Human anatomy, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The section of the Rochester Bestiary on humans includes a long description of various parts of the body from head to toe.

Vertex est. ea pars qua capilli capitis colliguntur.
et in qua cesaries vertitur. unde et nuncupatur. Calva-
ria ab ossibus calvis dicta per defectionem. et neutraliter
pronuntiatur. Occipitium capitis pars posterior. quasi contra
capitium. vel quod sit capitis retrorsum. Capilli;
quasi capitis pili. facti ut decorem prestent; et cerebrum
adversus frigus muniant atque a sole defendant. Pi-
li dicti a pelle qua prodeunt. Sicut et pilum dicitur;
a pila; ubi pigmentum contunditur. Cesaries a cedendo
vocata. Ideoque tantum virorum est. Virum enim tonsum esse
decet. mulierem non decet. Come sunt proprie; non cesi
capilli. et est grecus sermo. Nam comas greci. kaimoc
a secando nominant. Unde et kirin. tondere di-
cunt. Inde et cirri vocantur. quod idem grec ma- Crines proprie mulierum sunt. dicti crines eoquod
vittis discernantur. Unde et discriminalia dicuntur.
a quibus divisi religantur. Tempora sunt; que calva-
rie dextra levaque subiacent. Que ideo sic nuncupantur;

Vertex is the crown of the head, the part that connects the hair to the head, wherefrom the hair moves and turns around. Vertex takes its name from vertĕre (to turn). Calvaria is the cranium formed by the parietal and frontal bones and is named so for the bare bones, and by ellipsis, it is pronounced in the neuter form. The occipitium is the nape, back of the head, almost against the forehead or for it is turned backward. Capilli are the hairs of the head made to provide decoration and to protect the brain from the cold and defend it from the sun. Pili (hairs) are named so from the skin wherefrom they grow. Pilum is said to come from the pestle where pigment is pounded. Caesărĭēs is a hairstyle and comes from "caedĕre" (to cut); therefore, it is only for men. In fact, shearing befits men, not women. Cŏmae are properly uncut hair and it is the Greek term for kaimos from their word for cutting off. Hence, they also say kirin/keirein to mean cutting. Hence, curls are called cirri, which the Greeks call maaonem/mallos, a lock of hair. The word crines refers to women’s hair, for they are separated by fillets. Hence, they are also called discriminalia, the bodkins wherefrom they are divided and tied from the back. Tempora, temples, are located beneath the right and left side of the cranium. They are so called, for they move. With that mobility, like time, they are changed at certain intervals.

quia moventur. ipsaque mobilitate quasi tempora qui-
busdam intervallis mutantur. Facies dicta ab ef-
figie. Ibi enim est tota figura hominis. et uniuscuiusque persone
cognitio. Vultus vero dictus; eoquod per eum animi volun-
tas ostenditur. Secundum voluntatem enim; in varios motus
mutantur. Unde et differunt sibi utraque. Nam facies sim-
pliciter accipitur; de uniuscuiusque naturali aspectu Vultus enim animorum qualitatem significat. Frons ab
oculorum foraminibus nominata est Hec ymago que-
dam animi mentis nomen specie sua exprimit; dum vel
leta vel tristis est. Oculi vocati sive quia eos ciliorum
tegmina occultant. ne qua incedentis iniurie of-
fensione ledantur. sive quia occultum lumen
habent. idest secretum vel interpositum. Hii inter omnes
sensus; viciniores anime existunt. In oculis enim
omne mentis inditium est. Unde et anime pertur-
batio vel hylaritas; in oculis apparet. Oculi enim
hoc sepe fallet idem et lumina. Et dicta lumina; quod ex eis
lumen manat. Vel quod ex(added) initio sui; clausam tene-

The term facies is derived from effĭgĭēs (image). In fact, the entire figure of a man is portrayed therein and the knowledge of each person. Vultus (countenance/face) takes its name from voluntas (will), since the will of the soul is shown through it. In fact, they are changed into various movements according to the will. Hence, each of them differs from the other. Facies, the face, is simply, a person’s natural appearance and vultus, countenance, truly signifies the inner disposition of the soul. Frons (forehead) is named from the openings of the eyes. This image, in its own form, expresses the intellect, when it is either happy or sad. The eyes are called oculi, for the covering of eyelids conceals them, lest they be harmed by the impact of an injury, or for they have a hidden light, that is, secret or inner light.

ant lucem aut extrinsecus acceptam visui proponen-
do refundant. Pupilla est medius punctus oculi in quo
vis videndi est. Ubi quia parve ymagines nobis
videntur; propterea pupille appellantur. Nam parvuli
pupilli appellantur. Hanc plerique pupillam vocant;
eoquod sit pura atque inpolluta ut sunt puelle. Phisici dicunt easdem pupillas quas videmus in oculis;
morituros ante triduum non habere. quibus non vi-
sis; certa est desperatio. Circulus vero quo a pupilla al-
be partes oculi separantur discreta nigredine; corona
dicitur. quod rotunditate sua ornet ambitum pupil-
le. Volvos quidam appellant ipsos vertices oculorum
a similitudine valvarum. Palpebre sunt sinus oculorum
a palpitatione dicte. quia semper moventur. Cu erasure r-
runt enim invicem. ut assiduo motu(corrected); reficiant obtu-
tum. Munite sunt enim vallo capillorum. ut et apertis ocu-
lis si quid inciderit; repellatur. et sompno cohibentibus
tanquam involuti; quiescant latentes. In summitate enim
palpebrarum. locis quibus se ultraque clausa contingunt.

These, among all the senses, are closest to the soul. In the eyes, every indication of the mind is given. Hence, the disturbance or hilarity of the soul appears in the eyes. The eyes often deceive in this way, and so do the lights, which are called lumina, for light emanates from them or for they hold a light within them from the beginning, and reflect it to create vision. The pupil is the middle point of the eye where the power of seeing resides and where small images appear to us. Small children are called pupilli, pupils. Most people call it pupil, for it is pure and undefiled as young girls are. Doctors say that dying people do not have those same pupils we see in the eyes for three days prior to death. If pupils are not visible, the person’s condition is hopeless. Moreover, the circle, defined by its distinct blackness, whereby the white parts of the eye are separated from the pupil is called corona ciliaris, the ciliary body, for it adorns the orbit of the pupil with its roundness like a garland. Some call the eyeballs volvos/bulbos, for they resemble the wing of a door. The cutaneous fold of the eyes are called palpebrae, for they are always fluttering. They rub against each other with continuous motion to refresh the vision. A wall of hair fortifies them so that if anything falls into the open eyes, it is repelled. When closed, as if wrapped up by sleep, they rest hidden. In fact, at the top of the eyelids, in the places where both sides touch when closed, there appear lashes serving as protection for the eyes according to a prearranged order,

extant adnotati ordine servato capilli tutelam ocu-
lis ministrantes. ne iuventes facile iniurias excipiant.
et ex eo noceantur. ut pulveris vel cuiusquam crassioris
materie arceant contactum. Aut ipsum quoque aerem
concidendo mestificent. quo tenuem atque serenum;
faciunt visum. Lacrimas a laceratione mentis quidam
putant dictas. Alii existimant ideo; quod greci lar-
siria vocant. Cilia sunt tegmina quibus cooperiuntur
oculi. dicta cilia; quod celent oculos tegantque tuta
custodia. Supercilia dicta; quia superposita sunt ciliis Que iccirco pilis vestita sunt; ut oculis munimenta
pretendant. et sudorem a capite defluentem depel-
lant. Intercilium non est. medium illud inter supercilia
quod sine pilis est. Gene sunt inferiores oculorum
partes. unde barbe inchoant. Nam grece genos bar-
ba. Hinc et gene quod inde incipiant barbe gigni. Male sunt eminentes sub oculis partes. ad protectionem
eorum subposite. Vocate autem male. sive quod in-
fra oculos prominent in rotunditatem quam greci mela

so that young people or children might not easily receive injuries and be harmed by it, and so that contact with dust or any coarser material is prevented. They might also filter the air, which can make the vision tenuous and clear. Some consider tears, lăcrĭmae, to be a result of the rending of the mind. Others believe that they are called "lachrymae" from that which the Greeks called lassiria(dakry δάκρυ). Cilia, eyelashes, are coverings for the eyes and are called cilia, for they conceal and guard the eyes securely. Supercilia, the eyebrows, are named so, for they are placed above the eyelashes. They are covered with hair for this reason: to protect the eyes and repel sweat flowing from the head. The intercilium, the glabella, is the space between the eyebrows devoid of hair. Gĕnae, the cheeks, are the lower parts of the eyes, where the beard begins to grow. In Greek, γένειον (geneion) means beard. Hence, beard begins to grow on the cheeks. Māla, jaw or cheekbones, is the part beneath the eyes that protrudes, serving as a protection beneath them. They are named mālae, for they protrude below the eyes into a round shape that the Greeks call mela/melon

appellant. Sive quod sunt supra maxillas. Maxille
per diminutionem. a malis. sicuti paxillus a palo.
taxillus; a talo. Mandibule sunt maxillarum
partes. ex qua et nomen factum. Barbam veteres
vocaverunt; quod virorum sit non mulierum. Au-
rium inde dictum nomen; a vocibus h(added)auriendis. Unde
et virgilius. Vocemque hiis auribus hausi. Aut quia vocem
ipsam greci audienlidien vocant; ab auditu. Per
immutationem enim littere; aures quasi audes nun-
cupate sunt. Vox enim repercussa; per anfractus quo sen-
sum accipiant audiendi earum sonum facit. Pinnula summa pars auris ab acumine dicta. Pin-
nion enim; antiqui acutum dicebant. Unde et bi-
pennis et pinna. Nares iccirco nominantur; quia per
eas odor vel spiritus manare non desinit. Sive
quia nos odore admonent. ut odorem aliquid
ac sciamus. Unde econtra inscii ac rudes ignari di-
cuntur. Olfecisse enim veteres; scisse dicebant. Terentius. Ac non notis ex mensibus prius olfecissent

or for they are above the jaws. The jawbone, maxilla, is a diminutive of mala, as paxillus, peg, comes from palus, pole, taxillus, a small die, from talus, a full-sized die. Mandĭbŭlae, the mandibles, are parts of the jaw, wherefrom their name derives. The Ancients named it beard, for it is characteristic of men, not women. The term auris for ear comes from the expression voces aurire (to hear voices). In this context, Virgil wrote: "And I have picked up the voice with my own ears" (see Aeneid, 4, 359). The Greeks call the voice itself audienlidien, wherefrom audītŭs, hearing, derives. By the figure of speech immutatio verborum (transposition of words or letters), the ears are pronounced as aures instead of audes. In fact, the voice, being re-echoed, produces the sound of them through the passage whereby they receive the sense of hearing. Pinnŭla is the tip of the ear, the pinna. In fact, the Ancients called pinnus/pinnion anything sharp. From this term, bipennis (two-edged/having two wings) and pinna (pen/fether/fin) derive. Therefore, nāres, the nostrils, are named so, for through them, the scent or breath does not cease to flow or they remind us of something we have smelt, so we can recognise it. Hence, the ignorami and the uncouth are called ignari, ignorant, to their faces. The ancients used to say that to smell something meant to know something. Terence: 'And would they not have smelled it six whole months before he started anything?' (Adelphi, 397).

quam ille quicquam fecerint(dots underneath) ceperit. Narium recta pars
eoquod equaliter sit in longitudine et rotun-
ditate porrecta columpna vocatur. Extremitas
eius pirula. a formula pomi piri(changed from piri pomi). Que vero dex-
tra levaque sunt pennule; ab alarum simili-
tudine. Medium autem interfinium. Os dictum;
quod per ipsum quasi per ostium; cibos intus mitti-
mus. et sputum foras proicimus. Vel quia illuc
ingrediuntur cibi. et inde egrediuntur(corrected from nigrediuntur) sermo-
nes. Labia a lambendo sunt nominata. Quod
autem superius est; labium dicimus. quod inferius
quia grossius sit; labrum. Alii virorum
labra. mulierum; labia dicunt. Lingue; a
ligando cibo; putat varro nomen inpositum. Alii; quod verba per articulatos sonos ligat. Si-
cut enim plectrum cordis. ita lingua inliditur
dentibus et vocalem efficit sonum. Dentes;
greci odontes dicunt. et inde in latinum tra-
here videntur nomen. Horum primi preci-
sores(changed from siores) dicuntur. quia omne quod accipitur;

ipsi prius incidunt. Sequentes; canini dicuntur. quorum
duo in dextera maxilla et duo in sinistra sunt. Et dicti canini; quia ad similitudinem caninorum;
existunt. et canis ex ipsis ossa confringit sicut
et homo. Ut quod non possunt priores precidere;
illis tradunt ut confringant. Hos vulgus pro lon-
gitudine et rotunditate colomellos vocant. Ultimi sunt molares. qui conscisa a prioribus atque
confracta subigunt et molunt atque immassant. Unde et molares vocati sunt. Dentium autem nume-
rum; discernit qualitas sexus. Nam in viris plu-
res. in feminis; pautiores existunt. Gingive a
gignendis dentibus nominate. Facte sunt etiam
ad decorem dentium. ne nudi horrori potius
quam hornamento existerent. Palatum sursum sicut
celum est positum. et inde palatum a polo per
dirivationem. Set et greci similiter palatum ura-
num appellant. eoquod pro sui concavitate celi si-
militudinem habeat. Fauces a fundendis vocibus
nominate. vel quod per eas famur. Artherie

vocate sive quod per eas a pulmone aer. hoc est
spiritus fertur. seu quod artis et angustis meatibus
spiritum vitalem retineant. Unde vocis sonos emit-
tunt. Qui soni uno modo sonarent; nisi lingue
motus distantias vocis efficeret. Toles gallica lin-
gua dicuntur. quos vulgo per diminutionem toxil-
los vocant. que in faucibus turgescere solent; Mentum dictum; quod mandibule inde oriantur.
vel quod ibi iungantur. Gurgulio a gutture no-
men trahit. cuius meatus ad os et nares protendit ha-
bens viam qua vox ad linguam transmittitur.
ut possit verba collidere. Unde et garrire dicimus. Rumen proximum gurgulioni quo cibus et po-
tio devoratur. Hinc bestie que cibum revocant;
ac remandunt; ruminare dicuntur. Sublingui-
um vel operculum gurgolionis. quasi parva lin-
gua. que foramen lingue recludit operit ve. Col-
lum dictum; quod sit rigidum et erectum ut co-
lumpna. baiulans capud et sustentans quasi

capitolium. Cuius anterior pars gula vocatur. Posterior;
cervix. Cervix autem vocata; quod per eam partem ce-
rebrum ad medullam spine dirigitur; quasi cerebri
via. Veteres autem plurali tantum numero; cervi-
ces tantum dicebant. Prius; ortensius cervicem singula-
riter dixit. Cervix autem numero singulari; membrum
ipsum significat. Nam pluraliter contumaciam sepe demon-
strat. Cicero in verrinis. Pretorem tu accuses; frange cer-
vices. Humeri dicti; quasi armi. ad distinctionem ho-
minis a pecudibus mutis. Ut hii humeros. illi armos
habere dicantur. Nam proprie armi quadrupedum
sunt. Ola summi humeri; pars posterior. Brachia
a fortitudine nominata. Bari enim grece forte et
grave significatur. In brachis enim thori lacertorum
sunt et insigne musculorum(changed to masculorum) robur existit. In hiis sunt
thori id est masculi. et dicti thori; quod illic viscera tor-
ta videantur. Cubitum dictum; quod cibos su-
mendos(changed to mendo) in ipso cubamus. Ulna secundum quosdam;
utriusque manus extensio est. Secundum alios cubitus. quod

magis verum est. Quia grece ulenos cubitus dicitur. Ale sub brachia(changed to brachis) sunt appellate; eoquod ex eis in mo-
dum alarum motus brachiorum inchoat. quas
quidam ascellas vocant; quod ex eis brachia cil-
luntur; idest moventur. Unde et oscilla dicta; ab
eo quod oscillantur id est moveantur ora. Nam cillere;
est movere. Has quidam subhyrcos vocant. prop-
ter quod in plerisque hominibus hircorum fetorem
reddant; Manus dicta; quod sit totius corporis
munus. Ipsa enim cibum corpori ministrat. ipsa
operatur omnia. atque dispensat. Per eam accipimus;
et damus. Abusive autem manus etiam ars vel artifex. Unde et manus precium dicimus. Dextera vocatur a dan-
do. Ipsa enim pignus pacis datur. Ipsa fidei tes-
tis atque salutis adhibetur. Et hoc est illud apud
tullium.: Fidem publicam iussu senatus dedi. id est
dexteram. Unde et apostolus dicit. Dextras michi
dederunt. Sinistra autem vocata; quasi sine dextera.
sive quod rem fieri sinat. A sinendo enim sinistra

vocata est nuncupata. Palma est manus expansis digi-
tis. sicut contractis; pugnus. Pugnus a pugillo
sicut palma a spansis palme ramis. Digiti nun-
cupati vel quod decem sunt. vel quia decenter
iuncti existunt. Nam habent in se et numerum perfectum
et ordinem decentissimum. Primus pollex vocatus
quod inter ceteros polleat virtute et potestate. Secundus index et salutaris sive demonstratorius. quia
eo salutamus. ostendimus vel indicamus. Tertius inpu-
dicus. quod plerum per eum obprobrii insectatio
exprimitur. Quartus anularis. eoquod in ipso anu-
lus geritur; Idem et medicinalis. quod eo trita
colliria a medicis colliguntur. Quintus erasure auricu-
laris. eo quod eo aures scalpimus. Ungulas ex
greco vocamus. Illi enim has onices dicunt. Trun-
cus media pars corporis. a collo; ad inguinem. De
quo nigidius. Caput collo vehitur. truncus
sustinetur coxis et genibus cruribusque. Torax; a
grecis dicitur anterior pars trunci; a collo usque

ad stomacum. quam nos dicimus archam. eoquod ibi
archanum sit id est secretum quo ceteri arcentur. Unde
et archa et ara dicta; quasi res secrete. Cuius emi-
nentes pulpe mamille. Inter quas illa pars os-
sea; pectus dicitur. Dextra levaque; coste. Pectus
vocatum quod sit pexum. inter eminentes
mamillarum partes. Unde et pectinem dici; quod
pexos capillos facit. Mamille vocate; quia ro-
tunde sunt. quasi male per diminutionem scilicet. Papille capita mamillarum sunt. quas sugentes
comprehendunt. Et dicte papille; quod infantes
eas quasi palpant dum lac sugunt. Proinde ma-
milla est omnis eminentia uberis. papilla; illud
brve unde lac trahitur. Ubera vero dicta; vel
quia lacte uberta. vel quia humida humore
scilicet lactis. in modum uvarum plena. Lac
vim nominis a calore trahit. vel quod sit li-
quor albus. Leucos enim greci; album dicunt. Cuius
natura; ex sanguine commutatur. Nam post partum

si quid sanguinis nondum fuerit uteri nutrimento
consumptum. naturali meatu fluit in mammas. et
earum virtute albescens lactis accipit qualitatem. Cutis est; que in corpore prima est. sic appellata quod
ipsa corpori superposita inscisionem prima paciatur. Cutis
enim grece; inscisio dicitur. Idem et pellis. quod externas in-
iurias corporis tegendo pellat. pluviasque et ventos
solisque ardores perferat. Pellis autem mox detracta; subacta
iam corium dicitur. Corium autem per dirivationem
appellatur; quod eo caro tegatur. Sed hoc in brutis
animalibus proprium est. Pori corporis proprio nomine
appellantur; qui latine proprie spiramenta dicuntur.
eoquod per eos vivificus spiritus exterius ministretur. Arvina est pinguedo cuti adherens. Pulpa est. caro
sine pinguedine. dicta quod palpitet. Resilit enim
sepe. Hanc plerique et viscum vocant; quod glutinosa
sit. Membra sunt partes corporis. Artus; quibus
colligantur membra. ab artando dicti. Nervi greca di-
rivatione appellati quos illi neutra vocant. Alii
latine vocatos nervos putant eoquod artuum

coniunctiones invicem hiis inhereant. Maximam
autem virium substantiam nervos facere certissi-
mum est. Nam quanto fuerint densiores; tanto propensius
augescere firmitatem. Artus dicti quod conligati in-
vicem nervis coarcentur. quorum diminutiva
sunt articuli. Nam artus dicimus membra maiora ut
brachia. Articula minora(dots underneath) minora membra(corrected); ut digitos Compagines capita sunt ossuum. sic dicta; eoquod
compacta sunt nervis. et(added) velut glutino quodam;
adhereant. Ossa sunt corporis solidamenta. In hiis enim positio omnis roburque consistit. Ossa
autem ab usto dicta(changed from dica) noscuntur. eoquod ab antiquis
cremarentur. sive ut alii putant; ab ore. eoquod
ibi pateant. Nam ubique cute visceribusque celantur;
nisi in dentibus. Medulle appellate; quod madefa-
ciant ossa. Irrigant enim et confortant. Vertibu-
la sunt summe ossium partes crassioribus nodis;
conglobate. dicta ita eoquod ad inflexionem mem-
brorum illa vertantur. Cartilagines ossa mollia et

sine medulla. Quod genus auricule et narium
discrimen. et costarum extremitates habent; sive oper-
acula ossiumque moventur. Et dicti cartilagines quod
levi attritu careant dolore dum plectuntur. Costas appellari quidam putant. quod ab ipsis inte-
riora custodiantur. et tota mollicies ventris val-
lata salvetur. Latus; quia iacentibus nobis latet. Est enim leva pars corporis. Dextro autem lateri ha-
bilior motus est. levo fortior et honeri feren-
do accommodatior. Unde et leva nuncupa-
ta; quod aptior sit ad levandum aliquid et por-
tandum. Ipsa enim gestat clipeum. ensem faretram.
et reliqua honera ut expedita sit dextera ad
agendum. Dorsum est a cervice usque adrenes
dictum dorsum; quod sit superficies durior corporis;
in modum saxi fortis. et ad portandum et ad perpe-
tiendum. Terga quia in eis supini in iacemus in ter-
ra. quod solus homo potest. Nam muta anima-
lia tantum aut in ventre aut in latere iacent. Unde in animalibus abusive terga dicuntur. Scapu-

la a scandendo dicitur. Interscapilium est. spatium
quod inter scapulas est. Unde et nominatum. Pale sunt
dorsi dextra levaque eminentia membra. Dicta quod
in luctando eas primimus. quod greci palin di-
cunt. Spina est iunctura dorsi. dicta quod habeat
radiolos acutos. Cuius iuncture spondilie appel-
lantur. propter partem cerebri. que fertur
per os longo tractu ad ceteras corporis partes. Sa-
cra spina est ima perpetue spine quam greci
hironostoni vocant. quoniam primum infante
concepto nascitur. Ideoque et hostia id primum
a gentibus diis suis dabatur. Unde et sacra spina
dicitur. Renes ait varro dictos quod rivi ab
hiis obsceni humoris(changed from amoris) nascuntur. Nam vene et me-
dulle tenuem liquorem desudant in renibus. Qui liquor rursus a renibus calore venerio re-
solutus; decurrit. Lumbi ob libidinis lascivi-
am dicti. quia in(dot underneath) viris causa corporee volupta-
tis in ipsis est. sicut in umbilico feminis. Unde
et ad iob dictum est. Accingere sicut vir lumbos

tuos. Ut in hiis esset resistendi preparatio; in qui-
bus libidinis est usitata dominandi occasio. Umbi-
licus est. medius locus corporis. dictus quod sit umbus
iliorum. Unde et umbo appellatur locus in medio
clipei. a quo pendet. Ex eo enim infans in utero pen-
det. Ex eo etiam enutritur. Ilium greco sermone ap-
pellatur; quod ibi nos obvolvamus. Grece enim ileos
obvolvere dicitur. Clunes vocati; quod sint iuxta
colum. quod est. longum. Nates quod ipsis in nitimur
dum sedemus. Unde et conglobata est. in eis caro. ne
prementis corporis mole ossa dolerent. Genitalia
corporis partes ut nomen ipsum docet; gignende so-
bolis acceperunt vocabulum. quod hiis precreatur
et gignitur. Hec et pudenda pro verecundia. sive
a pube. Unde et indumento operiuntur. Dicuntur autem
ista et inhonesta; quia non habent eam speciem deco-
ris sicut membra que in promptu locata sunt. Idem et veretrum; quia viri est. tantum. sive quod vi-
rus ex eo emittitur. Nam virus proprie dicitur humor

fluens a natura viri. Testiculi per diminutionem
a testibus dicti. quorum numerus incipit a duobus; Hii semen calamo ministrant. quod ab spine medul-
la et renes et lumbi suscipiunt; ad gratiam procre-
andi. Viscus est pellis in qua testiculi sunt. Posteriora
vocata; quod retro sunt et a vultu aversa. nedum
alvum purgamus; inquinaremus aspectum. Meatus inde
appellatus; quod per eum meant idest egeruntur sterco-
ra. Femora dicta; quod ea parte a femina sexus dis-
crepet. Sunt enim ab inguinibus usque ad genua. Femina per dirivationem femorum; partes sunt;
quibus equitando tergis equorum inheremus. Unde
olim preliatores sub feminibus equos amisisse dice-
bantur; Coxe quasi coniuncte axes. In ipsis enim
femora moventur. Quorum concava vertebra vocantur.
quod in eis capita femorum vertuntur. Sufragines;
quia subtus franguntur. idest flectuntur. non supra. sicut
in brachiis. Genua sunt commissiones femorum et cru-
rum. Et dicta genua; eoquod in utero sint genis

opposita. Coherent enim sibi. et cognata sunt oculis
lacrimarum indicibus et misercordie. Nam a genis;
genua dicuntur. Denique complicatum gigni formarique
hominem. ita ut genua sursum sint quibus oculi forman-
tur. ut cavi ac reconditi fiant. Ennius. Atque genua
comprimit arta gena. Inde est. quod homines dum ad
genua se prosternunt; statim lacrimantur. Voluit enim
eos natura uterum maternum rememorare. ubi qua-
si in tenebris considebant; antequam venirent ad lu-
cem. Crura dicta quia in hiis currimus et gressum
facimus. Sunt autem sub genibus usque ad suras. Tibie
vocate; quasi tube. Sunt autem et longitudine et specie
similes. Talus dictus a tolo. Nam tolus est. eminens ro-
tunditas. Unde et fastigium templi rotundi; tolus vo-
catur. Talus autem sub crure est. sub talo; calcanei. Pedes a greca ethimologia nomen sortiti sunt. Hos
enim greci podas dicunt. qui alternis motibus solo
fixi incedunt. Plante a planicie nuncupate. quia
non rotunde ut in quadrupedibus. ne stare non
possit bipes homo. set plane atque longiores for-

mate sunt; ut stabile corpus efficerent. Sunt autem
plante anteriores partes. que etiam de multis os-
sibus constant. Calcis prima pars plante a callo(changed from collo) il-
li nomen inpositum. quod terram calcamus. Hinc
et calcaneus. Solum; inferior pars pedis. dictum
quia eo vestigia terre inprimimus. Sed et solum dicitur
omne quod aliquid sustinet quasi solidum. Unde
et solum terra. quod cuncta sustineat. et solum pe-
dis. quod totam molem corporis portat. Viscera
non tantum intestina dicimus. set quicquid sub corio est.
a visco quod est inter cutem et carnem. Item visce-
ra vitalia. idest circumfusa fordis loca. quasi
viscora. eoquod ibi vita id est anima continetur. Interviscera capita nervorum ex sanguine et
nervis copulata. Item lacerti sive mures; quia sic
in singulis membris cordis loco sunt; ut cor in
media totius corporis parte sit. Appellanturque a no-
mine similium animalium sub terra delitescenti-
um. Nam inde musculi a murium similitudine

Idem etiam et thori quod illic viscera torta videantur Cor a greca derivatione nomen accepit. quod illi
cardian dicunt. Sive a cura. In eo enim omnis
sollicitudo et scientie causa manet. Quod ideo
pulmoni viscinius est; ut cum ira accenditur; pul-
monis humore temperetur. Huius due arterie sunt. Equibus sinistra plus sanguinis habet. dextera plus
spiritus. Unde et in dextro brachio; pulsum inspi-
cimus; Precordia sunt loca cordi viscina(dot under first i). quibus
sensus perspicitur. dicta precordia; eoquod ibi sit prin-
cipium cordis et cogitationis. Pulsus vocatus; quod
palpitet. Cuius inditio aut infirmitatem intelligimus
aut sanitatem. Huius duplex est motus. aut simplex
aut compositus. Simplex est qui ex uno saltu constat; Compositus est; qui ex pluribus motibus inordinatus
et inequalis existit. Qui motus certa habet spa-
cia. Dactilicum percussum quamdiu sine vicio sunt. Siquando non citatiores sunt; ut dorcazontes. aut

leniores; ut mirmizontes mortis signa sunt. Ve-
ne dicte; eoquod vie sunt natantis sanguinis.
atque rivi per corpus omne divisi. quibus universa
membra irrigantur. Sanguis ex greca ethimologia
nomen duxit. quod vegetet et sustentet et vivat. Sanguis autem est; dum in corpore est. Effusus vero cruor
dicitur. Nam et cruor vocatus; ab eo quod effusus de-
currit. Vel ab eo quod currendo corruat. Alii cruorem
interpectantur sanguinem corruptum qui emittitur. Alii aiunt vocatum sanguinem; quod suavis
sit. Sanguis autem non est integer nisi in iuvenibus(changed from iuventibus). Nam dicunt phisici minui sanguinem per etatem. Unde
in senibus tremor est. Proprie autem sanguis anime
possessio est. Inde genas lacerare mulieres in luc-
tu solent. Inde et purpuree vestes et flores purpu-
rei; mortuis prebentur. Pulmo ex greco trahit
vocabulum. Greci enim pulmonem pleumon
vocant. eoquod cordis flabellum sit. in quo

neuma. idest spiritus inest. per quod et agitantur
et moventur. Unde et pulmones vocati sunt. Nam grece pneuma spiritus dicitur. qui flando et agi-
tando aerem admittit et recipit. a quo moven-
tur pulmones et palpitant. et aperiendo se ut fla-
tum capiant; stringendo; ut eiciant. Est enim orga-
num corporis. Iecur nomen habet. eoquod ibi ignis
habeat sedem. Qui in cerebro subvolat. Inde ad
oculos ceterosque sensus et membra diffunditur. et
calore suo ad se sucum ex cibo tractum vertit
in sanguinem. Quem ad usum pascendi nutri-
endique singulis membris prebet. In iecore autem
persistit voluptas et concupiscentia. iuxta eos qui
de phisica disputant. Fibre iecoris sunt extremi-
tates. sicut et extreme partes foliorum in vitibus.
sive quasi lingue eminentes. Dictas autem fibras quod
apud gentiles in sacris ad phebi aras ferebantur
ab ariolis. Quibus oblatis atque succensis; responsa
acciperent. Splen dictum a supplemento ex contraria

parte iecoris ne vacua existeret. Quem quidam
risus causa factum existimant. Nam splene ri-
demus. felle irascimur. corde sapimus. iecore amamus Quibus quatuor elementis constantibus integrum
est animal. Fel appellatum quod sit folliculus ges-
tans humorem qui vocatur bilis. Stomacus grece
os vocatur. eoquod hostium ventris sit. et ipse
cibum erasure excipiat. atque in intestina transmit-
tat. Intestina dicuntur eoquod corporis interiori
parte cohibentur. Que iccirco longis nexibus in cir-
culorum modum ordinata sunt; ut susceptas
escas paulatim digerant et superadditis cibis
non impediantur. Omentum membranum est. quod
continet intestinorum maiorem partem. Disceptum
intestinum quod discernit ventrem. et cetera
intestina a pulmonibus ad cor. Cetum intestinum
quod sit sine foramine et exitu. Ieiuna te-
nue intestinum. Unde et ieiunium dicitur. Venter
autem et alvus et uterus; inter se differunt.

Venter est qui acceptos cibos digerit. et apparet extrin-
secus. pertingitque a pectore usque ad inguinem. Et dictus
venter quod per totum corpus vite alimenta trans-
mittat. Alvus est. que cibum recipit. et purgari so-
let. Salustius. Simulans sibi alvum purgari. Et vo-
cata alvus quod abluatur id est purgetur. Ex ipsa enim
sordes stercorum defluunt. Uterum sole mulieres
habent. in quo concipiunt. ad similitudinem cauliculi. Ta-
men auctores uterum pro utrolibet sexu. ventrem
que plerumque ponunt. Nec poete tantummodo; set et ceteri.

Translation

Translated by Gabriele Macelletti, Translator.

The straight part of the nostrils is called cŏlumna, for it is extended evenly in length and roundness. The end of the nose is named pirula, little pear, for it is pear-shaped. The right and left parts are named pennŭlae/pinnŭlae (little wings) due to their similarity to wings. That which is in the middle is the septum, interfinium. Ōs, the mouth, is named so, for through it, as if it were a door, we send food within and then we expel it by spitting, or for food enters thither and thence, speech comes out. Lăbĭa, the lips, derive from lambĕre, licking. The upper lip is called labium; the lower lip, being thicker, is called lăbrum. Others say that men’s lips are lăbra; women’s lăbĭa. Varro thinks that the tongue, lingua, has this name, for it is used for binding food; others think that it binds words with articulate sounds. In fact, just as a plectrum hits the strings, so does the tongue against the teeth, producing a vocal sound. The Greeks call teeth odontes, wherefrom the Latin word dentes has been adapted. The first front teeth are called praecisores, the incisors, for they are able to cut and break up ff129v: food received in the mouth. The teeth following the incisors are called cănīni, canines, two of which are in the upper right jaw and two in the upper left. They are called canines, for they resemble dogs’ fangs. A dog breaks bones with these teeth just as a human does. Food that the incisors are not able to cut up is handed over to the canines to be broken up. They are commonly called colomelli, for they are long and round like little pillars. The last teeth are the molares, the molars that work, grind and chew the food the incisors have cut up and the canines have broken up. Their name derives from mŏlĕre, to grind. Moreover, sex determines the number of teeth. In fact, there are more teeth in men, fewer in women. The gums are named gingīvae, from gignĕre, for they generate teeth. They also serve as decoration for the teeth, for bare teeth would be a horror-inspiring sight. Pălātum, the palate is placed above, just like the sky, and the term pălātum derives from pŏlus that means pole/sky. Similarly, the Greeks called the palate ouranos/ouraniskos, for it resembles the concavity of the sky. The throat, fauces, plural of faux, is named so, for we utter sounds and speak therewith. Artērĭae, windpipes, are named so, for they carry air (breath) from the lungs or they retain the vital breath within the narrow and artful passages. Hence, they utter the sounds of the voice. If these sounds were to resonate in only one way, the movement of the tongue would not create variations of the voice. Toxilli, diminutive of tonsillae, tonsils, is a colloquial word deriving from tōlēs, goitre, probably of Gallic origin. They tend to swell up in the throat. The word for chin is mentum wherefrom the jaws arise or are joined together. Gurgulio, the trachea, derives from guttur, throat, and its passageway extends to the mouth and nostrils, providing the pathway through which the voice is transmitted to the tongue, enabling the collision of words. Thus, we also use the term garrīre for to babble/chat. Next to the trachea is rumen/ruma, the oesophagus, where food and drinks are swallowed. Hence, animals that regurgitate food and chew it again are said to ruminate, rumināre. Sublinguium is the term for the epiglottis, which resembles a small tongue and uncovers or covers the hole of the tongue. Collum is the word for the neck, which is rigid and straight like a column, carrying the head and supporting it as if it were the Capitol. The front part is called gŭla, throat, the rear part is the nape, cervix. The nape, however, is so called, for the brain is directed to the spinal cord through this part, as if it were the route of the brain. The Ancients preferred the plural form only: they used to say cervices. Formerly, Hortensius used to say cervicem in the singular form. However, the word cervix in the singular form signifies the back of the neck itself. In the plural form, it often indicates obstinacy and stubbornness. Cicero, in his orations against Verres wrote: “you accuse the praetor, curb your boldness (6,110). The shoulders are called armi whereas the hŭmĕri/ŭmĕri are the humeri, the bones in the upper arms to distinguish humans from animals. The former have shoulders, the latter have arms. The armi are a feature of quadrupeds. The back part is called ola summi humeri. The forearms, brāchĭa, are named so for their strength, for barus βαρύς means strength and heaviness in Greek. In fact, there are bulges of the muscles in the arms where the strength of the muscles resides. The bulges of the muscles are called thori, for you can see the twisted internal parts. The cŭbĭtus, the elbow, is so named, for we lie thereon when we eat. According to some, the ulna, forearm long bone, is the extension of both hands but according to others, it is of the elbow, ff131r: which is more accurate. In Greek, the elbow is called oleni/ ὠλένη. Ālae are the armpits wherefrom the motion of the arms' swinging like wings begins. These are also called ascellae, for the arms move therefrom, that is, they are set in motion. Hence, they are also called oscillae from the fact that they swing, that is, they are moved, for cillere means to move; some call them subhyrci. This is so, for they emanate goat stench in many people. Mănŭs, the hand, is named so, for the entire body can perform various functions therewith: for instance, it serves food to the body itself, operates and manages everything. We receive and give therewith. Moreover, the term mănŭs is used incorrectly to refer to a skill or a craftsman. Thus, we also say manus pretium, which means cost of labour. The right hand is used for giving something, for instance, the pledge of peace; it is also employed as a proof of faith and salvation. This is mentioned by Tullius: 'By order of the Senate, I have pledged the public faith', that is, the right hand (Cicero, Catiline, 3, 8). The Apostle says: 'They gave to me and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship' (Galatians, 2:9). The left hand is called sĭnistra as it were sine dextera, without the right hand. The left hand allows something to happen or to be done. Sĭnistra derives ff131v: from the verb sĭnĕre (to allow, to let). The palm of the hand, palma is the hand with the fingers outstretched; when they are clenched, it is called a fist. The word pugnus comes from pŭgillus, a handful, just as the word palma comes from the outstretched branches of a palm tree. Dĭgĭti, the fingers, are named so, for they are ten in number, or they are joined together appropriately. In fact, ten represents a perfect number and furthermore, they are arranged in a perfect order. The first finger is called pollex, the thumb, for it excels in strength and power among the other fingers. The second finger, index, is the index finger also called the greeting or pointing finger, for we greet, show, or point at things therewith. The third finger, dĭgĭtus medius, is the middle finger, also called the lewd and immodest finger, for it can be used to hurl insults and abuse. The fourth finger, dĭgĭtus anularis, is the ring finger, whereon rings are worn; it is also called dĭgĭtus mĕdĭcīnālis, the medical finger, for doctors apply eye ointments therewith. The fifth finger is dĭgĭtus ăurĭculāris (auricular), the little finger, for we scratch our ears therewith. We call the nails ungŭlae from the Greeks, who call nails ὄνυξ/onix. Truncus, the trunk, is the middle part of the body, from the neck to the groin. Nigidius wrote: 'The head is carried by the neck, the trunk is supported by the hips, knees and legs' (Opera, 108). Thōrax is the word for chest and comes from the Greek word θώραξ/thorax. It is the front part of the body from the neck to the stomach, which we call archa, for it conceals something arcane, arcānus, viz. a secret wherefrom others should be protected. Therefore, both archa(chest) and ara (altar/shelter/protection) imply secrecy. The soft mounds on this part of the body are called breasts, mamillae. Pectŭs, the breastbone, is the bony part between them. To the right and left, are the ribs, costae. The chest is called pectus, for it is hairy, pexus, between the prominent parts of the breasts. Therefore, a comb, pectĕn, is called so, for it makes hair neatly combed. The breasts, mamillae, are called so, for they are round as if the word were a diminutive of mala, apples. The tips of the nipples are the papillae, which sucklings grasp whilst breast-feeding. They are called papillae, for infants palpate them whilst sucking milk. Consequently, the protuberance of the breasts is a mamilla whereas the papilla is that short thing wherefrom milk is drawn. Ūbĕra (breasts) are so named, for they are rich (ubertus) in milk or they abound with (uvidus) fluid, namely with milk, just as grapes, uva, are rich in juice. Milk takes the power of its name from its colour, for it is a white liquid. The Greeks call white leucos/λευκόν, the appearance of which is transformed from blood. In fact, after childbirth, if any blood has not yet been consumed as nourishment for the womb, it flows by its natural passage into the breasts and, becoming white from their particular quality, acquires the properties of milk. Cŭtis, cutis, is that which you first see on the body. It is called so, for it is placed over the body and suffers cuts and wounds. Pellis, skin, the underlying surface that keeps off external injuries by protecting the body; it also endures rain, wind, and stands the burning heat of the sun. However, when the skin is removed, that which is underneath is called cŏrĭum, the epidermis. Cŏrĭum derives from caro, flesh, for it covers the flesh. This is peculiar to heavy animals. The pores of the body are called by their proper name, which is spirāmenta in Latin. This is so, for through them, the life-giving breath is supplied from the outside. Arvīna (fat) is the fat adhering to the skin. Pulpa is the flesh without fat, so named, for it pulsates and often contracts. This is often called viscŭs as well, for it is glutinous. Membra, limbs, are the parts of the body. Artŭs are the joints by which the limbs are connected, named so from the verb artāre, meaning that they are tightened together. Nervi, nerves, derive from the Greek word νευρᾶ/nevrá. Some believe they are called nervi in Latin for they are closely connected with the limbs. Most of men’s strength, however, most certainly comes from the nerves. The thicker they are, the more likely they are to increase man’s strength. Joints are said to be compressed by interconnecting nerves. Their diminutives are called artĭcŭli, articulations. We call artŭs the larger limbs such as the arms. We call artĭcŭli the smaller limbs such as the fingers. Compāgēs is the word for the epiphyses, the heads of the bones. They are called so, for they are joined together by nerves, and they adhere to one another as if they were glued. The bones are that which strengthens the body. All strength and stability reside therein. Bones are known to derive from ustus, burnt, for the Ancients used to burn them. Others think the word derives from os that also means face; therefore, bones have their face visible when flesh is burnt, for indeed everywhere else they are hidden under a covering of skin and organs, except in the teeth. Mĕdulla, marrow, is named so, for it moistens, refreshes and strengthens the bones. Vertĭbŭlae, vertebrae, are the extremities of the bones with thick knots, compactly joined. They are so named, for they facilitate the bending of limbs. Cartĭlāgines, the cartilages, are the soft bones without marrow. The external part of the ear, the partition between the nostrils and the ends of the ribs are of this kind, or the coverings of those bones that are articulated. They are so called, for there is no pain, if they rub together lightly when they are bent. Costae, ribs, are thought to be named so, for they guard the bowels, preserving the entire softness of the belly. Lătŭs, side/hip, it is named so, for it is hidden when we lie down. In fact, this is the case of the left side of the body. The right side has more flexible movement, the left side is stronger and more capable of carrying weight. Hence, it is also called laeva, for it is more suited for lifting and carrying something. The left side carries the shield, the quiver, the sword, and any other weight so that the right side is free for action. Dorsum, the back, extends from the neck to the kidneys. It is named so, for it is the harder surface of the body, as strong as a rock; it is able to carry and endure things. Terga are the hinder parts and are named so, for we lie flat thereon on the ground, something that only men can do. Animals lie only on their belly or side. Hence, the term terga is used incorrectly for animals. Scăpŭlae are said to be designed for mounting. Interscapilium is the interscapular space, which is the space between the shoulder blades wherefrom it gets its name. Pālae, the shoulder blades, are the right and left prominent parts of the back. They are called so, for we use them in wrestling. Spīna, spine, is the joint of the back, named so, for it has sharp thorns whose joints are called spondyli, vertebrae, from the part of the brain which is carried by them on a long course to other parts of the body. Sacra spīna, the sacrum, is the bone at the end of the spine called hironostoni in Greek because it is the first thing created in an infant immediately after conception and it was the first offering given to the Gods by the people. Therefore, it is called the 'sacred spine'. Varro says the kidneys are called rēnes, for streams of that indecent semen are born from them. In fact, the veins and the marrow release a thin liquid in the kidneys. Freed by the heat of sexual desire, it flows from the kidneys. The loins are called lumbi due to lustful desire, for the source of bodily pleasure is within them, just as in women it is in the navel. Hence, God said to Job: 'Gird up now thy loins like a man' (Job,38:2), in order that he should make ready his resistance there, where the dominance of lust normally begins. Umbĭlīcus, the navel, is the middle point of the body, named so, for it is a protruding area on the abdomen. Hence, the central part of a shield is called umbo wherefrom it hangs. From this point, an infant hangs in the womb and therefrom it is nourished. The word for groin, ilia, comes from Greek, because we are wrapped there, for the Greek word ileos [eileo] means 'to wind round”. Clūnes, the gluteal region, is named so, for it is near the rectum. Nătes, the buttocks, are that which we lean on when sitting. Therefore, the flesh is compressed into a round shape within them so that the bones do not ache under the pressure of the body weight. The term gĕnĭtālĭa, the genitals, derives from gignĕre (to beget) meaning that genitals are designed for begetting offspring. They are also called pŭdenda (the shameful parts), private parts or pudenda, owing to shame or modesty, or they derive from pūbēs, the pubic area, which we cover with clothing. Moreover, these parts are deemed shameful, for they do not have the appearance of beauty like the organs that are readily visible. The same applies to vĕrĕtrum, the penis, for it pertains only to men, or for the fluid is discharged therefrom. The fluid is properly called vīrus, which flows from the nature of man (vĭr). Testĭcŭli, testicles, are a diminutive of the word testis, and they are two in number. Through a small duct, they provide semen that they take from the spinal cord, kidneys, and loins for the purpose of procreation. The skin wherein the testicles are located is called viscŭs, the scrotum. Posteriora is that which is located behind, it is man’s backside, something that our face is reluctant to watch when we empty our bowels. Through the opening, faeces are expelled. Fĕmŏra, the femora or thighbones, are so named, for they have anatomical differences in men and women; they extend from the groin to the knees. Fĕmĭna are those parts of the thighs wherewith we cling to the back of horses whilst riding. Hence, it was formerly said that warriors would lose their horses from under their thigs. Coxae, the hipbones, resemble two axles joined together wherein the femora move. The concave parts of them are called vertebrae, articulation joints, wherein the heads of the femora are turned, forming the acetabulum. Suffrāgĭnes, the back of the heel, the part from the heel to the calf, are called so, for they bend and flex downwards, not upwards like the arms. Gĕnūa, the knees, are the joints of the thighs and the legs. They are called so, for in the womb, they are opposite the cheeks. Knees and cheeks press closely together and, in the same way as the eyes signify grief, the knees signify the desire for mercy. That is the reason why gĕnūa derives from gĕna. To sum up, man is born and moulded into a folded shape, so that the knees are above, wherefrom the eyes are formed, so that they become hollow and concealed. Ennius wrote: 'And the cheek presses against bent knees' (Incerta, 14). Hence, when men prostrate themselves to their knees, they immediately burst into tears. Nature wills men to remember the maternal womb, where they lay in the dark before they were born. Crūra, the legs, are called so, for they allow us to run and to take steps. They extend from below the knees to the calves. Tībĭae, the shinbones, are called so, for they resemble tubes. They are also similar in both length and appearance. Tālus, the ankle, derives from the word thŏlus (dome vault) which indicates prominent roundness. Hence, the top of a round temple is called thŏlus. Moreover, the ankle is below the leg. Below the ankle is the heel, calcānĕum. The word for feet, pĕdes, is of Greek etymology. The Greeks call them ποδός/podós, which means that they move firmly on the ground, alternating footsteps. Planta, the sole of the foot, derives from plānĭtĭēs (flat surface) because they are not rounded like in quadrupeds, lest a biped such as man be unable to stand on them, but they are flat and somewhat longer in order to make the body stable. Moreover, the soles are the front parts that also consist of many bones. Calx is the heel bone or calcaneus at the back of the sole and its name derives from callum, callus or corn, from the fact that we tread upon the earth. Hence, the term calcaneus, from calco (to tread, to trample upon), refers to the heel bone. Solum, the sole, the lower part of the foot, is so named, for we imprint our footsteps on the ground. The term "sole" is also used for anything that supports something solid, from solidus. Therefore, solum terra refers to the earth as a whole that supports everything, and solum pedis refers to the sole of the foot that carries the entire mass of the body. Viscĕra does not just refer to the interiora, but rather to anything under the skin. It comes from viscŭs, which is the layer between the skin and the flesh. Furthermore, the term viscĕra vitalia denotes the vital parts, i.e., the internal parts surrounding the heart, for that is where life, that is, the soul, is contained. Interviscĕra refers to the main centres of the nerves and their connections through blood vessels and nerves. Similarly, lacerti or mures, the muscles, are in every single member of the heart, so that it can be the main part of the whole body. They are called by names of animals - lacerti lizards, mures mice – for they lie hidden under the ground the same way. Thus a muscle, musculus, takes this name from its similarity to small mice. Similarly, tori, the swelling protuberance of muscles, are named so, for they are twisted and resemble twisted threads. Cor, heart, derives from the Greek word καρδία/kardía or from cūra (care/love), for thoughts and knowledge dwell therein. Therefore, it is close to the lungs so that when it is inflamed with anger, it may be soothed by the moisture of the lung. Two arteries belong to the heart; the left artery carries more blood, the right one more spirit. Hence, we feel somebody’s pulse on the right arm. Praecordĭa are the regions located near the heart wherefrom sensations and feelings are identified. They are called praecordĭa, for the origin of emotion and thought is there. Pulsus is the palpitations. By its indication, we understand either illness or health. Its motion is twofold, either simple or composite. Simple is that which consists of one single beat; composite is that which arises from multiple irregular and unequal motions. Such motion has definite intervals. Finger-tapping is correct as long as it is without fault. If the beats are not more rapid at times, like dorcacizontes or at other times more feeble like mirmizontes, it might be a sign of death. Vēnae, veins, are so named, for they are the channel of flowing blood and the channels throughout the entire body wherethrough all the limbs are supplied with blood. The term sanguĭs, blood, is of Greek etymology, signifying that which enlivens, sustains, and gives life. Blood, however, is such only while it remains within the body. Once spilled, it is called crŭŏr, gore, which is clotted blood or blood dripping from a wound. Some interpret crŭŏr as corrupted blood that is expelled. Others say that sanguĭs is called so, for it is pleasant. Blood, moreover, is not whole except in young people, for doctors say that blood diminishes with age. Hence, trembling occurs in the elderly. Moreover, blood is property of the soul. Thus, women tear from their cheeks when mourning. Hence, purple clothing and purple flowers are offered to the dead. The term pulmo, lung, derives from the Greek word πνεύμων/pnevmon. The Greeks call the lung πνεύμων, for it is like a small fan for the heart, wherein πνεῦμα/pnevma that is, spirit, resides, by means of which both agitation and movement occur. Hence, the lungs are called pulmōnes. In Greek, pnevma means spirit, which, by breathing and moving, breathes air in and out. The lungs are set in motion by it and they palpitate. They expand to take air in and contract to expel it. It is indeed an organ of the body. Iĕcŭr is the liver wherein fire that flies up to the brain resides and wherefrom it spreads to the eyes and other senses and limbs. It converts the juice from food into blood through its heat and feeds each limb with nourishment. In the liver, moreover, desire and lust reside, according to those who debate upon physics. Fibrae, the fibres, are the extremities of the liver similar to the outer parts of leaves on a grapevine or like protruding tongues. We use the term fibrae, for soothsayers used to offer them to the altars of Phoebus during Pagan rituals. When these were offered and burnt, the soothsayers received responses. Splēn, spleen, takes its name from supplēmentum, for it is located on the opposite side of the liver, lest there should be an empty space. Some think it was created as a seat for laughter. In fact, we laugh with the spleen; we rage with the gall; we perceive with the heart; we love with the liver. An animal is composed of these four elements in harmony. The gall is called fĕl, for it is a small pouch containing the fluid known as bile. The gullet is called στόμαχος/stómachos in Greek, for it is the doorway through the belly where food enters and is sent to the intestines. The intestines are named so, for they are contained within the inner part of the body. Therefore, they are arranged into a tangle of long tubes in a circle, so that they can gradually digest the received food and not be hindered by additional nourishment. Ōmentum, the omentum or caul, is the membrane containing the greater part of the intestines. Dissaeptum, the diaphragm, separates the belly and the other intestines from the lungs and the heart. The caecum intestinum is the one without an opening or an exit. The intestinum tenue is the one that refrains from eating, from the verb ieiunāre, to fast. Hence, the word ieiunium, fasting. The stomach, ventĕr, the bowel, alvus, and the womb, ŭtĕrus, differ from one other. The stomach is that which digests the received food and appears from the outside. It extends from the chest down to the groin. It is called so, for it carries life's nourishment throughout the entire body. The bowel receives food and purges it. Sallustius simulated the purging of his bowel, and called the bowel that which is filtered and cleansed, that is, purified, wherefrom the filth of excrements flows out. Women only have a womb wherein they conceive as if it were in a small cabbage stalk. Nevertheless, authors often use the term uterus for either gender to refer to the belly. Not only poets, but others as well. Ŭtĕrus, the womb, is so called, for it is double and is divided into two parts that twine like the horns of a ram, or for it is filled with the foetus. Hence, the term ŭtĕrus comes from ŭtĕr, wineskin, for it contains something inside, like members and organs. However, the term ăquālĭcŭlus is properly used for the womb of a pig. For this reason, it is translated as venter. It is called matrix, a female animal for breeding, for the foetus of an animal is generated therein. In fact, it revives the semen, moulds it into a body and other parts of the body are added thereto.