, where prisoners were devoured by these wild beasts.

Leopards are mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia (Natural History) and also by Isidore of Seville in his Etymologies¹, describing the leopard as “having mottled coat, speckled with white like a giraffe’s. Swift and headlong for blood, they kill their prey with a single leap”.

In Latin Literature, Virgil mentioned the leopard in The Aeneid (Book VII, lines 348-349): "Next came the spotted leopard, here displayed, / And great with young a Tyrian huntress led”. Virgil describes a leopard being led by a Tyrian² huntress in the context of a description of a parade or procession.

In Medieval Christian religion, the leopard acquires a demonic reputation. Apparently, the Antichrist is supposed to resemble a pard. In Revelations 13:2, John describes the beast from the sea as resembling a leopard: “And the beast that I saw was like a leopard; its feet were like a bear’s, and its mouth was like a lion’s mouth. And to it the dragon gave his power and his throne and great authority”.

Transcription

Translation

_Pardus est genus varium. ac velocissimum et preceps
ad sanguinem. Saltu enim ad mortem ruit. Pardus
ex adulterio leene nascitur et pardi. et terciam origi-
nem efficit. Sicut et plinius in naturali historia dicit.
leonem cum parda aut pardum cum leena concum-
bere. Et ex utroque coitu degeneres partus creari. Ut mu-
lus et burdo³

The leopard is a species with mottled skin: it is extremely swift and longs for blood, for it kills its prey with one leap. The leopard is born from the adulterous crossbreeding of a lioness and a panther, creating a third species. As Pliny⁴ states in his Natural History, a lion with a female panther or a panther with a lioness can copulate. From both unions, degenerate offspring are begot. Such is the example of a mule and a hinny.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Leopard, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast547.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 The Etymologies: sfponline.org/Uploads/2002/st%20isidore%20in%20english.pdf

2 Tyre is a city in Lebanon, onne of the earliest Phoenician metropolises.

3 From Late Latin burdus (bastard, mule) probably of Celtic origin.

4 Gaius Plinius Secundus, known as Pliny the Elder, was an author, naturalist ad natural philosopher and was famous for his Natural History (Naturalis Historia).

Panther, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The panther was one of the most important animals in Medieval Bestiaries. The panther is indeed the embodiment of Christ. Christian symbolists saw the panther as a chaste animal. Within the beast, they saw the image of Christ, who lived amongst men and amidst sin and was not affected by the contagious corruption.

The Christ symbolism is obvious from the fact that the panther sleeps for three days and then awakens, it roars and its mouth emanates a sweet fragrance and all other animals get closer. Similarly, Christ remains for three days in the sepulchre, then rises from the dead and His Verb emanates a sweet odour.

The panther was described as having a dual nature, both fierce and gentle. Similarly, Christ possessed a dual nature, both divine and human. The gentleness of the panther represented Christ’s mercy and compassion whereas the panther’s fierceness represented Christ’s strength and power.

The beast was also associated with the ability of Christ to fight against sin and evil and to attract souls to him in order to save them and to conquer the forces of darkness.

Transcription

Translation

quidem colorem habens et speciosissimum nimis
et mansuetum. Philosogus de eo dicit. qm solum draco-
nem habet inimicum. Cum ergo commederit et sauciatum
fuerit. recondit se spelunca sua et dormit. Post
triduum vero exurgit a sompno(changed from sumpno) et emittit magnum
rugitum. et ab ore eius odor suavissimus exit. velut
omnium aromatum. Cum enim audierint eius

The panther is a multi-coloured, exceptionally beautiful and gentle animal. The Physiologus³ described it as having only one enemy, the dragon. Therefore, after feeding and being replete, it retreats to its cave and sleeps. After three days, it awakes from its sleep and gives a great roar, and its mouth emanates a very pleasant scent, like that of all spices. When other animals hear its

[7v]

vocem cetera animalia; propter suavitatem odo-
ris sequntur eam quocumque ierit. Solus autem dra-
co audiens eius vocem timore perterritus fugit in caver-
nis terre. Ibique non ferens odorem; torpescit. dens de celis eripuit nos de potestate diaboli. et per
incarnationem suam sociavit nos sibi in filios. cepit
omnia. captivamque ducens captivitatem; dedit do-
na hominibus Quod sit animal varium; significa-
tur sicut dictum est per prophetam salomonem de christo. Qui
est sapientia dei patris. Spiritus intelligibilis. Spiritus uni-
cus. multiplex. verus. suavis. aptus. clemens. fir-
mus. stabilis. securus. omnia potens. omnia pros-
piciens. Quia speciosum animal sit. david dicit de
christo. Speciosus forma pre filiis hominum. Mansuetum autem
animal; ysaias quoque dicit. Gaude et letare filia syon
predica filia ierusalem. quia rex tuus venit mansuetus. Cum
saturatus fuerit abscondit se in speluncam suam et
requiescit et dormit. Quia dominus noster
ihesus christus cum satiatus fuisset iudaicis illusionibus
id est flagris. alapis. iniuriis. contumeliis. spinis.
manibus in cruce suspensus. clavis confixus. felle et aceto

roar, they follow it wherever it goes owing to the sweetness of its scent. However, the dragon alone, crazed with fear when hearing the roar, flees into the caves of the earth. Unable to bear the scent, the dragon becomes torpid. Thus, our Lord Jesus Christ, the true panther, descending from Heaven, delivered us from the power of the devil. Through His incarnation, He united us to Himself as sons, “when he ascended on high he led a host of captives, and he gave gifts to men (Ephesians 4:8)”.

As mentioned by the prophet Solomon, the fact that the panther is multi-coloured signifies that Christ is the wisdom of God, the Father, the intelligible Spirit, the unique Spirit, manifold, true, gentle, fitting, merciful, resolute, stable, secure, almighty as well as all-seeing. Since the panther is a beautiful animal, David says of Christ, 'Thou art fairer than the children of men.' (Psalms, 45:2). Isaiah also says about this gentle beast: 'Rejoice and be glad, daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem; because your king comes to you, meek ...' (see Isaiah, 62:11; Zechariah, 9:9; Matthew, 21:5).

When replete, the panther hides in its cave, rests and sleeps. When our Lord Jesus Christ had been sated with the Jewish mockery, that is, with whips, slaps, invectives, thorns, hands on the cross, nails pierced through, forced to drink gall and

[8r]

potatus. et lancea perforatus. obdormiens requie-
vit in sepulcro. et descendit in infernum. illic mag-
num draconem ligans. Die autem tertio surgit a sompno
et emittit clamorem magnum fragrans suavitatem. Sic et dominus noster iesus christus tertia die resurgens. a
mortuis sicut david(changed from davit) dicit; Excitatus est. tanquam dormi-
ens dominus. tanquam potens crapulatus a vino. et ex-
clamavit voce magna. ita ut audiretur in omni
terra sonus eius. et in fines orbis terre verba eius. Et
sicut de ore pantere odor suavitatis exit. et (odor-
suavitatis underlined) omnes bestie que prope sunt et que lon-
ge conveniunt. eamque sequntur; ita iudei qui aliquando
sensum habuerunt bestiarum sed prope per legem erant.
et que longe. idest gentes que sine lege erant audien-
tes vocem christi; sequntur eum cum propria voce dicen-
tes. Quam dulcia faucibus meis eloquia tua super mel
ori meo. Item de eodem. Diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis.
propterea benedixit te deus in eternum. Et salomon. Odor unguentorum tuorum super omnia aromata. Et pau-
lo post. Introduxit me rex in cubiculum suum(changed from suaum); Opportet vos quamcitius. sicut adolescentulas. idest reno-

vinegar, and pierced with a lance, he found relief when he fell asleep in the sepulchre, and descended into hell, binding the great dragon . On the third day, the panther arises from its sleep and gives a loud cry that emanated a pleasant fragrance. Similarly, our Lord Jesus Christ rose on the third day from the dead, as David says, 'He awakened as one out of sleep and like a mighty man that shouteth by reason of wine.'(Psalms, 78:65). And Christ cried out in a loud voice, so that his sound was heard throughout the land and his words at the ends of the earth (see Romans, 10:18).

The odour of sweetness emanates from the mouth of the panther, and all beasts that are near and far follow it. Similarly, the Jews who once had an animal disposition but observed the law of Christ closely, and those who distanced themselves therefrom, that is, the nations without the law, follow Him and utter with their own voice when hearing the voice of Christ: 'How sweet are thy words unto my taste! yea, sweeter than honey to my mouth.' (Psalms, 119:103). Again of Christ: 'Grace is poured into thy lips; therefore God hath blessed thee for ever.' (Psalms, 45:2). Solomon says: 'How much better is ... the smell of thine ointments than all spices!' (Song of Solomon, 4:10). Shortly after, 'In the savour of thy good ointments ...we will run after thee.' (Song of Solomon, 1:3-4). A little after that: 'The king hath brought me into his chambers ‘(1:4).

After the consecration of His commandments, it behoves you to run as quickly as possible like maidens, that is, souls purified by baptism. It also behoves you

[8v]

torum suorum currere. de terrenis ad celestia migrare. Ut introducat nos rex in palatium suum. in ierusalem civita-
tem domini virtutum et in monte omnium sanctorum. Pantera
est bestia minutis orbiculis superpicta. ita ut ocula-
tis ex fulvo circulis nigra vel alba distinguatur; varieta-
te. Hec semel omnino parturit. cuius cause ratio mani-
festa est. Nam cum in utero matris coaluere tres catu-#
li maturis ad nascendum viribus pollent; odiunt temporum
moras. Itaque honeratam fetibus vulvam tanquam obstan-
tem partu lacerant unguibus. Effundit illa partum. seu
potius dimittit; dolore cogente. Ita postea corruptis
et cicatrice cesis sedibus. genitale semen infusum; non
habet acceptum. sed irritum resilit foras. Nam plinius
dicit. animalia cum acutis unguibus frequenter parere
non posse. Viciantur enim; intrinsecus se moventibus catu-
lis.

to renounce earthly things for heavenly ones, so that the king may lead us into His palace, into the city of Jerusalem, the city of the Lord of virtues, and onto the mountain of all the saints.

The panther is an animal adorned with small circular spots, so that it is distinquished by its black and white colouring with eye-shaped circles of yellow. It gives birth only once, and the reason for this is clear. When three cubs have fully grown in the womb of the mother, they become impatient because they are ready to come out; therefore, they tear the burdened womb with their claws as if they wanted to prevent the delivery. She sheds, or rather releases, the offspring, seized with pain. Thus, after the womb has been torn by the cubs, the genital seed, once infused, is ineffective and springs back outwards. Pliny says that animals with sharp claws cannot give birth frequently, for they are injured by the cubs moving inside the womb.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Panther, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast79.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Cŏmĕdo in Early Latin.

2 Probably Late Latin for sătĭātum (replete, full up).

3 The Physiologus is a didactic Christian text written in Greek by an unknown author in Alexandria. It describes animals, birds, fantastic creatures, stones and plants, followed by moral anecdotes and allegorical stories. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologus

4 The dragon is an allegory for Satan or evil in general. The idea of Jesus descending to Hell is associated with the Harrowing of Hell that suggests that Jesus descended to Hell to liberate all the righteous souls.

Antelope, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The antelope was sometimes associated with virtue and spiritual struggle. Due to its graceful and gentle nature, the antelope represented chastity and virtue as well as the importance of leading a virtuous and chaste life.

The watchfulness and the ability of this animal to detect danger symbolised the need for Christians to be spiritually vigilant and aware of the danger of sin and temptation.

The antelope’s two horns symbolised the Old and the New Testament, with which Christians could free themselves from vices and from the temptation of lust and other mundane pleasures.

Transcription

Translation

nimis. Ita ut nec venator ei possit appropinqua-
re. Habet autem longa cornua; serre figuram ha-
bentia. ut possit resecare arbores altas et magnas
et ad terram prosternere. Cum autem sicierit vadit ad
flumen magnum euphraten. Est autem ibi frutex qui
dicitur hericine habens virgulta subtilia. et prolixa.

Now, there is an animal called antelope and is very fierce indeed, insomuch that even a hunter cannot approach it. It has long horns that have a saw-like shape, so that it can cut down tall and large trees and lay them to the ground. When it is thirsty, it goes to the large river Euphrates. There are shrubs there that have delicate and long shoots, resembling a porcupine.[2] It begins to play with its horns in the bushes

[9v]

et incipit ludere cornu ad hericinam. et dum ludit;
obligat cornua in virgultis eius. et diu pugnans;
cum se liberare non potest; exclamat voce magna Audiens venator vocem eius; venit et occidit eum. Sic
et tu homo qui studes sobrius esse et castus; et spiritualiter
vivere; cuius duo cornua sunt duo testamenta. per que
poteris resecare et excidere omnia vicia; corporalia et
spiritualia. Cave ab ebrietate. Ne obligeris luxuria
et voluptate. et interficiaris a diabolo. Vinum enim et
mulieres apostatare faciunt homines a deo.

and whilst playing, its horns are entangled in the shrubs. It struggles for a long time and since it cannot free itself, it bleats loudly. Hearing its bleat, the hunter comes and kills it. Thus, you, Man, that you strive to be sober and chaste, and live spiritually, whose two horns are the two Testaments through which you can cut and eliminate all vices, both physical and spiritual? Beware of inebriation. Do not entangle yourself in lechery, pleasure, and do not let the devil tempt and destroy you, for wine and women lead men away from God.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Antelope, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast137.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Late Latin for sĭtĭerit from sĭtīre to be thirsty.

2 Hericine might be Late Latin for ērīcīnus: related to the porcupine. It might be referring to the plant Miscanthus Sinensis 'Strictus' known as porcupine grass. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/81707/miscanthus-sinensis-strictus-(v)/details

Unicorn, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The unicorn was an animal, the horn of which was said to possess healing properties, such as the ability to purify water, neutralise poisons and cure convulsions and epilepsy. This allegory was also associated with the healing power of Christ.

The unicorn symbolises Christ and its horn represents the unity of Christ and God. The story of the virgin capturing the unicorn is allegorically associated with the Virgin Mary conceiving Jesus in her womb without sin. It also represents purity and chastity.

In the King James Version of the Bible, there appear the Hebrew term re’em, often translated as unicorn, but the exact identity of this animal is uncertain and is debated among scholars. In some translations, the terms wild ox or aurochs are used.

This beast is mentioned in Numbers 23:22 (KJV): "God brought them out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of an unicorn". It is also mentioned in Deuteronomy 33:17 (KJV): "His glory is like the firstling of his bullock, and his horns are like the horns of unicorns: with them he shall push the people together to the ends of the earth: and they are the ten thousands of Ephraim, and they are the thousands of Manasseh."

Since hunters are not able to capture the unicorn, legend has it that if a virgin encounters a unicorn, the beast will rest its head in her lap and fall asleep, thus becoming an easy target for the hunters. The slaughter by the hunters represent the Crucifixion whereas the virgin symbolises Mary in whose womb Christ incarnates.

Transcription

Translation

habet naturam. Pusillum animal est simile hedo.
acerrimum nimis. unum cornu habens medio capite.
et nullus venator eum capere potest. Sed hoc argu-
mento capitur. Puella virgo ducitur ubi moratur
et ibi sola dimittitur in silva. At ille mox ut vide-
rit eam; insilit in sinum eius et complectitur eam. Sic et
dominus noster iesus christus est spiritualiter unicornis. de quo
dicitur. Et dilectus quemadmodum filius unicorni-
um. Et in alio psalmo. Exaltabit sicut unicor-
nis cornu meum. Et zacharias. Suscitavit nobis
cornu salutis in domo david pueri sui. Quod autem
unum cornu habet in capite; significat hoc quod ipse
ait. Ego et pater unum sumus. et secundum apostolum
capud christi est deus. Accerrimum autem dicit eum;
quia neque principatus. neque postestates. neque troni.
neque dominationes eum intelligere potuerunt.
nec infernus eum tenere potuit. nec subtilissimus
diabolus eum intelligere aut investigare valu-
it. Sed sola voluntate patris descendit in uterum
virginis propter salutem nostram. Pusillum animal Sic

The unicorn, which the Greeks called ῥινοκέρως/rinokéros¹, has this nature: it is a small animal similar to a small goat, is very fierce and has one horn in the middle of its head. No hunter can capture it. It is said that a virgin² girl is led to where it dwells and is left alone in the forest. As soon as the unicorn sees her, it leaps onto her lap and embraces her. Thus, our Lord Jesus Christ spiritually symbolises the unicorn. As for him, it is said: “My Beloved is like the son of the unicorns” (The Song of Songs, 2, 9) and in another psalm: “But my horn shalt thou exalt like the horn of a unicorn” (Psalm 92:10). Zacharias wrote: “And has raised up a horn of salvation for us in the house of His servant David” (Luke 1:69). His having one horn on his head signifies that he himself asserts: 'I and the Father are one.' (John 10:30). According to the Apostle³, the head of Christ is God. He is regarded as very fierce because neither leadership, nor power, nor throne, nor dominions could understand him. Even hell could not hold him, nor could the subtlest Devil understand or investigate him. By the will of the Father alone, he descended into the womb of the Virgin for our salvation. It is called small animal

[10v]

dicitur propter incarnationis eius humilitatem ipso
dicente. Discite a me quia mitis sum et humilis corde. Similis est hedo unicornis; quia ipse salvator factus est
in similitudinem carnis peccati. et de peccato dampna-
vit peccatum. Unicornis sepe cum elephantis certa-
men habet. et in ventrem vulneratum prosternit.

because of the humility of Christ’s incarnation. He himself said: “Take my yoke upon you, and learn of me; for I am meek and lowly in heart” (Matthew 11:29).The unicorn is similar to a small goat because the Saviour himself became sinful flesh and then condemned and overcame the power of sin. The unicorn often fights with elephants and pierces their belly with its horn, knocking them down."

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Unicorn, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast140.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 The actual translation of unicorn is μονοκέρως/monokéros.

2 Unicorns were often portrayed with virgins in illustrations. A famous fresco probably by Domenico Zampieri, c. 1602 (Palazzo Farnese, Rome), The Virgin and the Unicorn, shows the unicorn sitting on the virgin’s lap. It can be seen here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DomenichinounicornPalFarnese.jpg

3 Paul the Apostle, Corinthians 11:3 says, “But I want you to realize that the head of every man is Christ, and the head of the woman is man, and the head of Christ is God.”

Lynx, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The lynx is an animal resembling a leopard due to its spots and is similar to wolf. The urine of a lynx was believed to have medical properties, being capable to cure diseases such as kidney failure and jaundice.

The lynx’s sharp vision was a reflection of Christ’s ability to see through the darkness of death and emerge victorious from it.

According to Pliny the Elder, who followed Theophrastus’ work, the urine of the lynx turns into a gemstone named lyncurius, rubellite, similar to amber, that had the capacity to attract metals and to cure some diseases.

The lynx is mentioned by various authors such as Ovid, Pliny the Elder, Solinus, Isidore of Seville and Thomas of Cantimpré, who described it as being able to penetrate solid bodies with its sight.

Transcription

Translation

Lincis dictus; quia in luporum genere numera-
tur. Est enim bestia maculis distincta; ut pardus.
sed similis lupo. Huius urinam converti in duri-
ciam preciosi lapidis dicunt dicunt qui ligurius¹
appellatur. Quod et ipsas linces sentire. uel docu-
mento probatur. Nam egestum liquorem arenis

This beast, the lynx, is enumerated among the species of wolves. It is a beast recognisable by its spots: it is like a leopard but similar to a wolf. Its urine is said to turn into a gemstone, which is called lyncurius, rubellite. The lynxes themselves seem to perceive that and it is proven by this example: out of jealousy, lynxes cover their urine with sand,

[11r]

quantum poterunt contegunt; invidia quadam
nature. ne talis egestio transeat in usum huma-
num. Linces dicit plinius²; extra unum non ad-
mittere fetum.

as much as they can, lest humans use it. Pliny says that a lynx cannot bear more than one offspring.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Lyncurium/ligurium: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyngurium

2 Pliny the Elder in his Natural History

Griffin, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The griffin is a hybrid creature that combines the features of a lion, the king of beasts, and an eagle, the king of birds. Its hybrid nature symbolised divine and earthly qualities: the eagle represented the spiritual world whereas the lion the material world. In Christian symbolism, the griffin represented Christ: the eagle represented the Resurrection, as eagles were believed to renew their plumage, whereas the lion symbolised Christ’s kingship. The griffin was also the vigilant protector of the Christian faith, representing the need for Christians to defend their beliefs.

Transcription

Translation

_Griffes¹ uocatur; quod sit animal pennatum.
et quadrupes; Hoc genus ferarum in yperporeis²
partibus nascitur uel montibus. Omni parte corporis
leoni. Alis et facie; aquilis simile. Equis vehementer
infestum. Nam homines uisos decerpit.

The griffin is a winged animal and a quadruped. This kind of beast is born somewhere on the Hyperborean mountains. In every part of the body, it resembles a lion whereas its wings and face resemble those of an eagle. It is extremely hostile towards horses³ and it tears humans to pieces upon seeing them.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Griffin, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griffin

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Medieval and Late Latin for gryps = griffin

2 Hўperbŏrĕus: it is referring to the Hyperboreans. According to Greek mythology, they were a mythical population who lived in the far Northern part of the world, maybe the present-day Britain, Scandinavia or Siberia.

3 The idea that griffins hated horses come from the legend of the Arimaspi, a legendary tribe of one-eyed people of northern Scythia who lived in the foothills of the Riphean Mountains, variously identified with the Ural Mountains or the Carpathians. They struggled with the gold-guarding griffins in the Hyperborean lands near the cave of Boreas, the North Wind (Geskleithron), had their origin in a lost work by Aristeas, reported in Herodotus. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arimaspi

The griffins were also depicted attacking horses in ancient art, as on the gold pectoral of the Scythian King that can be seen here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Pectoral_from_Tovsta_Mohyla

Elephant, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In Christian symbolism, the elephant represented Adam and Eve. When the elephants want to mate, they go to the East where there is a plant, the mandrake, from which the female elephant eats and then seduces the male into eating the plant too. She then becomes pregnant and they are expelled from Paradise.

Before mating, the elephants were in a state of bliss the same as Adam and Eve before they were tempted by the snake. They were also associated with chastity owing to the fact that they do not have lust for sexual intercourse.

Since elephants are faithful to their mates, they also symbolised self-control and temperance, fidelity and loyalty as an allegory for Christians to have devotion and dedication to the Church and God.

Elephants are lovable, compassionate and patient: the Bible encourages Christians to observe these qualities. They are also a metaphor for tolerance and calmness.

Transcription

Translation

est concupiscentia coitus. Elephantem greci. a
magnitudine corporis vocatum putant. quod for-
mam montis preferat. Grece enim mons eliphon dici-
tur. Apud indos autem a voce; barbaro vocatur. Unde et vox eius barbaritus. et dentes eius ebur. Rostrum autem promuscida dicitur. qm illo pabu-
la ori admovet. et est agno similis. Vallo muni-
tur eburneo. Nullum animal grandius videtur. In eis enim perse et indi. turribus ligneis collocati; tan-
quam de muro iaculis dimicant. Intellectu et me-
moria multa vigent. gregatim incedunt. fu-
giunt murem. Aversi coeunt. Biennio autem par-
turiunt. nec amplius quam semel gignunt. nec plu-
res; sed tantum unum. Vivunt autem annos trecen-
tos. Si autem voluerit filios facere; vadit ad ori-
entem prope paradisum. et est ibi arbor que
vocatur mandragora. et vadit cum femina
sua. que prius accipit de arbore et dat in mascu-
lo suo et seducit eum donec manducet. statimque
in utero concipit. Cum vero tempus pariendi ve-

The elephant is an animal that has no lust for sexual intercourse. The Greeks call it elephant from the size of its body, which they believe resembles a mountain. In Greek, a mountain was nicknamed eliphon². Among the Indians, the word for elephant sounds incomprehensible to us. The trumpet of the animal sounds barbaric and its teeth are made of ivory. Its trunk is called proboscis wherewith it brings food to its mouth, and it is similar to a lamb. Ivory tusks protect the elephant. No animal seems larger. Persians and Indians place elephants on wooden towers and fight with their javelins therefrom. These animals excel in intelligence and memory. They move around in herds, flee from mice, and mate back-to-back. They give birth every two years and do not give birth more than once: only one offspring. They live for three hundred years. If an elephant wants to have offspring, it goes to the east near Paradise³, where there is a tree called mandrake. It goes there with its female mate, which first takes something from the tree and then gives it to the male, seducing him until he eats. Immediately, she conceives in her womb. When the time of giving birth comes, she goes to a pond, and the water reaches her udder.

[12v]

nerit; exit in stagnum. et aqua venit usque ad ubera;
matris. Elephans autem custodit eam parturientem; quia
draco est inimicus elephanti. Si autem invenerit serpentem;
conculcat eum donec moriatur. Est autem formidabilis
tauris; elephans. tamen murem timet. Est hec natura
eius. Si ceciderit; non potest resurgere. Cadit autem cum
se inclinat ad arborem ut dormiat. Non enim habet iunc-
turas geniculorum. Venator autem incidit arborem modi-
cum. ut elephans cum se inclinaverit; similiter cum
arbore cadat. Cadens clamat fortiter. et statim magnus
elephans exit. et non potest eum levare. Tunc clamant
ambo. et veniunt duodecim elephantes et non possunt
eum levare; qui cecidit; Deinde clamant omnes. et statim
venit pusillus elephans et mittit os suum cum promusci-
da; subtus magnum elephantem. et elevat eum; Habet enim pusillus hanc naturam; ut ubi incen-
sum fuerit de capillis et ossibus eius; neque mali ali-
quid incidet; neque draco; adam et eve. Cum enim carne essent placentes

The male elephant guards her while she is in labour because the snake is the enemy of the elephant. If it finds a serpent, it tramples it until it dies. The elephant, however, is terrifying to bulls, yet it fears mice. This is its nature. If it falls to the ground, it struggles to rise to its feet. It falls when it leans against a tree in order to sleep, for it does not have knee joints. A hunter cuts down the tree slightly so that when the elephant leans, it falls along with the tree. When it falls, the elephant trumpets loudly, and immediately a large elephant comes to its rescue but it cannot lift it. Then they both trumpet, and twelve elephants come, but they cannot lift the one that fell down. Finally, they all trumpet, and immediately a small elephant comes, puts its mouth with the proboscis under the large elephant and lifts it. The small elephant has the following characteristic: when its hair and bones are burned, neither evil nor snake can harm it.

The large elephant and its female represent Adam and Eve. When they were pleasing

[13r]

deo; ante ipsorum prevaricationem; non sciebant coitum.
necque intelligentiam peccati habebant. Quando autem mu-
lier manducavit de ligno; hoc est intelligibilem mandra-
goram dedit viro suo; deinde pregnans facta est. propter
quod exierunt de paradiso. Quamdiu enim fuerint in pa-
radiso; non cognovit eam adam. Scriptum est enim. Cogno-
vit adam uxorem suam et concipiens peperit caym super
vituperabiles aquas De quibus ait propheta. Salvum me fac
deus quoniam intraverunt usque ad animam meam. Et statim
draco¹ subvertit eos. et alienos fecit eos ab arce sua. hoc
est non placere deo. Tunc venit magnus elephans. hoc
est lex. et non eum levat. quomodo nec sacerdos eum qui in-
cidit in latrones. nec duodecim elephantes elevaverunt
eum. idest chorus prophetarum. Sicut nec levita illum
vulneratum de quo diximus. Sed intelligibilis elephans
idest dominus noster iesus christus cum omnibus maior sit. omni-
um pusillus factus est. Quia humiliavit semet ipsum
factus pro nobis obediens usque ad mortem; ut hominem
elevaret. Intelligibilis samaritanus qui imposu-
it super iumentum. Ipse enim vulneratus tulit infirmi-
tates nostras. et peccata nostra portavit. Interpretatur

to God in flesh before their sin, they did not know how to mate, nor did they have an understanding of sin. When the woman ate from the tree, that is, she gave the mandrake of knowledge to her man, then she became pregnant, and they were expelled from paradise. For as long as they were in paradise, Adam did not know her. In fact, it was written: 'Adam knew his wife and she conceived', (Genesis, 4:1) and she gave birth on the waters of guilt. Of this, the prophet says: 'Save me, O God, for the waters are come in unto my soul.'(Psalms, 69:1). Immediately, the snake deceived them by estranging them from God’s heart, that is, they became unpleasing to God. Then comes the large elephant, that is, the law, and it does not raise up Man, any more than the priests raised the man who fell among thieves; nor did the twelve elephants, that is, the group of prophets, raise him up. Similarly, the Levite⁴ did not raise the wounded of whom we spoke. However, the intelligible elephant, that is, our Lord Jesus Christ, who is the greatest of all, he became the smallest of all, for he humbled himself, becoming obedient unto death that he might raise up mankind. The intelligible Samaritan himself, who placed the wounded on a beast of burden, was wounded, carried our illnesses and bore our sins. The Samaritan

[13v]

autem samaritanus custos. de quo dicit david. Custodi-
ens parvulos dominus. Ubi autem est dominus presens; neque dia-
bolus appropinquare poterit. Elephantes vero promusci-
da sua quicquid involuerint frangunt. pede vero quicquid
compresserint; velut quodam lapsu ingentis ruine
examinant. propter feminas numquam dimicant. Nul-
la enim noverunt adulteria. Inest illis clementie bonum. Quippe si per desertum vagabundum hominem forte vi-
derint; ductus usque ad notas vias prebent. Vel si con-
sertis pecoribus occursitent; itinera sibi blanda et pla-
cida manu faciunt. ne qua tela obvium animal inte-
rimant. Conflictis fortuito si quando pugnatur; non me-
diocrem curam habent sauciorum. Nam fessos vulnera-
tosque in medium receptant.

symbolises the guardian, of whom David says, 'The Lord watches over the children'⁵ But where the Lord is present, the devil cannot approach. However, elephants break whatever they wrap around with their trunks, and with their foot, they crush anything they trample, sounding like the collapse of ruins. They never fight over females, for they know no adultery. They possess the quality of mercifulness. Indeed, if by chance they see a wandering man in the desert, they lead him to familiar paths or if they encounter herds of cattle, they make their way carefully and peacefully lest their tusks kill any animal in their way. If by chance, a fight breaks out, they do not neglect the care of the wounded. In fact, they pull the tired and the wounded to themselves into their midst.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Drăco means both dragon and snake in Latin.

2 Eliphon might be a typing or transcription mistake. There is no evidence that mountains were nicknamed eliphon. The Ancient Greek word for mountain was ὄρος/óros and for elephant was ἐλέφας/eléfas. There exists the word ἐλέφαν/eléfan (vocative form) used to personify an elephant. There might be a possibility that a new word was created as a nickname.

3 The Garden of Eden. Possible locations might be the Persian Gulf, in southern Mesopotamia where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers run into the sea and in Armenia

4 The Levite was member of a group of clans of religious functionaries in ancient Israel who apparently were given a special religious status, conjecturally for slaughtering idolaters of the golden calf during the time of Moses (Ex. 32:25–29).

The text is referring to the Parable of the Good Samaritan found in the Gospel of Luke (Luke 10:25-37), in which a man is beaten, robbed, and left for dead on the side of the road. A priest and a Levite, both religious figures, pass by without helping him. It is a Samaritan, traditionally considered a social and religious outsider, who stops to care for the wounded man.

5 It might be referring to Psalms 116:6 “The Lord protects the simple and the childlike…”

Beaver, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The beaver is an animal whose testicles are used for medical purposes. There is a substance called castoreum that is collected from the glands of mature beavers that is used to treat anxiety, insomnia and menstrual cramps but there is no scientific evidence that supports this theory. Such substance was believed to cure diseases such as epilepsy and to cast evil spirits from the head as well as neutralize the venom of snakes and scorpions.

In Classical times and Christian symbolism, the beaver was often associated with purity, celibacy and chastity. Good Christians ad priests were encouraged to observe these practices in order to devote themselves fully to God. In Matthew 19.12, Jesus mentioned the eunuchs who observed such habits: “For there are eunuchs who were born that way, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others—and there are those who choose to live like eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. The one who can accept this should accept it.” Besides, the priests of Cybele, the Galli¹, also castrated themselves to devote themselves fully to the Goddess.

Every man who wanted to live by the Law of Good was encouraged to castrate himself allegorically to devote himself to God fully, just the same as the beaver does. Allegorically meant that men were urged to free themselves from vices and acts of impurity in order to observe divine precepts.

Transcription

Translation

Est animal quod dicitur castor mansuetus tamen
nimis. Cuius testiculi medicine sunt aptissimi.
de quo dicit philosogus. quia cum venatorem se inse-
quentem cognoverit; morsu testiculos sibi abscidit;
et in faciem venatoris eos proicit. et sic fugiens evadit;
Si vero rursus contigerit. ut alter venator eum prosequa-
tur; erigit se que et ostendit virilia sua venatori; Quem
cum viderit testiculis carere ab eo discedit. Sic omnis
qui iuxta mandatum dei versat et caste vult vive-
re; secat a se omnia vicia et omnes inpudicie actus.
et proiciat a se ea in faciem diaboli. Tunc ille videns
eum nil suorum habentem; confusus ab eo discedit; Ille
vero vivit in deo et non capitur a diabolo qui dicit. Per-
sequar et comprehendam illos; Castor dicitur a castrando;

The beaver is an extremely gentle animal whose testicles are used for medical purposes. In the Physiologus, it is written that when a beaver realises it is being hunted, it bites off its testicles and throws them in the hunter’s face. Therefore, it survives by escaping. If it is chased again by another hunter, it stands on two legs and shows its genitals to the hunter. When the hunter sees that it lacks testicles, he leaves. Thus, he who lives according to the Law of God and wants to live chastely, will cut off from himself all vices and all acts of impurity and throw them in the face of the devil. Then, the devil, upon seeing that the man has nothing of his own, will leave, confused thereby. He who lives in God and is not captured by the devil says, 'I will pursue and apprehend them.'² The name castor for beaver derives from the verb castrāre (to castrate).

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Beaver, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast152.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

WebMD LLC, Castoreum - Uses, Side Effects, and More, 2005-2023, https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-315/castoreum

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 The Galli were eunuch priests of the Phrygian Goddess Cybele and her consort Attis. They used to wear women’s clothes and castrated themselves to devote themselves fully to the Goddess. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galli

2 It might be referring to Psalm 17:38: “I will pursue my enemies and apprehend them. And I will not turn back until they have failed”.

Ibex, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The ibex might have represented watchfulness and vigilance in Christian symbolism. Such vigilance was often associated with the need for Christians to be alert and watchful against the temptations of sin and in their spiritual journeys.

This animal’s white coat and graceful appearance could have been seen as a metaphor of innocence and purity, aligning with the Christian ideal of purity of heart and soul. The white ibex could have also represented the innocence of Jesus Christ.

The ibex could also be seen as the wild goat that Abraham sacrificed to God instead of his son Isaac, as mentioned in Genesis 22, meaning that the ibex cold have been associated with sin.

Some theories suggest that the ibex was hunted for its meat and some body parts were used for medical purposes, for instance, its horns were believed to cure impotence and its blood kidney stones.

Transcription

Translation

_Est animal quod dicitur ibex. duo cornua habens
quorum tanta uis est ut si ab alto montis. ad ima de-
missum fuerit; corpus eius totum hiis duobus cornibus sus-
tentetur; illesum _Significat autem eruditos homines.
qui duorum testamentorum consonantia quicquid eis aversi
acciderit; quasi quodam salubri temperamento; tempera-
re solent. et uelud duobus cornibus fulti; bona que perpe-
trant veteris testamenti. ac evangelice lectionis at-
testatione sustentant.

The ibex has two horns, the power whereof is so great that if it fell from the top of a mountain to the bottom, its whole body would be supported by these two horns unscathed. However, the ibex represents those learned men, who endure whatever adverse events befall them in keeping with the teachings of the Two Testaments and are able to remain moderate in the face of adversity. These men are able to sustain the good deeds accomplished by the Old Testament and the testimony of the Gospel teachings in the same way as the ibex is sustained by its two horns.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ibex, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast154.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc, Wikepedia: Ibex, 27th October 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibex

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Hyena, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The hyena was an animal often associated with negatives qualities such as deceit, treachery and untrustworthiness in Medieval Christianity and symbolism. Owing to its scavenging habits, its eerie laughter and feeding on corpses, the hyena was often a metaphor for the devil or demonic forces that tempt humans to divert them from their faith.

This beast also represented the submission to luxury and wealth and was compared to the Sons of Israel who strayed from their faith in God, thus starting to believe in false idols in the name of mammon.

In the Bible, hyenas are mentioned along with other animals such as jackals, ostriches and demonic mythical creatures whenever there is a prophet’s promise of doom. When they howl, castles will collapse. In Isaiah 13:22: “The hyenas will howl in their citadels, and jackals in their pleasant palaces. Her time is near to come, and her days will not be prolonged.”, the prophet is announcing the wrath of God towards the people of Babylon, and when the city has fallen, hyenas will make their laughing cry from the ruins of Babylon.

Transcription

Translation

Est animal quod dicitur yena. in sepulcris mortuorum
habitans. eosque vescens. Cuius natura est ut aliquan-
do masculus sit; aliquando femina. et ideo inmun-
dum est animal. Cui cum spina riget; continua(changed to continuo) uni- tate flecti nequit. nisi toto corporis circumictu;
Solinus multa mira de ea refert. Primum; quod sequitur
stabula pastorum. et circuit domos per noctem et assi-
duo auditu addiscit vocamen quod ex primere possit
vocem imitationis humane. ut in homine astu acci-
tum nocte seviat. Vomitusque mentitur humanos. fal-
sisque singultibus sic sollicitatos canes devorat. Qui forte
si venantes umbram eiusdem dum sequitur contigerit;
latrare nequeunt voce perdita. Eadem yena inquisi-
tione corporum sepultorum bustam eruit. Huic
assimilantur filii isrel qui ab initio deo vivo servie-
runt. postea divitiis et luxurie dediti; ydola colue-
runt. Ideo propheta comparavit sinagogam imundo ani-
mali dicens. Facta est mi hereditas mea quasi spelun-
ca yene. Quicumque ergo inter nos luxurie et avaricie
inserviunt; huic belue comparantur. cum nec viri
nec femine sint. idest nec fideles nec perfidi. Sed sunt
sine dubio de quibus ait salomon. Vir duplex animo;
in constans est in omnibus viis suis. De quibus et dominus;
Non potestis deo servire et mammone. Hec belua
lapidem in oculis tenet; nomine hyenam. Quam

The hyena is an animal that dwells around the tombs of the dead and feeds on corpses. Its nature is such that sometimes it is male, sometimes female; therefore, it is an unclean animal. Since its spine is rigid, it cannot turn unless it moves its entire body. Solinus recounts many wonderful things about this animal. Firstly, it follows the flocks of shepherds and circles their houses at night; by listening carefully, it learns human speech so it can mimic it, so that it can cunningly lure people at night by calling them towards itself. It mimics human vomiting and, with fake sounds of retching, devours the dogs it has enticed. Should dogs accidentally touch the shadow of the hyena whilst chasing it, they lose their voices and cannot bark. The hyena itself, in its search for buried bodies, digs up graves.

The hyena is likened to the Sons of Israel who served the living God at the beginning but worshipped idols afterwards, for they yielded to wealth and luxury. Therefore, the prophet compared the synagogue to the unclean animal, saying, 'My heritage has become to me like the lair of the hyena.' Therefore, those among us who submit to luxury and avarice are compared to this beast, being neither male nor female, neither faithful nor faithless. Undoubtedly, they are what Solomon describes as: 'A double-minded man is unstable in all his ways' , of whom the Lord says, 'You cannot serve God and mammon.' This beast has a stone in its eyes, called hўaenĭa (gem).

[15v]

petram si quis sub lingua tenuerit; futura predicere
creditur. Unde yena quodcum animal ter lustrave-
rit; movere se non potest. Quapropter magicam ei scien-
ciam in esse pronuntiaverunt. In ethiopie partes coit
cum leena. Unde nascitur monstrum erasure cui crocote no-
men est. Voces hominum et ipsa pariter affectat. Numquam
orbium commutatio eis inest. In erasure ore hyene nulla nulla gin-
giva est. Dens unus atque perpetuus. qui ut numquam
retundatur naturaliter capsularum modo clau-
ditur.

If anyone holds this stone under their tongues, they are believed to predict the future. Hence, if the hyena circles a prey thrice, the prey cannot move. Therefore, the hyena is believed to possess magical abilities. In the Ethiopian regions, it mates with a lioness, giving birth to a creature called crocotta. Like the hyena, it mimics human voices and actions. It never tries to change the direction of its glance but manages to see without changing it. It has no gums in its mouth, only one continuous tooth that closes naturally like a casket and is never blunted.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Hyena, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast153.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Gaius Julius Solinus was a Latin grammarian, geographer and compiler known for his De Mirabilibus Mundi (About The Wonders of The World) and Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium ("Collection of Curiosities").

2 Jeremiah (c. 650 – c. 570 BC) also called Jeremias or the "weeping prophet", was one of the major prophets of the Hebrew Bible.

3 Jeremiah 12:9: “Is my heritage to me like a hyena’s lair? Are the birds of prey against her all around? Go, assemble all the wild beasts; bring them to devour.”

4 James 1:8 AMP: “being a double-minded man, unstable and restless in all his ways [in everything he thinks, feels, or decides]”.

5 Matthew 6:24: “No one can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be loyal to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon.”

In the New Testament, mammon means money, material wealth or any evil entity that promises wealth.

6 Pliny the Elder, in his work Natural History (VIII.72 and 107), variously described the crocotta as a combination between dog and wolf or between hyena and lioness: “When crossed with this race of animals the Ethiopian lioness gives birth to the corocotta that mimics the voices of men and cattle in a similar way. It has an unbroken ridge of bone in each jaw, forming a continuous tooth without any gum.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocotta

Satyr, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The satyr of the medieval bestiary is quite different from the image of the satyr of antiquity, described as a type of ape and often illustrated as a wild man.

The other bestiaries the Satyr is often described as a type of ape, but is usually illustrated as a wild man. It is said to have a lively character, and a pleasant face, although in most illustrations they have an ugly face. Satyrs are generally shown as having features that are more human-like than ape-like, and are often pictured carrying a club. This type of Satyr is quite different from the image of the traditional Roman/ Greek Satyr, which is usually explicitly depicted with a male upper body and the legs and horns of a goat.

Transcription

Translation

Sunt et quos vocant satiros. facie admodum grata.
gesticulatis motibus. inquieti calitores. toto pe-
ne aspectu a ceteris differunt. In facie barba est. latam
habet caudam. Hos capere non est arduum. set pro-
ferre rarum. Neque enim vivunt in altero quam in ethio-
pico loco. hoc est in suo celo3.

There are also those who are called satyrs, with a very pleasant face and gesticulating movements. They are restless heathens, and differ from the rest in almost their whole appearance. He has a beard on his face and a broad tail. It is not difficult to catch them, but they are rare. For they do not live in any other place than in Ethiopia, that is in their heaven.

Deer, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The deer was an animal whose right antler was used for medical purposes. According to Medieval medicine, eating deer or venison protected humans from fever and drinking a mixture made from its tears and heart cured from heart diseases and relived pain in the limbs. Deer and stags were often associated with gentleness and innocence. Their graceful and docile nature contributed to the perception of these animals as symbols of virtue and purity.

They also symbolise renewal and regeneration: the shedding and regrowth of antlers were seen as a metaphor for this. This characteristic of stags was sometimes used to convey the idea of spiritual rebirth or the cyclical nature of life. They were also associated with the idea of resurrection. The deer's ability to regrow its antlers became a metaphor for Christ's resurrection, signifying victory over death and sin.

In Christian Symbolism, deer, particularly stags, were sometimes allegorically linked to Christ and the Christian soul. The stag was believed to represent the soul pursuing a longing for God. Just as the stag seeks pure streams, the Christian soul seeks spiritual purity and union with God.

The imagery of a stag being pursued by hunters symbolized the Christian's pursuit of virtue and the soul's struggle against sin and temptation. This theme emphasized the constant effort required to resist worldly temptations and remain on the path of righteousness.

Transcription

Translation

Cervi dicti apoton ceraton id est a cornibus. Cerata
enim grece cornua dicuntur. Hii serpentium
inimici. cum se gravatos infirmitate; spiritu narium
eos extrahunt; de cavernis. et superata pernicie veneni;
eorum pabulo reparantur. Dittanum herbam; ipsam pro-
diderunt. ea namque pasti; eitiunt acceptas sagit-
tas. Mirantur autem sibilum fistularum. Frectis auribus
acute audiunt. submissis; nichil. Cervi et hanc na-

Deer are called apóton ceráton (ἀπὸ τῶν κεράτων/apó tôn kerátōn) , meaning from the horns, for cerata is the Greek word for horns. These beasts are the enemies of snakes: if afflicted by illness, they bring the snakes into the open from their lair through the exhalation of their nostrils, and once they have overcome the danger of poison, they feel restored after eating them. They discovered the dittany plant and after feeding on it, they became invulnerable to arrows. They marvel at the sound of reed pipes. When their ears are pricked, they hear distinctly, when lowered, they hear nothing. Deer also have this characteristic:

turam habent. quod pro amore alterius patrie mutant
pascua sua. et se se vicarie sustentant. Si quando in-
mensa flumina vel maria transeant; capita clunibus
precedentium superponunt. Sic invicem succedentes;
nullum laborem ponderis sentiunt. Et quando loca
inmunda inveniunt; ea ne in eis coinquinentur citissime
transiliunt; Habent et aliam naturam quod post com-
estionem serpentis; ad fontem currunt. et ex eo biben-
tes; pilos et omnem vetustatem deponunt. Que nature;
in menibris(changed to menbris) sancte ecclesie videntur convenire; conpeten-
ti ratione. Quia dum patriam istam. idest mundum pro-
amore celestis patrie mutant; sese vicarie portant. idest
perfectiores minus perfectos exemplo et bonis operibus promovent
et sustentant. Et si locum peccandi inveniunt; statim transi-
liunt. et post vel per suggestionem. added above incorporationem diaboli. idest post pecca-
ta perpetrata; ad christum qui verus est fons; currunt con-
fessione. Et precepta eius haurientes. deposita peccati ve-
tustate; renovantur. Mares generis generis(dots underneath) huius cum
statutum tempus venerem incitant(corrected to incitat); seviunt amore vel in rabiem added li-
bidinis. Femine. licet prius consotienturvel conferantur added ; non con-
cipiunt (iactum semen dots underneath, ante arcturi sidus added above). Nec qualibet partus suos

out of love for another land, they change their pastures and mutually support one another. If they ever cross large rivers or vast seas, they place their heads on the buttocks of those ahead, thus following one upon the other, they do not feel hindered by their weight. When they find filthy places, they cross them quickly to avoid contamination. They have a second characteristic: after eating a snake, they run to a spring, and after drinking from it, they shed hair and their old age: they regain their youth. These characteristics seem to be peculiar to the members of the Holy Church, for, whilst changing this material world out of love for the heavenly world, they behave vicariously, that is, those who are more accomplished promote and sustain by example and good deeds those who are less. If there appears an opportunity for sin, they immediately surmount it. After the incarnation of the Devil, that is, after committing sins, they run to Christ, who is the true Source, through confession. Upon imbibing His commandments, they revive, after shedding the senectitude of their sins. Stags, when it is time to rut, rage in the grip of lust. Does, although they may have been inseminated previously, do not conceive before the star Arcturus appears nor do they raise their offspring just anywhere

educant; sed tenero studio occulant. sed absconditos in-
ter profunda fruticum vel herbarum pedum verbere
castigant ad latendum. Cum aliquantulum creverunt
ad roburis maturitatem; per exercitium docent cursum
et assuescunt salire per abrupta. Acceptis canum la-
tratibus; secundo vento dirigunt. ut odor cum ipsis rece-
dat. Stupent omnia. propterea et facilius obvios se
prebent sagittantibus. Dextrum cornu efficatius est. ad
medelam. Si fugare angues gestias; utrum velis
ures. Dentes monstrant senectutem cum aut pau-
ci inveniuntur aut nulli. Ad dinoscendam viva-
citatem; alexander magnus torques plurimis cer-
vis innexuit. qui post annum centesimum capti; nec-
dum senectutis inditium preferebant. Hinnuli;
sunt filii cervorum. ab innuere; dicti. quod nu-
tu matris absconduntur. Adversus venena; mirifi-
cum est hinnuli coagulum occisi. matris sue ute-
ro patuit eos numquam febrescere. Quam ob causam
conserta ex medullis ipsorum unguenta. sedant
calores hominum languentium. Legimus plurimos ma-
tutinis diebus cervinam carnem degustare solitos;

but they hide them with tender care in thick bushes or grass and they beat them in order that they remain out of sight. Once they have grown a little and reached the maturity of strength, through exercise, they teach them to run and train them to leap over precipices. Upon hearing dogs barking, they head upwind so that their scent vanishes along with them. They marvel at everything and stay still; therefore, they expose themselves easily to hails of arrows. The right-hand antler seems to be effective for medical purposes.

If you desire to chase away snakes, you want to burn them if necessary. If deer have few or no teeth, it shows that they are old. To distinguish the deer that lived longer, Alexander the Great tied wreathes around the necks of a great number of them. Those captured after a hundred years still did not show signs of old age. The offspring of the deer are called hinnŭli, fawns, from innŭĕre, 'to nod', because at a nod from their mother, they vanish from sight. The clot of a fawn killed in its mother’s womb is amazing and effective against poisons. It is known that they never catch a fever. For this reason, ointments made from their own marrow are prepared for lowering the temperature of the sick. We read that many men who have regularly eaten a small amount of venison since their early days have lived for a long time

[19r]

sine(corrected from solitosine) febribus longevos fuisse. Quod demu pro-
derit; si uno vulnere fuerint interempti;

unaffected by fevers. What good is it exactly if they are killed by a single wound?

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Stag, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast162.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

NDA Staff, National Deer Association, Why does the deer look so raggedy?, December 2023, https://deerassociation.com/why-does-that-deer-look-so-raggedy/

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Late Latin for dictamnum or dictamnus.

2 Late Latin for flexis from the verb flectĕre.

3 Latinised spelling for the Ancient Greek ἀπὸ τῶν κεράτων/apó tôn kerátōn = from the horns. κεράτων / kerátōn is in the genitive plural form and means horns, από/apó means from and τῶν / tôn means the in the genitive plural form.

4 Latinised term for κέρατα/ kérata, horns.

5 The shedding of hair is specific to the drinking from the spring according to the text. In reality, deer moult twice per year. They shed their winter coat in the spring and their summer coat in late summer.

Goat, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The goat is an animal that has been associated both with Christ and with the Devil. Medieval bestiaries, for instance, saw the goat as a symbol of Christ: just as the goat loves high mountains, Christ loves the high mountains that were a metaphor for the angels, the prophets and the patriarchs. As the goat’s food was the grass of the valleys, Christ’s food was the good deeds of Christians. The goat’s sharp eyesight was God’s omniscience and His ability to detect the Devil’s tricks.

According to Origen[1], the goat’s milk had the abilities to regenerate and sharpen anyone’s eyesight and was compared to Christ’s blood that was capable of opening the eyes of the souls and sharpening their spiritual sight.

The goat’s skin was believed to heal wounds, its urine to cure earaches and its liver to help leprosy.

However, the goat had also a negative connotation. In Christian symbolism, it was also associated with lust and sin: the goats’ mating behaviour and their lascivious nature led to the belief that goats represented sinful desires.

The concept of the scapegoat comes from the Bible: in the Book of Leviticus (16:20-22)[2], a scapegoat is chosen to bear the sins of the whole community and is sent it into the wilderness to carry away the sins of the people.

In Matthew 25:31-46[3], the parable of the sheep and the goats associated this beast with the damned and the importance of good deeds and charity is emphasised.

The horned variety of Gods has also been associated with the Devil. The connection between this animal and the Devil can be traced back to Paganism, which was absorbed by Christian symbolism. Pagan traditions in the Roman and Greek society associated goats with the god of fertility such as Pan that was later transformed into negative symbolism by Christianity.

Transcription

Translation

Est animal quod dicitur latine caper. eoquod
captet aspera. Nonnulli a crepita capream vo-
cant. Hee sunt agrestes capree. quos greci eoquod
acutissime videant; dorcas appellaverunt. Moran-
tur in excelsis montibus. et de longinquo venien-
tes; cognoscunt si venatores sunt aut viatores.
Sic dominus nostr iesus christus; amat excelsos mon-

The goat is called in Latin căpĕr, for it seeks uneven, rugged grounds. Some say the word căprĕa, wild she-goat, comes from crĕpita, crackling, rattling sounds. These are the wild goats the Greeks have called δορκάς/ dorkás[4], for they have very sharp sight. They dwell in high mountains and when they see approaching people from afar, they recognize whether they are hunters or travellers. Similarly, our Lord Jesus Christ loves

[19v]

tes. hoc est prophetas. et apostolos. sicut in canticis canticorum
dicitur. Ecce fratruelis meus sicut caprea venit saliens
super montes. transiliens colles. et sicut caprea in conval-
libus pascitur. Ita dominus noster iesus christus in ecclesia pascitur.
Bona opera christianorum esce eius sunt; qui dicit. Esurivi et
dedisti mi manducare. Sitivi; et dedistis mi bibere. Con-
vallia montium; ecclesie per diversa loca intelliguntur.
sicut in canticis dicitur. Ecce fratruelis meus. conver-
tere et esto similis capree hinnuloque cervorum. Quod acu-
tissimam habet aciem oculorum; et prospicit omnia et a
longe cognoscit; significat dominum nostrum qui scienciarum
dominus est. Et alibi qui scientiarum dominus est; Qm excelsus
dominus et humilia respicit et alta a longe cognoscit.
et omnia creavit et condidit. et regit et videt. et pros-
picit. et antequam in cordibus nostris aliquid oriatur; pre-
videt et cognoscit. Denique sicut caprea a longe cognos-
cit venantium adventum; ita christus prescivit insidias
proditoris sui dicens. Ecce appropinquare qui me tra-
det.

high mountains, that is, the prophets and the apostles, as it is written in the Song of Songs: “Behold, my beloved cometh leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the hills” (Song of Solomon, 2:8). As a goat grazes in the valleys, our Lord grazes in the Church. The good deeds of Christians are His food, and He said: “For I was hungred, and ye gave me meat; I was thirsty, and ye gave me drink.” (Matthew, 25:35). The valleys of the mountains are interpreted as various places in the Church, as it is said in the Song of Songs: “My beloved is like a roe or young hart.' (Song of Solomon, 2:9). The fact that the goat has very sharp eyesight, sees everything and recognises things from afar, it signifies our Lord Jesus Christ who is the Lord of knowledge. Elsewhere it is written: “Though the Lord be high yet hath he respect unto the lowly but the proud he knoweth afar off.”(Psalms, 138:6). He created and established all things and governs, sees and provides. Before anything arises in our hearts, He foresees and knows it. Finally, just as a goat recognizes the approach of hunters from afar, so Christ foresaw the deceit of His betrayer , and said: “Behold, he is at hand that doth betray me.” (Matthew, 26:46)

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Goat, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast163.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Mark Davoren, Dominican Friars, Biblical Beasts: Goat, December 2023, https://www.english.op.org/godzdogz/biblical-beasts-goat/

Michele Corti, Ruralpini, La capra: una storia culturale e sociale, December 2023, https://www.ruralpini.it/Capra_storia_culturale.html

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Origen of Alexandria was a prolific writer who wrote roughly 2,000 treatises in multiple branches of theology, including textual criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics, homiletics, and spirituality. He was one of the most influential and controversial figures in early Christian theology, apologetics, and asceticism. He has been described as the greatest genius the early church ever produced. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen

2 Book of Leviticus (16:20-22) : “And when he hath made an end of reconciling the holy place, and the tabernacle of the congregation, and the altar, he shall bring the live goat and Aaron shall lay both his hands upon the head of the live goat, and confess over him all the iniquities of the children of Israel, and all their transgressions in all their sins, putting them upon the head of the goat, and shall send him away by the hand of a fit man into the wilderness: and the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities unto a land not inhabited: and he shall let go the goat in the wilderness.”

3 The Parable of The Sheep and The Goats: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2025%3A31-46&version=NIV

4 The word δορκάς/ dorkás in Greek actually means gazelle.

5 Judas Iscariot.

Monocerus, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The Monoceros was a legendary beast that was popular in Asia and later on, it was also known in Europe. The inspiration for this beast probably stem from the African rhinoceros. Alternative names for it were Carcazonon and Karkadann.

In medieval bestiaries, it was often depicted as a mythical animal with a single horn, similar to the unicorn. The unicorn, in turn, held symbolic significance in both medieval bestiaries and Christian symbolism.

The unicorn or monoceros was frequently associated with purity and chastity. Its horn was believed to have the power to purify water and detect poison, and the creature itself was considered difficult or impossible to capture. This symbolism was often used to convey moral lessons, emphasizing the virtues of purity and the elusive nature of righteousness.

In Christian symbolism, the monoceros (or unicorn) was later assimilated into allegorical interpretations. It came to be associated with Christ, particularly in terms of purity and virginity. The single horn was seen as a representation of Christ's unity and oneness. The unicorn was sometimes depicted in scenes of the Annunciation, emphasizing the Virgin Mary's purity.

Although the monoceros (or uncorn) itself is not explicitly mentioned in the Bible, some scholars argue that certain biblical passages might have influenced the unicorn symbolism. For example, in the Book of Job (39:9-12), there is a description of a creature called "re'em" in Hebrew, which some translations render as unicorn. However, the exact identity of this creature is uncertain, and it may not refer to a unicorn as commonly depicted.

In Latin literature, references to unicorns or similar mythical creatures can be found in the works of various writers. For instance, the Roman author Pliny the Elder mentioned a one-horned animal in his Naturalis Historia, a work that was influential in the medieval period. These references contributed to the development of the unicorn myth in medieval bestiaries.

Transcription

Translation

equino corpore elephantis pedibus, cauda si
simillima cervo. Cornu media fronte eius proten
ditur, splendore mirifico, ad magnitudinem quatu
or pedum, ita acutum ut quic quid impetat facile ictu
per foretur. Vivus non venit in hominum potestatem,
et interimi quidem potest, capi quidem non potest.

The Monoceros is a monster with a terrifying roar. It has the body of a horse, the feet of an elephant, and a tail being very similar to that of a deer. A horn in its magnificent splendour extends from the middle of its forehead to a length of up to four feet. It is so sharp that whatever it strikes is easily pierced with the blow. No man has ever dominated a monoceros. It can be killed, but it cannot be captured.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Monoceros, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast165.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Bear, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In The Early Middle Ages, the Church saw the bear as a violent, cruel and lubricious animal, resembling man when mating standing straight. In the Carolingian age, the Church began to condemn bears’ vices such as brutality, wickedness, idleness and filthiness.

In Medieval bestiaries and Christian symbolism, bears were often associated with sin and temptation: the bear's hibernation habits were likened to a withdrawal from spiritual vigilance, and its ferocity when awakened was seen as a metaphor for the dangers of succumbing to sinful desire.

The bear was sometimes connected to the concept of martyrdom and self-sacrifice. This interpretation was likely influenced by stories of saints facing persecution with fortitude, much like the bear's endurance during the hibernation period.

Some interpretations drew parallels between bears and Christ. For instance, the bear's habit of licking its cubs into shape was seen as a representation of Christ's nurturing and guiding role in the lives of believers. The hibernation and awakening of bears were seen as symbolic of Christ's death and resurrection.

Transcription

Translation

ff21r: Ursus sive ursa dicitur; quod ore suo formet
fetus suos. quasi orsus. Nam aiunt eos in-
formes parere fetus. et carnem quandam nasci.
quam mater lambendo in membra componit. Unde est
illud. Sic format lingua fetum quem protulit
ursa. Sed hoc inmaturitas; partus facit. Denique tri-
cesimo die generat. Unde evenit ut precipitata
fecunditas; informis procreatur. Ursorum capud;
invalidum est. Vis maxima in brachiis et lum-
bis est. Unde interdum erecti insistunt. Ursi quos
egri; formicas devorant et sanantur Vulnerati

the bear, in Latin ursus, whether male or female, is called so, for it moulds its offspring with its mouth, giving it its beginning, orsŭs. Bears are said to give birth to a shapeless foetus born as a piece of flesh that the mother moulds by licking it. Hence, the saying that the tongue moulds the foetus that the bear begets. Therefore, this is the result of premature birth. The bear gives birth on the thirtieth day. Hence, it happens that giving birth prematurely may result in shapeless procreation. The head of bears is weak. Their greatest strength lies in their arms and loins. Therefore, they stand upright sometimes. Sick bears devour ants and when wounded,

21v

venera sua subiciunt herbe que grece dicuntur flomus.
ut solo eius curentur attactu. Numidi ursi ceteris pres-
tant; dumtaxat villis profundioribus. Coeunt ursi non
ut alii quadrupedes; sed ut homines mutuis amplexi-
bus. Desiderium veneris; hiems suscitat. Mares ve-
rentur gravidas honore quo possunt. Unde se aliquan-
tulum seperant a feminis in scrobibus unbi lacent.
Tricesimo dies carnes paxillas edunt. quibus color can-
didus. oculi nulli quas illi lambunt. et appositas
pectori calefaciunt donec formentur et spiritum vita-
lem trahant. Interea cibus nullus. In primis .xiiii.
diebus mares ita in sompnum ita concidunt; ut nec vulneri-
bus excitari queant. Enixe. ternis latent mensibus. Sed
postea egresse. in diem liberum; non possunt susti-
nere insolentiam lucis. ut putes eas obsitas cecitate.
Insidiantur alvearibus apum. quia nichil avidius quam favos
et mella appetunt. Cum gustaverint mala man-
dragore; moriuntur. nisi formicas commederuit. Si qn
cum tauris congrediuntur. cornua aut nares petunt.
Cornua; ut pondere deficiant. Nares; ut acrior dolor sit
in loco teneriore. Nomine igitur ursi sive urse; aliquando

they expose their sores to the mullein plant that the Greeks called φλόμος/flómos, and they heal by just touching it. Numidian bears stand out from the other bears only by virtue of their shaggier fur. Bears do not mate like other quadrupeds, but like humans, they embrace each other when copulating. Winter arouses their sexual desire. Male bears respect the pregnant females and honour them by keeping at a distance a little from them in the lair wherein they lie. On the thirtieth day, the females beget small lumps of flesh (the cubs) white in colour, they do not lick their eyes until they are formed but hold them closer to the chest and warm them and then draw out the vital breath. Meanwhile, no food is eaten and in the first fourteen days, males fall into such a deep sleep that no wound could rouse them from sleep and strenuously try to remain hidden for three months. After coming out into the open, they are so unused to the excessive light that you would think they had blinded. They lie in ambush and attack beehives, for they desire nothing more than honeycombs and honey. When they taste the evil mandrake, they die unless they have eaten ants. If they fight with bulls, they aim at the horns or nose: the horns to make them lose their balance, the nose for a sharper pain in a more sensitive place. Therefore, the word bear, whether male or female, is sometimes associated with

ff 22r: dicitur antichristus. sive alius persecutor ecclesie. Unde in libro reg
post alia dicit david ad saul. Nam et leonem et ursum inter-
fecti ego servus tuus. Erit igitur philisteus hic incircumcisus;
quasi unus ex illis. Et. Dominus qui eripuit me de manu leo-
nis et de manu ursi; ipse liberabit me de manu philistei
huius. Ursus quoque sive ursa crudelem significat;
Unde in libro regum legitur. quod ascenderunt duo ursi
de saltu. et devoraverunt xlii. pueros qui clamabant
ad eliseum ascende calue ascende calue. Hinc iterum
pro crudeli gentilitate dicit dominus per osee; de iudeis.
Et ero eis quasi leena. sicut pardus in via assiriorum.
Oiturram eis quasi ursa raptis catulis et disrumpam
interiora iecoris eorum. consumani eos ibi quasi
leo. Bestia agri scindet eos. Loquitur hic de hereticis sub-
ipse iudeorum qui propter mentis superbiam; falsi dogma-
tis novitatem finxerunt. et oblitu dei sui; secuti sunt
deos inventionis sue. quos deus crudeliter et inmi-
serabiliter tractabit nisi resipiscant. Iudeis quod cum
traditi essent assiriis propter ydolatriam suam; com-
versus est. dominus in ferocitatem omnium bestiarum qui
erga illos dementissimus semper fuit. Nam et crudeles

the Antichrist or another persecutor of the Church. Hence, in the Bible, David says to Saul: “Thy servant slew both the lion and the bear: and this uncircumcised Philistine shall be as one of them, seeing he hath defied the armies of the living God.” (Samuel 17:34–36).The bear, whether male or female, signifies also cruelty. In the Book of Kings, two bears came out of the woods and devoured forty-two boys who were mocking Elisha, saying to him: “Go up, thou bald head; go up, thou bald head”( 2 Kings 2:23). Again, the Lord speaks through Hosea concerning the Jews, on account of their cruel paganism: “So I will be to them like a lion; like a leopard by the road I will lurk; I will meet them like a bear deprived of her cubs; I will tear open their rib cage, and there I will devour them like a lion. The [e]wild beast shall tear them.”(Hosea 13 NKJV).

He speaks here of the heretics among the Jews, who invented false doctrines by reason of the haughtiness of their minds and forsook their God, following the deities of their invention. God will treat these deities cruelly and pitilessly unless they repent. Owing to their idolatry, the Jews were handed over to the Assyrians and the Lord was infuriated by their actions and harboured a grudge towards them. He made even cruel nations rise up against them, which would tear them asunder.

22v

gentes insurgere contra illos fecit. que illos laniarent;
Hee bestie que hic enumerantur; cum catulos perdiderint
vel civis indiguerint; sevissime sunt; Unde in parabol’.
Expedit magis urse occurrere raptis fetibus; quam fatuo con-
fidenti sibi in stulticia sua;

These beasts mentioned here are most ferocious when they lose their cubs or lack resources and support. Hence, “Let a man meet a bear robbed of her cubs, rather than a fool in his folly.”(Proverbs 17:12 NKJV).

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Bear, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast171.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Franco Cardini, Mondi Medievali, L’orso in un bestiario medievale, January 2024, www.mondimedievali.net

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 In Latin, the noun orsŭs means attempt/beginning and is the participle of the verb ordīri that means to begin/to start.

2 Numidia was the ancient kingdom of the Numidians in Northwest Africa, initially comprising the territory that now makes up Algeria, but later expanding across what is today known as Tunisia and Libya.

3 Historically, the Assyrians played a role in the conquest and exile of the Northern Kingdom of Israel around 722 BCE. This event is often associated with the Assyrian conquest of Samaria and the dispersion of the ten northern tribes.

Crocotta, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The cocrotta or leucrocotta is an imaginary beast that results from the crossbreeding between a hyena and a lioness that devours anything and digest it immediately in its stomach.

Pliny the Elder (VIII, 30) described it as such:

“a wild beast of great swiftness, the size of the wild ass, with the legs of a stag, the neck, tail, and breast of a lion, the head of a badger, a cloven hoof, the mouth slit up as far as the ears, and one continuous bone instead of teeth; it is said, too, that this animal can imitate the human voice.”

Transcription

Translation

locitate precedit feras universas feras. Ipsa est asini mag-
nitudine. cervi; clunibus. pectore ac cruribus; leonis.
capite equi. bisulca; ungula. ore usque ad aures dehis-
cente. Dentium locus osse perpetuo. Hec quidem ad formam
am voce; loquentium sonos emulatur.

The crocotta is a beast that originates in India and that outruns all other wild animals. It has the size of a donkey, the hindquarters of a stag, chest and legs of a lion and the head of a horse. It is cloven-hoofed and its mouth opens right back to the ears. Ridges of bones are found in place of rows of teeth. This beast imitates human speech in form and voice, mimicking the sounds of those who speak.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Leucrota, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast160.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Borges, J. L.; trans. di Giovanni, N. T. (2002) The Book of Imaginary Beings. Vintage Classics, Random House, London.

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 This beast has various names such as corocotta, crocuta or leucrocotta.

Crocodile, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

According to Bartholomaeus Anglicus[1], crocodiles would shed tears to lure their preys before swallowing them and the expression crocodile tears seems to derive from this.

This symbolised deceit and the behaviour of individuals who concealed their true, often malicious, intentions. In this context, the crocodile served as a cautionary symbol against the dangers of deception and the importance of discerning true intentions.

The crocodile’s tears symbolised the call for Christians to cry for their own sins and to repent in order to be saved. The text below associates crocodiles to hypocrites, who are greedy, proud, corrupted, lascivious, praise luxury and are obsessed with evil and pretend to submit to the law and pose as righteous.

Transcription

Translation

Crocodrillus dictus est a croceo colore. gignitur
in nilo flumine. Animal quadrupes. in ter-
ra et aqua valens. longitudine plerumque .xx. cubi-
torum. dentium et unguium imanitate armatum.
Hominibus infestum. Tantaque est. duricia cutis. ut etiam
imanissimis lapidibus in tergore percussum; non
sentiat. Nocte in aquis. die; in humo quiescit. Ova
in terra fovet. Masculus et femina vices servant.
Hunc pisces quidam serratam habentes cristam; te-
nera ventrium desecantes; interimunt. Est et in nilo
delphinum genus dorso serrato. qui hoc idem faciunt. Co-
codrillos quidam putant esse pisces eoque in aquis nove-
rint manere. Alii dicunt alias beluas; eoque in terris no-

the name crocodile is ascribed to its saffron colour . It is born in the Nile River. This animal is a quadruped, powerful both on land and in water and is mostly about twenty cubits in length. It is equipped with huge teeth and claws and is hostile to humans. Its skin is so hard that, even when hit with huge stones on its back, it does not feel it. It rests in the water by night and on land by day. It broods the eggs on land. The male and female take turns. There is a type of fish, such as the hydrus, that can cut open a crocodile’s tender belly and kill it. In the Nile, a type of dolphin with a dorsal fin as sharp as a saw can also kill a crocodile. Some believe crocodiles are fish and thus remain in the water. Others say they are different beasts and therefore, they remain

23v

verint esse. Solus cocodrillus pre omnibus animalibus
superiora oris movet. inferiora autem imota tenet. Ster-
cus eius sit unquentum unde vetule et rugose mere-
trices facies suas perungunt. fiuntque pulre(corrected to pulcre); donec sudor
defluens lavet. Cocodrillus qui est animal dure cu-
tis. et malitiosum et luto pascitur; luxuriam invetera-
tam significat. Un in levitico inter imunda animalia
que comedi non debent; numerantur. Cuius etiam figu-
ram portant ypocrite sive luxuriosi atque avari.
qui quamvis visco superbie inflentur; tabo luxurie ma-
culentur. avaricie morbo obsidentur. tamen rigidi
et velut sanctissimi in iustificationibus suis(dots underneath) legis coram
hominibus sese ostendunt incedere. Nocte in aquis. die in
humo quiescit. Quia ypocrite quamvis luxurie vivant;
tamen sancte et iuste vivere dici delectantur. Cons-
cii sue malicie corda plangunt. licet usu semper retra-
hat consuetudo ad perpetrata. Superiora oris movet;
quia hii sanctorum patrum exempla. verborumque copiam
aliis in verbo ostendunt. cum minime ea que dicunt
in se ostendunt. De stercore eius unguentum fit; quia
plerumque mali ab imperitis laudantur; de perpetrato
malo. ac velud huius mundi favoribus excelluntur. Sed cum

on land. In comparison with all the other animals, only the crocodile can move the upper part of its mouth; the lower part of the mouth remains motionless. Its dung seems to be a kind of ointment, whereon old and wrinkled harlots rub their faces. They become beautiful until the sweat drains the ointment off. The crocodile, which is an animal with tough skin, malicious, and feeds on mud, signifies inveterate luxury. In Leviticus, they are regarded as unclean animals and therefore, they should not be eaten. The hypocrites, the lascivious and the greedy carry its image. These people are beguiled by pride, are corrupted by luxury and plagued by the scourge of greed. They appear unbending and honest and pose as righteous men before other men. The crocodile rests in the water by night and on land by day. Hypocrites delight in being called holy and righteous, although they live in luxury. Their hearts bleed, for they are aware of their malicious conscience, but they are accustomed to drawing back from their deeds. The crocodile moving the upper part of its mouth means that the hypocrites follow the examples of the holy fathers and their mouths are filled with someone else’s words when they speak: their words and actions do not match in the least. The ointment being made from the crocodile’s dung means that evil deeds are generally praised by the ignorant, who are besotted with their mundane ambitions and do wrong. But when

24r

iudex districtus pro perpetratis malis iram suam ad fe-
riendum promovet; tunc omnis decor ille laudis;
velut fumus evanescit.

a judge, compelled to punish the culprits on account of their perpetrated evil deeds, vents his anger towards them, then all the beauty of praise vanishes like smoke.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Crocodile, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast146.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 A Franciscan monk born in Suffolk in the thirteenth century. He studied natural sciences and theology at Oxford.

2 In reality, crocodiles are not saffron-coloured. The writer of the bestiary might be referring to the fact that κρόκος/ krókos means saffron in Greek.