Human nature and the soul, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

A section in the Rochester Bestiary on humans and the human body opens with a consideration of human nature and the soul.

nendi enim et faciendi potens est. Hanc quidam deum
esse dixerunt a quo omnia creata sunt et ex istunt. Genus a gignendo dicitur. Cui dirivatum nomen
a terra ex quo omnia gignuntur. Ge enim grece; ter-
ra dicitur. Vita dicta propter vigorem. vel quod
vim teneat nascendi atque crescendi. Unde et arbores vi-
tam habere dicuntur. quia gignunt et crescunt. Ho-
mo dictus quia ex humo est factus erasure Sicut et in ge-
nesi dicitur. Et creavit deus hominem de humo terre.
Abusive enim pronuntiatur ex utraque substantia; totus
homo. id est ex societate anime et corporis. Nam
proprie homo; ab humo. Greci enim hominem antro-
pum appellaverunt. eoquod sursum aspectet.
sublevatus ab humo ad contemplationem artificis
sui. Quod ovidius designat cum dicit. Pronaque cum

Nature is called as such, for something is brought into existence therefrom. Nature has the power to generate and produce. Some have called this power God, from whom all things are created and to whom they return. The word gĕnŭs comes from gignendo, which means to beget and its derivative name comes from terra, which means earth, the source wherefrom all things are created. The Greek word for terra is Ge. Vīta (life) is named so owing to its force, for it possesses the power to generate and grow. Whence, trees are said to have life for they generate and grow. Hŏmo (Man) is named so, for it is made from a handful of soil that was scraped away, exactly as it is stated in the Genesis that God created Man from the dust of the earth. The word hŏmo has been abused and its meaning extended by catachresis to “being of dual essence”, that is the union of body and soul. In truth, hŏmo comes from humus that means soil, earth. In fact, the Greeks called Man ánthropos, meaning the one who looks upwards, raised from the earth to contemplate his creator. That which Ovid means when he writes:

spectant animalia cetera terram. Os homini sub-
lime dedit celumque videre. Iussit et erectos ad
sidera tollere vultus. Qui ideo erectus; celum aspi-
cit; ut deum querat; non ut terram intendat. Veluti pecora que natura prona et ventris obe-
dicia finxit. Duplex est. autem homo. Interior et exte-
rior. Interior homo anima. Exterior; corpus. Anima autem a gentilibus nomen accepit. eoquod ven-
tus sit. Unde et grece ventus animos dicitur. quod
ore trahentes aerem; vivere videamur. Sed aper-
tissime falsum est. Quia multo prius gignitur
anima; quam concipi aer ore possit. que iam in ge-
nitricis utero erasure vivit. Non est igitur aer anima;
quod putaverunt quidam. qui non potuerunt
incorpoream eius cogitare naturam. Spiritum idem
esse quod animam; evangelista pronuntiat dicens. Potestatem habeo ponendi animam. et po. ha. iterum
su. e. De hac quoque anima. in ipso dominice passionis

“and whereas all other animals watch the earth, facing downwards, Man was given a face and was ordered to look above towards the sky; therefore, he stands straight and can raise his eyes to heaven in order to seek God and not to focus on the earth”.

Just as nature has fashioned animals to be prone and obey the dictates of the belly, Man is twofold: interior and exterior. The interior is the soul, and the exterior is the body. The soul has taken its name from the Pagans and meant “vital breath/air”. In Greek, the vital breath is called ἄνεμος (anemos), which also means wind, for we seem to come to life when we receive air through our mouth as if it were brought by the wind. This is openly false, for the soul is created long before air enters the mouth. The soul already lives in the womb of the mother. Therefore, the soul is not air, as some have believed, because they were not able to reflect upon its incorporeal nature.

The Evangelist declares that the spirit is the same as the soul, by stating: “I have the power to lay down my soul and to take it back”. Also, concerning this soul, during the very time of the Lord's Passion,

tempore. memoratus evangelista ita protulit dicens Et inclinato capite; emisit spiritum. Quid est. enim
emittere spiritum. nisi quod animam ponere; Sed anima
dicta propter quod vivit. spiritus autem vel spi-
ritali natura. vel pro eo quod spiret in corpore. Item
animum idem esse quod animam. Sed anima vite est.
animus consilii. Unde et dicunt philosophi etiam
sine animo vitam manere. et sine mente ani-
mam durare. Unde et amentes. Nam mentem
vocari ut sciat; animam ut velit. Mens enim
vocata; quod emineat in anima. vel quod me-
minit. Unde et inmemores amentes. Quapropter non
anima sed quod excellit in anima; mens vocatur;
tanquam caput eius vel oculus. Unde et ipse homo
secundum mentem ymago dei dicitur. Ita enim hec omina
adiuncta sunt anime; ut una res sit. Pro effi-
cientiis enim causarum; diversa nomina sorti-
ta est anima. Nam et memoria mens est. Unde
et inmemores amentes. Dum ergo vivificat corpus;
anima est. Dum vult animus est. dum scit; mens est.

the Evangelist expressed it as follows: "And bowing His head, He yielded up His spirit.” What does it mean to yield up the spirit if not to lay down the soul? The soul is named so owing to its living nature, whereas the spirit either owing to its spiritual essence or for it breathes within the body. Likewise, the mind is the same as the soul, but the soul pertains to life, whereas the mind pertains to reason. Thus, philosophers say that life can remain without the mind and the soul can endure without the mind. Hence, those without reason are called amentes (devoid of mind). The mind knows, the soul desires. The mind is that which stands out in the soul or that which remembers. Therefore, those who are forgetful are amentes (devoid of mind). Thus, it is not the soul but that which excels in the soul that is called the mind, just as its head or eye. Whence, Man himself is said to be the image of God according to his mind. All these things are connected to the soul as one thing. The soul has received various names. Memory, for instance, is a part of the mind; therefore, those who are forgetful are amentes, devoid of mind. Thus, as long as it enlivens the body, it is the soul working. Desires are yearned for by the soul, knowledge is craved by the mind.

Dum recolit memoria est. dum rectum iudicat;
ratio est. dum spirat; spiritus est. dum aliquit
sentit; sensus est. Nam inde animus sensus dicitur.
pro hiis que sentit. Unde et sententia nomen
accepit. Corpus dictum eoquod corruptum pe-
rit. Solubile enim atque mortale est. et aliquando
solvendum. Caro a creando est appellata. Cre-
mentum enim est. semen masculi. unde animalium
et hominum corpora concipiuntur. Hinc et paren-
tes creatores vocantur; Caro enim ex quatuor
elementis compacta est. Nam terra in carne est.
aer in halitu. humor in sanguine. ignis in
calore vitali. Habent enim in nobis elementa suam
queque partem. cuius quidem debetur compage
resoluta. Caro enim et corpus diversa signifi-
cant. In carne semper corpus est; non semper in
corpore caro. Nam caro est. que vivit. Idem et cor-
pus. Corpus quod non vivit. idem nec caro. Nam
corpus dicitur. aut quod post vitam est mortuum.

It is memory working as long as it recalls, it is reason as long as it judges rightly. As long as it breathes, it is the spirit. When things are perceived, it is the senses. Therefore, the mind is also called sensus for the things it perceives. Hence, the name sententĭa (judgment). The body is called so, for it decays when it perishes. It is mortal, and at some point, it will be dissolved. The flesh is named so from its creation, for it is the offspring and the seed of the male, wherefrom the bodies of animals and humans are conceived. Thus, parents are also called creators, for flesh is composed of four elements: earth is in the flesh, air in the breath, moisture in the blood, and fire in the vital heat. Each element has its own part within us, and when the compound of these elements is dissolved, it becomes flesh. Flesh and body are different in meaning. In the flesh, there is always a body, but in the body, there is not always flesh. Flesh is that which is alive, and the same applies to the body. A body that does not live is not flesh either. The body is called that which is dead after life or that which is buried without life. Sometimes even when the body is alive, it is not flesh, as in the case of plants and wood.

aut sine vita est conditum. Interdum et cum
vita corpus et non caro. Ut herba. lignum. Sensus
corporis quinque sunt; Visus. auditus. gustus. odo-
ratus et tactus. Ex quibus duo aperiuntur et erasure clau-
duntur. duo semper patentes sunt. Sensus dicti; quia
per eos anima subtilissime totum corpus agitat
vigore sentiendi. Unde et presentia nuncupantur;
quod sint pre sensibus. sicut
pre oculis quode presto sint oculis. Visus est;
qui a philosophis humor vitreus appellatur.