Trees, shrubs, fruits and nuts, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
The names of trees, plants and grasses are thought to originate from the Latin word arva, meaning arable land, as they are firmly rooted in the earth. Their close connection is evident: from seeds cast into the ground, grass emerges first, which eventually develops into a tree. In time, what was once mere grass transforms into a sapling.
The term arbusta refers to shrubs, considered as the shaft of a tree, whereas arbustum describes groves or plantations filled with trees, such as willows and thickets, where new green shoots thrive. Frŭtex, a bush, is so named because its foliage blankets the ground, with its plural form being frutecta.
The term nĕmŭs denotes a wood or forest, often associated with deities due to its historical use for pagan idol worship along with lūcus, which is characterized by its dense, tall trees. Grafting, known as insĭtĭo, involves inserting a shoot from a barren tree into a cut trunk.
Plantae, or cuttings, are taken from trees, whereas plantārĭa refers to sets born from seeds, with established roots ready for transplanting. The root (rādix) is firmly embedded in the ground, similar to stakes and its height is said to match that of the tree itself. The trunk (truncus) rises above the root and the outer bark (cortex) protects the wood beneath, with the inner bark known as lĭbĕr.
Branches (rāmi) extend from the trunk, whereas shoots (surcŭli) can be sawed off. Suckers (virgulti) sprout from the root or base of the tree and are often considered unnecessary by farmers. A twig (virga) derives its name from virtus, meaning strength, symbolising the power and vitality of the plant.
Magicians are said to use twigs to pacify snakes, supporting them as they coil around these branches. Philosophers, rulers and messengers also carry twigs, which symbolise peace and vitality. The upper parts of trees are called flagella, with foliage or crowns referred to as cūma or cȳma.
In Greek, leaves are called phylla, which relates to the Latin fŏlĭae. Flowers (flores) are known for their transient beauty, falling from trees with the winds’ influence— the south wind causing them to fall, whereas the west wind nourishes them. The budding shoot is termed germĕn, linked to the process of sprouting and generating life. Fruits (fructus) emerge from this generative process, connected to flavour and nourishment, with pōma signifying any fruit, derived from ŏpīmus, meaning fertile or abundant.
Lastly, wood (ligna) is named for its ability to emit light when ignited, whereas a firebrand (torris) denotes a burning piece of wood, which is often half-burnt and used for warmth or light.
The palm tree, known for its elegant stature and distinctive hand-like branches, holds a special place in symbolism and nature. Its name is derived from its association with victory, as its branches adorn the hands of victors or perhaps because its shape resembles an outstretched human hand. This majestic tree thrives with tall, graceful fronds that retain their leaves throughout the year, symbolising endurance.
In Greek culture, the palm is referred to as φοῖνιξ (phoînix), a name shared with the legendary phoenix, a bird known for its longevity in Arabia. While the palm flourishes in various regions, its fruit, the date, ripens predominantly in Egypt and Syria. The dates, dactўli, resemble fingers and were once a staple for hermits residing in the deserts of Egypt and Syria.
Rich in flesh and high in blood-generating properties, dates are both hot and moist but can be challenging to digest. Frequent consumption may lead to digestive issues, causing constipation and discomfort in the liver, spleen and stomach, along with adverse effects on dental health.
Beyond its physical attributes, the palm tree carries profound symbolic meanings. It represents justice and triumph over the vices of the world, embodying the crown and reward of eternal life bestowed upon victors, as noted in the Pantheology book. In essence, the palm tree stands as a symbol of resilience, nourishment and the eternal rewards of virtue.
Laurel, laurūs, is tied to the word praise (laudāre), as victors were crowned with its leaves in ancient times. Originally called laudĕa, it evolved into laurĕa and laurūs. In Greek, it is known as daphne and is unique for supposedly being the only tree struck by lightning.
The fig tree (fīcus) symbolises fertility, producing fruit multiple times a year. Its fruit, named cārĭca, was once a favoured food for athletes before Pythagoras promoted meat. Fig juice has various uses, from reducing wrinkles to removing fever. The fig could be seen as symbolic of prosperity and blessings due to its abundant fruit but also as a sign of corruption, especially when barren. This dual nature reflected the belief that external appearances could be deceiving, aligning with Christian teachings on spiritual fruitfulness. One of the most significant Biblical references to the fig tree is in the Gospels when Jesus curses a barren fig tree (Mark 11:12-14 , Matthew 21:18-22 ). This act is interpreted as a metaphor for the fate of those who do not bear spiritual fruit, emphasising the importance of faithfulness and good deeds. A fruitful fig tree, in contrast, symbolises those who are spiritually productive and in alignment with God. The fig tree is also associated with the Garden of Eden. After Adam and Eve ate from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, they used fig leaves to cover themselves (Genesis 3:7). As a result, fig leaves became a symbol of both shame and human awareness of sin.
In Medieval medicine, figs were used as a gentle laxative to treat constipation and promote digestion and fig syrup was often used for respiratory issues, such as colds and coughs, due to its soothing and anti-inflammatory effects. Figs were also applied as poultices to treat skin irritations, boils and abscesses. Their antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties were valued in healing wounds and infections.
The bramble (mōrus) bears fruit that once sustained desert shepherds. Throwing its leaves on a snake supposedly kills it. In Christian symbolism, the bramble is perhaps most famously associated with Moses and the Burning Bush (Exodus 3:2 ). The burning bramble that was not consumed by fire symbolised God’s presence in the lowly and humble. The bramble's humility, combined with the fact that it could host the divine presence without being destroyed, became a powerful metaphor for the belief that God’s grace could dwell in the meek and humble. It was seen as symbolic of spiritual endurance, where the faithful could bear suffering and yet remain unharmed, protected by God’s grace.
The mulberry, a taller cousin, is believed by some to be the tree the prophet Hosea plucked in the desert. In the event of an inflammation of the throat between the mouth and the esophagus that could reach the muscles, the bowels should be treated with mulberry syrup.
The bitter tamarisk (mўrīcē) thrives in solitude and is useful for fires or making brooms. According to Avicenna’ medicine, tamarisk mixed with boiling roses, myrtle leaves, mastic tree leaves was used to prepare astringents in order to treat boils that may develop in infants’ bodies. Besides, French tamarisk mixed with pomegranate peel, soft myrtle, acorn’s soft peel, dry rose, burnt horn, alum, goat’s hooves, pomegranate flowers, barley flour or lentil flour was used to treat anal prolapse.
In some biblical contexts, the tamarisk is associated with mourning and lamentation. The tree is mentioned in the story of Abraham planting a tamarisk in Beersheba (Genesis 21:33 ), a moment symbolizing his covenant with God, but in medieval interpretations, it was sometimes seen as a symbol of grief and reflection on spiritual matters. The tree was also linked to the early Christian hermits, known as the Desert Fathers, who sought spiritual growth in isolation. The tamarisk’s presence in arid lands reflected the ascetic lifestyle of these early saints, who found spiritual nourishment and communion with God in desolate surroundings.
Myrtle (mirtus) is a coastal tree with medicinal benefits, including regulating sweat and promoting hair growth. It also had symbolic associations with love in ancient texts. In medieval times, myrtle was used to treat bad breath caused by a stomach disorder by crushing its tips in wine to create a purging drink. According to Avicenna’s medicine, myrtle water mixed with liquorice and rose water was used to wash the belly in order to aid indigestion. Dusting a powder of myrtle with root of white lily or powder of roses and cypress on thighs helped with the abrasion.
In medieval bestiaries, the myrtle was often depicted as symbolic of fertility, life and vitality due to its evergreen nature and aromatic flowers. Its resilience and constant greenery made it an emblem of enduring life and vitality. It is known for its pleasant fragrance and beautiful flowers and was also associated with love and beauty. It symbolised divine love and purity in the Christian context, drawing from classical associations with Venus, the Roman goddess of love.
Cinnamon (cinnămōmum) and cassia (căssia) are both warming spices known for their medicinal properties. Cinnamon aids digestion and respiratory issues, whereas cassia strengthens internal organs and helps alleviate women’s health problems. To clean black teeth, cinnamon was used to make toothpastes by mixing it with cloves, spikenard, frankincense, mastic, grain, date and olive stones and a crab’s foot and grinding them to a powder. If anyone suffered with vetch, some cinnamon and ginger were pulverised with other ingredients to make a juice to treat it.
According to Pliny, cassia was a shrub that grew on the mountains and has a thicker stalk than cinnamon. Both cinnamon and cassia were used in religious rituals in ancient Israel, including the preparation of holy anointing oil as described in the Book of Exodus (30:22-25) . In Christian symbolism, this association with sacred rituals persisted, making cinnamon and cassia emblems of divine worship and sacred offerings. The anointing oil was used to consecrate the priests and objects of worship, symbolizing sanctification and spiritual cleansing.
The almond tree (ămygdăla) is covered with flowers and has medicinal properties. The bitter almond serves as medicine, whereas the sweet almond as food. It is also mentioned in sacred texts. The almond tree features in biblical stories, most notably in Numbers 17:8 , where Aaron's rod blossomed and bore almonds, symbolising God's favour and the selection of the house of Levi for the priesthood. This miraculous event made the almond tree a symbol of divine selection and authority. Also In Jeremiah 1:11-12, the vision of an almond tree is associated with God watching over His word to perform it. This linked the almond tree to God's vigilance and faithfulness to His promises. In Jeremiah 1:11-12 , the vision of an almond tree is associated with God watching over His word to perform it. This linked the almond tree to God's vigilance and faithfulness to His promises.
Sweet almonds were used as food and were considered beneficial for nourishing the body. They were known for their moistening and warming properties, making them suitable for treating dryness in the body and promoting digestive health. Bitter almonds were more commonly used in medicinal preparations. They were believed to have warming and drying properties and were used to treat various ailments, including digestion problems, coughs and asthma and skin problems.
Poplar (pōpŭlus) has dual-coloured leaves, symbolising the transition between day and night. It was often associated with transformation and duality, particularly due to its leaves, which are white on one side and green on the other. This characteristic was seen as symbolic of the dual nature of human life or the passage of time, with one side representing day and the other night or life and death. The two-coloured leaves of the poplar symbolised the contrast between good and evil or between life and death, which resonated with Christian teachings about the dual paths of salvation and damnation. the poplar was valued for its medicinal properties: poplar buds were used to make a soothing balm which was used for treating wounds, burns and skin irritations. The resin from the poplar was thought to have anti-inflammatory and healing properties. In medieval times, parts of the poplar tree were also used for their diuretic effects, helping to cleanse the body of excess fluids and were often prescribed for kidney ailments.
The plane tree (plătănus), with its wide shade, is named after the Greek word for wide, πλατύς/platys. In Christian symbolism, the plane tree was often associated with shade and protection. This was based on its wide, spreading canopy, which offered shelter and rest, metaphorically representing divine protection and refuge. It symbolised spiritual covering, where weary souls could find peace under God’s grace, paralleling how travellers or pilgrims might rest beneath its broad branches. The leaves and bark of the plane tree were thought to have antiseptic and cooling properties. These were used to treat skin inflammations, burns and wounds. The tree's wide availability in Europe and the Middle East made it a popular remedy for such ailments. Infusions made from the bark were used for their anti-inflammatory effects. This could have included the treatment of headaches, joint pain or fever, similar to how willow bark was used for its salicin content.
Juniper (iūnĭpĕrus) was thought to store fire in its ashes for a year, hinting at its endurance. The juniper was often associated with protection and purification. Its evergreen nature symbolised endurance, eternal life and the unyielding spirit of faith. Its ability to thrive in harsh conditions was seen as a metaphor for spiritual resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity. According to Christian tradition, the Holy Family is said to have found refuge under a juniper tree while fleeing to Egypt, which gave the plant a reputation for offering divine protection. This event reinforced the juniper’s association with shelter and safety. Juniper berries were used to treat digestive issues, acting as a remedy for stomach complaints and aiding in the elimination of excess gas and to stimulate urine production, aiding in the treatment of kidney and bladder problems. Juniper oil was believed to have antiseptic properties and was applied to wounds and sores to prevent infection. It was also used to treat respiratory problems, such as coughs and bronchitis, through inhalation or decoction.
Thyme (thўmum) is a fragrant plant, celebrated in Virgil’s Georgics, whose flowers represent preachers. In medieval Christian symbolism, thyme was linked to purity and the Virgin Mary. The small but resilient nature of thyme symbolised humility and dedication to faith. Its widespread use in religious ceremonies reflected its purity and cleansing properties. In medieval herbal medicine, it was valued for its ability to treat coughs, colds and other respiratory problems. Its expectorant properties made it a common remedy for clearing the lungs. Due to its antimicrobial properties, thyme was used for wound care and to prevent infections. Medieval physicians believed thyme helped purify the blood and reduce inflammation. According to Avicenna’s medicine, boiling thyme and placing few drops of it in the ear would treat earaches. Taking equal amounts of thyme, castoreum and cumin mixed with water would help treat convulsions.
The red acacia (shittah or sethim), a durable, incorruptible tree that symbolises purity and strength, reflecting qualities of invincibility. The hardness and resistance of the wood symbolised resilience and spiritual strength and the acacia’s ability to thrive in dry, barren environments reflected the endurance of faith amidst hardship. The wood of the acacia was considered sacred and was believed to protect against evil, symbolising divine providence and the purity of sacred spaces. In Christian symbolism, the red acacia holds profound meaning, primarily due to its association with the construction of the Tabernacle in the Old Testament. The shittim wood, which refers to acacia, was used to build the Ark of the Covenant and parts of the Tabernacle (Exodus 25-27), making it a symbol of God's presence and protection. This association imbued the acacia with a sense of sacredness and divine favour. In medieval medicine, the red acacia was used to stop bleeding and treat wounds due to its strong astringent qualities. It helped to promote healing and prevent infection, making it a common remedy for skin injuries. The bark or resin of the tree was used to treat digestive ailments, particularly diarrhoea, as its astringency helped to soothe the digestive tract. Like thyme, acacia was sometimes used to treat coughs and respiratory conditions, as it helped clear the lungs and alleviate symptoms of colds.
The cedar (Cĕdrus) is revered for its resin, which burns easily and is resistant to woodworms, symbolising durability. Its fragrant wood, often used for preserving books, grows in regions like Crete and Syria. Persius honours its lasting qualities, likening it to the elegance of a swan. The cedar is frequently mentioned in the Bible, symbolising strength and divine favour. In Psalm 92:12-13 , it is likened to the righteous flourishing in the house of the Lord, further enhancing its spiritual significance. It also symbolised Christ’s mother Mary, also called the Cedar of Lebanon, whose branches resist to the seasonal changes just as the beauty of Mary never changes. In medieval medicine, cedar wood and its oil were believed to possess various healing properties. The aromatic qualities of cedar were thought to have antiseptic effects and were used in treatments for respiratory issues.
The fir (Ăbĭes), known for its height and lightness, is integral to shipbuilding, as noted by Virgil. Its wood lacks knots and moisture, making it ideal for various uses. The fir tree's evergreen nature made it symbolic of immortality and eternal life, a concept that resonated with Christian beliefs about the afterlife. Its resilience, especially in harsh winter conditions, was seen as a symbol of the steadfastness of faith and the soul’s enduring nature in the face of sin and death. In medieval Christian symbolism, the fir tree sometimes represented the triumph of Christ over death. The fir could also be linked to the wood of the cross, which symbolised salvation through Christ’s sacrifice. In some pre-Christian mythologies, for instance, fir trees were sacred, often linked to gods and supernatural forces. In Norse mythology, the fir tree was sometimes associated with Yggdrasil, the World Tree, a symbol of cosmic order and life. Over time, as Christian influence grew, these associations were reinterpreted in a Christian context, focusing on divine protection and eternal life. Fir resin was used to treat wounds and skin conditions. Its antiseptic and healing properties made it a valuable substance in medieval herbal medicine. It was also sometimes used in remedies for respiratory problems, including coughs and bronchitis. Inhalations of fir resin vapours were believed to clear congestion and improve breathing.
The cypress (Cŭpressus), characterised by its conical shape, is praised for its impenetrable wood, used in temples. Its branches historically masked the scent of pyres, and it is known for its medicinal properties. In medieval Christian symbolism, the cypress was closely associated with death and mourning. Its use in funerary contexts was widespread due to its evergreen nature, symbolising the eternal soul and its use in graveyards to mark burial sites. The tree was a common feature in cemeteries, representing the immortality of the soul and the hope for resurrection. This believes probably derives from classical mythology, according to which the cypress was connected to mourning through the myth of Cyparissus, a youth loved by Apollo. After accidentally killing his pet stag, Cyparissus was so grief-stricken that he asked to be transformed into a cypress tree so he could mourn forever. This association with eternal sorrow carried over into Christian and medieval traditions, where the tree came to represent mourning and the sadness of death.
According to Avicenna’s medicine, hot astringents, such as myrrh, bark and fruit of cypress, fruit juice of gum arabic, and aloe could help umbilical hernia in infants. Cypress was also mixed with the powder of myrtle, root of white lily, powder of roses, barley flour or lentil flour to treat abrasion of the thigh. The resin of the cypress tree was sometimes applied to wounds as a natural antiseptic and to promote faster healing. Its astringent properties made it effective in stopping bleeding.
The olive tree (Ŏlīva), ŏlĕa, is a symbol of peace, with oil derived from its fruits varying by ripeness. The ŏlĕastĕr, or wild olive, has broader leaves and can transform when grafted with cultivated branches. One of the most enduring symbols of the olive tree is peace. This stems from the Biblical story of Noah's Ark, where a dove returns to the Ark with an olive branch, signalling the end of the flood and the restoration of peace between God and humanity (Genesis 8:11). In medieval Christian symbolism, the olive tree thus represented reconciliation with God, peace after turmoil and the restoration of divine favour. In Greek mythology, the olive tree’s association with wisdom originates from classical antiquity, where it was sacred to the goddess Athena, who, according to myth, gave the olive tree to the city of Athens. The olive tree became a symbol of the city and a representation of peace and prosperity. This mythological heritage influenced the medieval Christian interpretation of the olive tree as a symbol of peace and divine favour. Medieval interpretations retained some of this association, seeing the olive as symbolic of wisdom and strength, particularly spiritual wisdom derived from God.
Olive oil was highly valued in Christian ritual as a symbol of the Holy Spirit. The practice of anointing with olive oil, whether in baptisms, confirmations or the anointing of the sick, emphasised the olive tree’s role in sanctification and spiritual healing. The oil’s purifying and illuminating qualities made it an apt symbol for the Holy Spirit, the light of faith and the grace of God.
The Mount of Olives held deep significance in Christian tradition, as it was the site of Jesus’ prayer and arrest before His crucifixion. The olive tree, therefore, became a symbol not only of peace but also of Christ's suffering and sacrifice. The olives themselves were pressed to extract oil, a process that became an allegory for Christ’s passion and the weight of His suffering to bring salvation to humanity.
Olive oil was often mixed with radish juice and was poured into the ears to treat earaches or loss of hearing. It was sometimes mixed with rose oil and was rubbed on the forehead to heal pained eyes and ease headaches and migraine. It was also applied to soothe and heal wounds, burns and skin conditions. Its emollient and anti-inflammatory properties made it a common remedy for dry or irritated skin. It was also used to treat digestive issues and was thought to help with the proper flow of bile. It was also used to relieve constipation and to alleviate pain from ulcers.
The willow (Sălix) is known for its rapid growth and flexible wood, often associated with fertility concerns. The willow tree is commonly associated with sadness and mourning due to its drooping branches, which give it a melancholic appearance. In Christian symbolism, it became a metaphor for weeping, repentance and sorrow over sin. This sorrow was often connected to the biblical verse in Psalm 137:1-2 , where the Israelites, exiled by the Babylonians, hung their harps on willow trees as they wept for Jerusalem.
Despite its association with grief, the willow also symbolised resilience and hope. Willows grow near water and have an extraordinary ability to regenerate from broken branches, representing renewal and the potential for rebirth. In Christian allegory, this quality was linked to spiritual renewal, repentance and resurrection. Just as the willow could spring back to life, so too could the soul find renewal through repentance and divine grace.
In classical antiquity, the willow was associated with healing, fertility and protection in various cultures, including Greek and Roman mythology. It was sacred to Hecate , the goddess of magic and the underworld and sometimes connected to water spirits or nymphs. These pre-Christian associations with magic and fertility carried over into medieval folklore, though they were often reinterpreted through a Christian lens.
In Celtic traditions, the willow tree was associated with the moon, water and mystical realms. It was believed to have magical properties, particularly in promoting dreams, divination and intuition. Medieval folklore often retained some of these older symbolic meanings, particularly in connection to dreams and intuition, blending them with Christian themes of renewal and divine inspiration.
Willow bark was one of the most important natural remedies in medieval medicine. It contains salicin, a precursor to modern-day aspirin. Physicians used it to treat pain, fever and inflammation. The use of willow bark to reduce fevers and alleviate pain was well-known throughout the Middle Ages and was a foundational treatment for a variety of ailments. Beyond its analgesic effects, willow was also used in remedies for skin conditions, wounds and gastrointestinal issues. The bark or leaves could be made into poultices to reduce swelling or could be applied directly to wounds to promote healing.
The oak (quercŭs) and holm oak (īlex) are discussed in terms of their acorns and galls, used medicinally and historically significant, especially the Oak of Mamre. The oak bears acorns while the holm oak produces oak galls. However, some believe both grow on the same tree, with galls and acorns as different types of fruit. The holm oak's name comes from ēlectus ("chosen"), as its fruit was the first food chosen by humans. The oak is historically significant, as seen in the Oak of Mamre where Abraham settled, which survived until Constantine’s reign.
Oak galls have medicinal uses, whereas acorns, once human food, are now primarily for pigs but are also used in medicine. Acorns are cold, dry, hard to digest and can cause constipation, yet nourish the body and help with certain ailments. Burning oak produces dense smoke that causes headaches. Oak and its by-products, like galls, are beneficial for women's health and treating haemorrhages.
The oak often symbolised strength, endurance and protection. Its stature and longevity made it symbolic of steadfastness, much like the faithful who stand strong against trials. Animals associated with the oak, such as the stag, were seen as creatures of wisdom and strength, further reinforcing the oak's symbolic significance.
In Christian symbolism, the oak often represented virtues such as faith, strength and resilience. Its sturdiness in the face of harsh conditions mirrored the Christian soul’s ability to endure hardships and remain faithful. Additionally, the oak was often linked with martyrs or saints who stood firm in their beliefs even under persecution, drawing parallels between the unwavering nature of the tree and the steadfastness of holy figures. It was also linked to various biblical trees, sometimes seen as a counterpart to the Tree of Life, which bore eternal fruit, offering strength and longevity. In medieval Christian communities, oaks could also be considered sacred trees, where prayers or offerings were made, especially in rural or folk practices, blending Christian and pre-Christian traditions.
The oak features prominently in European and Mediterranean myths. In Greek and Roman mythology, the oak was sacred to Zeus (Jupiter for the Romans), the king of the gods, and was seen as a symbol of divine authority and power. Oak groves were often places where ancient peoples sought omens or divine guidance.
In the Celtic tradition, the oak was revered as a tree of wisdom and power. The Druids, Celtic priests, held the oak in the highest regard, believing it to be a bridge between heaven and earth. The tree’s connection to thunder and lightning further enhanced its mythological status as a symbol of divine strength and protection.
The terebinth tree (Tĕrĕbinthus), producing the finest resin, symbolised strength, endurance and the divine protection provided by God. The terebinth’s longevity and ability to grow in rocky, challenging environments also made it symbolic of spiritual endurance amid adversity. Its resin, used as a form of incense, could symbolise purification or consecration to God. In Christian symbolism, it was sometimes associated with divine judgment and transformation. In the Bible, it is mentioned in a few instances, such as in Genesis 35:4 , where Jacob buries foreign gods under a terebinth tree, symbolising the renunciation of idolatry and a return to monotheism. This act of purification could be seen as a metaphor for Christian repentance and rejection of sin. Moreover, the terebinth is often associated with the oak and like the oak, it may symbolise endurance and faith. In the Book of Isaiah (6:13), the terebinth is mentioned in a metaphor about renewal and restoration after destruction: “As a terebinth or an oak leaves a stump when cut down, so the holy seed will be the stump in the land.” This implies that, even after hardship, faith will endure and bring about renewal. This tree's survival from destruction could thus represent the enduring nature of the Christian Church or the faithful remnant of believers.
The terebinth was highly valued in medieval medicine for its resin that was used to treat various ailments, particularly those related to the respiratory system and digestion. Its antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties made it a popular remedy for wounds, skin conditions and infections. In medieval herbals and medical texts, the resin was often applied externally to cleanse wounds and speed healing. Internally, it was sometimes used to treat coughs, bronchial infections and digestive issues. Its resin, when distilled, could also be used to soothe rheumatism or joint pain, demonstrating its versatility in medieval medical practices.
The pine tree (Pīnŭs), was often associated with immortality and eternal life, primarily due to its evergreen nature. Since it remains green year-round, it was seen as a symbol of enduring life and the triumph of life over death, making it a natural allegory for the resurrection and the Christian promise of eternal life. Its height and ability to thrive in difficult conditions made it a symbol of spiritual strength and the ability to remain faithful under pressure.
Pine cones were often used as a symbol of fertility and renewal, especially in their role in nature as seed bearers. The tree's straight trunk also represented uprightness and righteousness, fitting well with Christian moral ideals. The pine also symbolised pride and wealth, as indicated in Isaiah. Its resin had widespread use in medieval medicine: it was often called turpentine when refined and was valued for its antiseptic and healing properties. It was used to treat a variety of ailments, especially related to respiratory problems like bronchitis and asthma. The resin was applied to wounds as a salve to promote healing, protect against infection and soothe skin irritations. In medieval herbal texts, pine needles were sometimes boiled to create remedies for colds and coughs, as the oils released were believed to help clear the respiratory passages. Pine oil was also used in poultices for joint pain or to treat rheumatic conditions. Pine-scented baths were considered beneficial for their invigorating and purifying properties, helping to cleanse the body of toxins and revitalize the spirit.
The elm (Ulmus) tree thrives in damp areas, embodying the virtues of saints and teachers. This tree was often depicted as a symbol of shelter and support. Its expansive branches provided shade and protection, making it a metaphor for nurturing care, both physically and spiritually. Elm trees, often used as support trees for vines in agriculture, were also associated with cooperation and mutual benefit, symbolising the idea that different entities can work together for the common good. The elm was a living example of harmony in nature. Its strength and deep roots made it an allegory for perseverance and stability, qualities that were often praised in medieval moral and religious teachings. Elm groves were seen as safe places, offering protection from harsh weather, which could be interpreted as spiritual protection in the face of life's storms.
In Christian symbolism, the elm tree was associated with death and rebirth, often linked to the cycles of life, death and resurrection. Elm wood was sometimes used in funeral pyres or coffins, reinforcing its connection to mortality. However, its capacity for regeneration—since new shoots often grew from cut or damaged trees—symbolised renewal and resurrection, aligning with Christian beliefs in life after death. The role of this tree in supporting vines further emphasised its symbolic role in Christian thought. As vines were often used as metaphors for Christ (as in John 15: "I am the vine, you are the branches"), the elm's supportive role could be seen as representing the Church or the faithful, providing structure and support for spiritual growth. Elm trees were sometimes planted in churchyards or monasteries, where their sheltering branches could be interpreted as a symbol of God's protection and care over the faithful. The elm's towering stature also evoked the presence of God and the idea of spiritual elevation, providing a metaphor for reaching towards heaven.
In medieval medicine, the elm tree was known particularly for its bark, which was used to treat various ailments. Elm bark was often employed as an anti-inflammatory agent and a remedy for skin conditions like ulcers, wounds and burns. The inner bark was soaked and made into poultices or decoctions, believed to have cleansing and soothing properties. The bark was also used to treat digestive issues and it was thought to be helpful in soothing the digestive tract. It was used in medicinal drinks to ease throat infections and to calm irritations in the stomach or intestines. Some medieval herbalists believed that the elm’s ability to grow new shoots from damaged areas mirrored its healing properties, making it a popular remedy for wounds and injuries.
The box tree (Buxus) is an evergreen used for writing and associated with strength and excellence. In medieval bestiaries, the box tree was often associated with resilience and endurance, much like other evergreens. Since it remains green year-round and produces hard wood that can withstand various conditions, it symbolised unyielding faith and moral integrity. Its dense wood, difficult to break or rot, was used as a metaphor for steadfastness in the face of sin or temptation. This resilience could be linked to the idea of spiritual fortitude, suggesting that like the box tree, one should be firm in their beliefs. Besides, the slow growth of the box tree symbolised patience and the gradual cultivation of virtue. Just as the tree grows and strengthens over time, so too does one’s moral and spiritual strength develop with practice and persistence.
In Christian symbolism, the box tree represented eternal life and immortality, much like other evergreen trees. Its ability to remain green even in harsh conditions made it a symbol of eternal hope and divine grace, which never fades even in difficult times. This made the box tree a metaphor for the promise of salvation and the enduring nature of God's love.
The boxwood’s use in crafting small, intricate religious items like rosary beads, crosses, statues and tablets also tied it closely to religious devotion. Its strong yet workable wood made it ideal for creating devotional objects, linking the tree symbolically to piety, devotion and the crafting of spiritual tools used in prayer and meditation.
Boxwood also had negative associations due to its toxicity. Consuming the leaves or wood could lead to illness or death, which gave the tree a dual symbolism: it could represent both protection and danger, much like the choices between salvation and sin. The toxicity could be interpreted allegorically as the consequences of straying from the path of righteousness.
In medieval medicine, the box tree’s uses were somewhat limited due to its toxicity. However, it was still employed in some medicinal remedies, primarily involving the external application of its parts. Boxwood leaves were used in poultices to reduce swelling or treat skin conditions and it was sometimes employed in treating rheumatism. The leaves and bark, when prepared with caution, were used in remedies for fevers and other ailments, though ingestion had to be carefully controlled. Boxwood’s astringent properties made it useful in treating wounds or external inflammations. Medieval herbalists understood the tree’s powerful nature but warned of its potential dangers, reflecting the tree’s symbolic association with both healing and harm.
The ebony (Ĕbĕnus) originates from India and Ethiopia: it was admired for its hardness and incorruptibility. Its wood was so dense that it was often said to sink in water, a property that symbolised resilience and unshakable faith. The tree’s resistance to insects and decay became a metaphor for the incorruptibility of virtue. Just as the ebony tree cannot be easily destroyed by external forces, so too should a person’s moral character stand firm against temptations and challenges. The darkness of the ebony wood was often interpreted as a symbol of mystery and depth, showing that appearances can be deceiving. The purity and strength within contrasted with the dark exterior, signifying that one’s inner qualities were more important than outward appearances. In Christian thought, humility was often considered one of the greatest virtues and the ebony tree’s modest yet powerful nature aligned with the Christian ideal of inner spiritual strength. Despite its dark, unassuming exterior, it was regarded as precious and valuable, much like a person who quietly devotes themselves to God without seeking worldly praise. Ebony wood was sometimes used to carve religious items, such as crosses or statues, representing how something seemingly dark or ordinary could be transformed into a sacred object, thereby further enhancing its symbolic resonance with themes of sanctification and spiritual transformation.
The use of ebony in medieval medicine was limited due to its rarity and hard nature, but it was highly prized for its supposed protective and preservative properties. It was believed that objects made from ebony could ward off illness or evil spirits, contributing to the tree’s symbolic role as a protector against spiritual or physical corruption. Ebony was sometimes used in amulets or charms, believed to provide protection from evil or misfortune. Its hard, durable wood was thought to contain inherent medicinal or magical properties, though not necessarily as a consumable. Instead, its protective strength was more allegorical, associated with safeguarding life and health through its sheer incorruptibility.
The bdellium (Bdellĭum), highlighted for its luxurious qualities and medicinal uses, is also prized for its aromatic resin. It was sometimes compared to precious materials like myrrh and frankincense due to its fragrant and resinous nature. In bestiaries and medieval allegory, resins like bdellium were often symbolic of purification and spiritual refinement. The extraction of resin from trees symbolised a process of purging impurities, much like how the soul undergoes trials to achieve purity. Bdellium, being a rare and valuable resin, represented the idea that purity and spiritual refinement are precious and come at a cost. As a substance used in incense, bdellium could be linked to the idea of offerings to God. Just as bdellium’s sweet-smelling aroma would rise to heaven when burned, it could symbolise prayers or righteous acts rising up to God, making it an emblem of piety and devotion. In Christian symbolism, bdellium, like other resins, was associated with sanctity, prayer and the divine. It was mentioned in the Bible, notably in Genesis 2:12 , where it is listed alongside gold and onyx in the description of the land of Havilah, suggesting its preciousness. The use of aromatic resins in religious ceremonies was common and bdellium would have symbolised purity, sanctification and divine presence. The burning of resin in liturgical practices was seen as an act of worship and offering and thus bdellium, with its fragrant smoke, came to symbolise the soul’s ascent to God. The purity of its aroma represented the purification of the soul and its rarity made it a symbol of the preciousness of spiritual gifts.
In medieval medicine, bdellium was used for its therapeutic properties. It was valued for its ability to treat wounds, infections and digestive issues. Bdellium’s antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties made it a popular ingredient in ointments for healing ulcers and sores. It was also sometimes used in poultices to reduce swelling or to promote the healing of abscesses. The resin was believed to have a cleansing effect on the body, reflecting its symbolic role in purification. It was sometimes used to treat respiratory problems and its pleasant aroma made it useful in fumigations to purify the air, especially in times of plague or infection.
flexum creditur. eoquod terris fixis radicibus
adhereant. Utraque ideo sibi pene sullimia sunt; quia
ex uno alterum gignitur. Nam dum sementem in terram
ieceris; herba prius oritur. dehinc confota surgit in
arborem. et infra parvum tempus quam herbam
videras; arbustam suspicis. Arbusta dicitur quasi ar-
boris hasta. Alii arbustum dicunt locum in quo
arbores sunt. Sicut salicta et virecta. ubi salices et
virgule novelle et virentes habenter; Frutex bre-
vis est. appellatus. quod terram frond tegat. cuius
quia pagani ydola ibi consecrabant. Sunt enim nemora
arbores maiores. umbrose frondibus. Lucus est. densi-
tas arborum alta. vocata hoc nomine eoquod exiliat in
altum. et in sullime consurgat. Inscicio dicitur; cum insciso
trunco surculus arboris sterilis inseritur. Plante
sunt de arboribus plantaria. Vere ex semine nata sunt
cum radicibus et a terra propria transferuntur. Radix
appellatur quod quasi radiis quibusdam fixa in terris;
in profunda mergitur. Nam phisici dicunt parem esse
altitudinem radicum et arborum. Truncus est statura
arboris insistens radici. Corticem veteres corucem
vocabant. dictus cortex; quod corio lignum tegat
Liber est corticis pars interior. dictus a liberato cortice id est
ablato. Est enim medium quiddam inter lignum et cor-
ticem. Rami sunt; qui de trunco manant. Surculi a
prescidere sere nuncupati. Virgultum est quod de radice
pullulat. Ramus de ipso arboris robore. virgaque de
ramis. Proprie autem virgultum nuncupatur; quod ad ra-
dicem arboris nascitur. et quasi inutile ab agricolis ampu-
litur. Virga a virtute dicitur. quia vim in se habeat
multam. Vel a viriditate. vel quia paucis indicium est;
quod vireat. Unde hac utuntur magi ad placandos
inter se serpentes. et iccirco in ea hos sustinent illigatos.
Hanc etiam philosophi et reges et magistri et nuntii ac lega-
ti gestant. Flagella dicuntur summe arborum partes.
ab eo quod sustinent crebros ventorum flatus. Cu-
mas; quasi comas vocant. Folia filia grece dicuntur.
Unde ad nos hoc nomen dirivative translatum. flores
nominati; quod cito solvuntur de arboribus. In hiis duplex
gratia. coloris et odoris. Austro enim flores solvuntur. zephi-
ro fruuntur. Germen dicimus surculum pregnantem.
a generando. Unde et generatio fructus nomen acce-
pit. a frumine id est eminente gutteris parte. qua ves-
cimur. et sapores discernimus. Unde et fruges. Fructus
autem proprie dicuntur agrorum et arborum quibus uti-
mur. In averillibus vero abusive et translative
fructum vocari. Poma dicta ab opimo id est copia
tuntur in lumen. Unde et lignum dicitur; quod lu-
men dat. Torris lignum est. lignum adustum. quod
vulgo ticionem vocant. foco semiustum et stractum . Palma dicitur quia victricis manum ornat
vel quia in modum palme hominis;
oppansis est. Est enim arbor insignis proceroque ac
decoro virgulto diuturiusque vestita frondibus. folia
sua sine ulla succensione conservans. Hanc greci;
phenicem dicunt. quia phenix est avis que mul-
to tempore vivit in arabia. Quia palma dum(changed to cum)
in multis locis nascatur; non tamen in omnibus fructus
percipit maturitatem. Frequenter autem in egypto
et in siria. Fructus autem eius sunt dactili. a simili-
tudine digitorum quam habent nuncupati. quibus pasti
sunt olim heremite in egypto et siria et inheremis.
Dactili sunt grossi. sanguinis generativi. calidi et
humidi sunt; et difficiles digestioni. Et si sepe com-
The palm tree is called so, for its branch adorns the hand of victors or for it resembles the shape of a human hand when it stretches out. It is a distinguished tree with tall and graceful branches and is adorned with leaves that it preserves without any shedding. The Greeks call it φοῖνιξ (phoînix)[12], for the phoenix is a bird that lives for a long time in Arabia. Although the palm grows in many places, its fruit does not ripen everywhere. However, it ripens frequently in Egypt and in Syria. Its fruits are called dates, dactўli, so named, due to their resemblance to fingers whereon hermits in Egypt, Syria, in deserts and hermitages fed in the past. Dates are fleshy, generative of blood, hot and moist and are difficult to digest. If eaten frequently, they cause
nem. duriciem. grossitiem. et tumorem. Gingivis et
dentibus sunt nocivi. et dolorem faciunt in ore
stomachi. Quidam in frigida. quidam in calida. qui-
dam in mediocri regione nascuntur. Nomine palme
aliquando dicitur iusticia et victoria vitiorum et mundi
aliquando corona et retribution vite eterne que victoribus de-
betur. ut p3 in .viio. libro. quarte partis pantheologi. ca-
pitulo. lxxxi. ;
Laurus autem ab hoc verbo laudo dicta est. Hac enim
capita victorum apud antiquos coronabantur.
et apud eosdem laudea nominabatur; Postea
.D. littera sublata. et subrogata .R; dicta est laurus.
Ut auricule. que antiquitus audicule dicebantur.
dicte sunt et medidies qui nunc meridies dicitur
Et medidies que nunc meridies dicitur. Hanc ar-
borem dampnem vocant. eo quod numquam deponat vi-
riditatem. Sola quoque hec arbor vulgo fulminari creditur; vel fluminari
Ficus a fecunditate dicitur. eoque feratior sit omnibus
arboribus. Nam ter quaterque singulis annis generat
Laūrūs, laurel, is named after the verb laudāre, to praise, for the heads of victors were crowned therewith among the ancients. They used to call it laudĕa; afterwards, the letter D was removed and replaced with R; it resulted in laurĕa[13] and laūrūs[14]. Similarly, aurĭcŭlae, ears, were formerly called audĭcŭlae and mĕrīdĭēs, midday, used to be called mĕdīdĭēs but it is now called mĕrīdĭēs. This tree is also called δάφνη/daphne[14] from Greek and is evergreen. This tree is commonly believed to be the only one that can be struck by lightning.
Fīcus, fig tree, is said to be named after the word fēcundĭtās (fruitfulness, abundance, fertility) and therefore, it is more fruitful than all the other trees, for it bears fruit three to four times each year.
Hinc et carice a copia dicuntur. ficus egyptia fecun-
dior fertur. cuius lignum in aquam missum; continuo mer-
gitur et cum in limo aliquandiu iacuerit; demum
in superficiem sustollitur. cum econtrario deberet secundum soli-
tum cursum nature. enatare. et madefactum ex-
pondere humoris mergere. Olim athlete ficis ale-
bantur; antequam pitagoras transtulisset eos ad usus
carnium; que fortior cibus sunt. Ficus enim ceteris fruc-
tibus laudabilior ac nutribilior est. Ficus sepius in ci-
bum sumpta; rugas distendit. Tauri ferocissimi
ad ficus arborem colligati; mansuescere dicuntur.
Ficus fructus humiditatis causa; grossos generat hu-
mores. Natura eius calida et sicca. Ficus mixta frondi-
bus papaueris silvestris; ossa fracta vulneribus eli-
cit. Ficus calorem extinguit. situm aufert. provocat
sudorem. pediculos generat;
Morus a grecis vocatatur. quam ut ysidorus dicit latini;
rubum appellant. eoquod fructus eius vel virgul-
tum eius rubet. Est enim morus silvestris fructum afferens
Mōrus[17], blackberry/bramble, is from Greek μόρος/móros or μορέα /moréa. As Isidore says, the Latins named it rŭbus, for its fruit or its twigs are red. The bramble is a wild tree bearing fruit;
tetur. Huius folia si fuerint superiactata serpenti; fer-
tur interimi. Hodie tamen consueto more diximus morum
arborem quandam magnam. cum latis folus. et fere simili-
bus folus ficus; afferentem(changed from tuem) fructus rubentes.
Sicomorus grecum nomen est. et dicitur ficus fatua. ysido-
rus autem dicit quod sicomorus dicitur eoquod similis mo-
ro sit folio. Hanc latini celsam vocant ab altitudine.
quia non brevis; ut morus. Set ut a nonnullo estimatur;
morus est quod ysidorus dicit sicomorum. et e9o. Osee enim pastor
in deserto; vellicabat sicomoros.
Myrice humilis arbor est. licet quandoque ad staturam hominis
inveniatur. et dicitur ab amaritudine. Gustus enim eius; est
nimis amarus. In solitudine et in saxosa humo nasci-
tur. apta ignibus et scopis et sine fructus est.
Mirtus dicitur a mari. eoquod litorea magis ar-
bor sit. Unde virgilius. Littora mirtetis letissima.
et amantes littora mirtos. Humilis arbor et utilis
potui mellito. Mirtus est. frigida et sicca. Oleum eius;
nimiam apertionem nimis sudat. ex quo minime fiunt
egritudines oleo mirtimo ungatur; pori restringun-
tur. et sudores defitiunt. Mirtus multis mulierum
necessitatibus subvenit. Et est arbor odorifera. quid-
dam dulcedinis et quiddam amaritudinis habens
frigida et sicca. Tussi subvenit. stomacum et intesti-
na confortat. Aqua in qua decocta est. sive oleum
mirtinum; erasure cesariem erasure confirmat et aug-
mentat. Cassia multum est calida et sicca. Stomacum. epar.
vulnera. et omnia principalia membra confortat.
O pilationem aperit. grossos humores et ventositatem dis-
soluit. Infirmitatibus mulierum succurrit.
Cinnamonium calidum est. et siccum. stomacum con-
fortat. et aromatizat. et eius humiditate desiccat.
Opilationem aperit. cibus digerit. flegma dissoluit. Tus-
sim ex grossa humiditate et catharrum curat. Renum
dolorem mitigat. Ydropisim tympanitem. et morsus repti-
lium curat. Colliriis mixtum; superfluam oculorum
Căssia, Chinese cinnamon[23], is very hot and dry. It strengthens the stomach, liver, wounds and all the main members. It opens obstructions, dissolves unhealthy and obstructive fluids and flatulence. It assists women with their ailments.
Cinnămōmum, cinnamon[24], is hot and dry. It strengthens the stomach, adds aroma and it dries with its moisture. It opens obstructions, aids the digestion of food and dissolves phlegm. It cures coughs caused by thick humidity and catarrh. It alleviates pain in the kidneys and heals dropsy, tympanitis and the bite of a reptile. When mixed with eyewash, it dries up excessive moisture
inpetigines et lentigines excirpat. Si cum frigida ieiu-
nis detur; emoroidarum proprie sanguinem stringit. Amigdala sive amigdalus arbor est. que cunctis ar-
boribus prior; se flore vestit. et ad inferenda poma;
arbusta sequentia prevenit. Et est. amigdala grecum
nomen. que latine nux longa vocatur. Hanc alii nu-
cidam vocant. quasi minorem nucem. Amigdale dulces;
sunt calide et humide. amigdale amare; sunt cali-
de et sicce. Amare; dantur pro medicina. Dulces; pro-
cibo. Nomine amigdale aliquando dnr snie sacre scripture. Populus duplex est. alba scilicet et nigra. Alba dicitur;
eoquod folia eius in una parte sunt alba. in altera; vi-
rida. Hec ergo bicolor. habens quasi diei et noctis notas. quo
tempore ortu solis occasuque constat. Generat etiam
resinam circa heridanum fluvium. vel ut alii dicunt in finibus sirie. Platanus a latitudine soliorum dicitur. vel quia
arbor sit patula et ampla. Nam platos dicitur grece;
latum. Expressit scriptura huius arboris et nomen et formam;
dicens. Quasi platanus dilatata sum in plateis. Est atem;
Ămygdăla/Ămygdălus, almond tree, above all other trees, is covered with flowers and prevents the shrubs following it from bearing fruit. The word comes from Greek ἀμυγδάλη/amygdalē but it is also called nux longa, long nut. Others call it nucida, small nut. Sweet almonds are warm and moist. Bitter almonds warm and dry. The bitter ones are given as a medicine. The sweet ones as food. The word ămygdăla sometimes appears in the sacred scriptures[27].
Pōpŭlus[28], poplar, has two parts: its leaves are white on one side and green on the other. Therefore, it is two-coloured, having the characteristics of day and night, when the sun rises and sets. It also produces resin near the river Ērĭdănus[28], or as others say, at the borders of Syria.
Plătănus, plane tree, is named after the wide breadth of its shade, for it is a wide and large tree. In Greek, πλατύς/platýs means wide. The Scriptures describe the name and form of this trees by saying "As a plane tree, I am spread out in the streets." However,
Iuniperus grece dicta. sive quod ab amplo in angustum
finit; ut ignis; sive quod conceptum diu teneat
ignem. adeo ut si prune ex eius cinere fuerint coo-
perte; ad annum perveniant. Pir enim grece dicitur ignis
iuniperus alia est parva alia magna.
Timus sive ligne tima; sunt rotunda. quasi pinea.
sed multo candidiora. et fulgentia valde. et inputri-
bilia. et spinosa; in similitudinem albe spine. Dicitur
quidam quod aliud sit timus arbor. alius tinius sive
timum; herba vel frutex. cuius flosodorem refert. De
qua herba dicit virgilius. Redolentque timo. fragran-
tia mella. Epitimum grecum nomen est quod latine dicitur
flos timi. Nam flos grece; timum vocatur. Est autem
flos timbre similis. Tima ligna significant predicatores.
Sethui sive ligna sethin; sunt semper durabilia.
incorrupta. munda. perfecta. fortia. unde habent signi-
ficare perpetuitatem. durabilitatem. invincibilitatem;
Iūnĭpĕrus[29], juniper tree, is defined in Greek as a tree that goes from wide to narrow just like fire or can hold fire for a long time so much so that if it were to be covered with its ash, it would last for a year. In Greek, πῦρ/pyr means fire. The juniper has both a small and a large variety.
Thўmum/thўmus, thyme, or lignum thymi, thyme stem, is round resembling the shape of a fir cone but much whiter and very shining. It does not putrefy and is spiny in the likeness of a white thorn. Some say that it is another kind of thyme, perhaps tinius or timum, either an herb or a shrub, which has the scent of flowers. Virgil says thereof: “the fragrant honey is sweet with thyme” (Georgics, book 4, 149). Ĕpĭthўmŏn[30] is the Greek word for that which the Latins call the flower of thyme. In Greek, the flower is called θύμος/thumos[31]. It is a flower similar to the whorled savory. The flowers of thyme symbolise preachers.
Shittah/sethim/shittim[32], red acacia or shittah tree, is always durable, incorruptible, pure, perfect and strong; therefore, it symbolises perpetuity, durability and invincibility.
Further Reading
Baldassarri, F. (ed.) (2023) Plants in 16th and 17th Century: Botany between Medicine and Science. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach, A., Berghof, O. (2006) The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, M. (2023) Medieval Plants and Their Uses. Yorkshire - Philadelphia: White Owl, an imprint of Pen & Sword Books Ltd.
Castiglioni, L., Mariotti, S. (1996) Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Torino: Loescher.
Chavannes-Mazel, C.A., IJpelaar, L. (eds.) (2023) The Green Middle Ages: The Depiction and Use of Plants in the Western World 600-1600. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Cummings, J. (2021) Medicine in the Middle Ages: Surviving the Times. Yorkshire – Philadelphia: Pen & Sword History, an imprint of Pen & Sword Books Ltd.
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Palm tree, November 6, 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast100143.htm.
Demaitre, L. (2013) Medieval Medicine: The Art of Healing, from Head to Toe. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
Dunthorn, L. (1912) Herbals: Their Origin and Evolution. A Chapter in the History of Botany 1470-1670. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hartmann, S. (ed.) (2007) Fauna and Flora in the Middle Ages: Studies of the Medieval Environment and its Impact on the Human Mind: Papers Delivered at the International Medieval Congress, Leeds, in 2000, 2001, and 2002. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Hozeski, B.W. (trans.) (2001) Hildegard’s Healing Plants. Boston: Beacon Press.
Neville, S. (2022) Early Modern Herbals and the Book Trade: English Stationers and the Commodification of Botany. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Plinio Secondo, G. (1984) Storia Naturale III: Botanica, Libri I-19. Torino: Giulio Einaudi Editore.
Siraisi, N.G. (1990) Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Smith, A. W. (1997) A Gardener’s Handbook of Plant Names: Their Meanings and Origins. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
Tobyn, G., Denham, A., Whitelegg, M. (2016) The Western Herbal Tradition: 2000 Years of Medicinal Plant Knowledge. London: Singing Dragon.
Van Arsdall, A. (2002) Medieval Herbal Remedies: The Old English Herbarium and Anglo-Saxon Medicine. New York: Routledge.
Van Arsdall, A., Graham, T. (eds.) (2012) Herbs and Healers from the Ancient Mediterranean Through the Medieval West: Essays in Honor of John M. Riddle. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.
Endnotes
[1] Transcription error: the correct word was probably pacis, of peace, and not paucis to the few.
[2] Transcription error: the correct word was probably animalibus, to animals.
[3] Transcription error: the correct word was probably extinctum, cold/cooled down.
[4] Arbusta is the plural form of arbustum and usually means bushes/shrubs.
[5] Arbustum in the singular form usually refers to a grove or a plantation of trees.
[6] The plural form frutecta comes from frŭtectum and refers to "a place where shrubs grow" or "a thicket" of bushes. It is a broader term indicating a collection of shrubs or bushes in a specific area. The word frŭtex refers to a single "shrub" or "bush." The plural form is frutices.
[7] The Romans used to give sacred groves the names nĕmŭs or lūcus to distinguish them from ordinary groves that were named silvae. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_grove
[8] In ancient and medieval symbolism, the image of magicians coiling snakes around twigs or rods (such as virga) is closely related to broader mythological and symbolic traditions. A notable example is the Rod of Asclepius, an ancient Greek symbol associated with healing and medicine, which depicts a single serpent coiled around a staff. This imagery conveys the idea of control over serpents, which are often seen as symbols of knowledge, healing or danger. Another related symbol is the caduceus, associated with the god Hermes, showing two snakes coiled around a staff. Though this latter symbol is more connected to commerce and negotiation, it reflects a similar theme of power and wisdom. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_of_Asclepius https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caduceus
[9] The word cŏmae means hair, tresses, mane but also foliage or crown of a tree.
[10] Plural form of frux, fruit.
[11] Ligna is the plural form of lignum. In the plural form, it has the meaning of firewood.
[12] This word could also refer to the Phoenix bird, as the two shared the same name due to their association with longevity and the region of Phoenicia. The word was used to describe both the palm tree and its symbolic meaning, much like in Latin.
[13] The author of this book is not mentioned. The text might be referring to the Pantheologia, sive Summa universae theologiae, a theological encyclopedia written by Rainerius de Pisis, an Italian Dominican who died in 1351. It was the first theological encyclopedia and one of the longest books written in the medieval period. The book was first published in 1473 in Nuremberg and six printed editions were produced in the 15th century.
[14] Mark NKJV 11:12-14: 12 Now the next day, when they had come out from Bethany, He was hungry.
13 And seeing from afar a fig tree having leaves, He went to see if perhaps He would find something on it. When He came to it, He found nothing but leaves, for it was not the season for figs.
14 In response Jesus said to it, “Let no one eat fruit from you ever again.” And His disciples heard it.
[15] Matthew NKJV 18:21-22: 18 Now in the morning, as He returned to the city, He was hungry.
19 And seeing a fig tree by the road, He came to it and found nothing on it but leaves, and said to it, “Let no fruit grow on you ever again.” Immediately the fig tree withered away.
20 And when the disciples saw it, they marveled, saying, “How did the fig tree wither away so soon?”
21 So Jesus answered and said to them, “Assuredly, I say to you, if you have faith and do not doubt, you will not only do what was done to the fig tree, but also if you say to this mountain, ‘Be removed and be cast into the sea,’ it will be done.
22 And whatever things you ask in prayer, believing, you will receive.”
[16] Exodus NKJV 3:2: "And the Angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire from the midst of a bush. So he looked, and behold, the bush was burning with fire, but the bush was not consumed."
[17] Genesis NKJV 21:33: "Then Abraham planted a tamarisk tree in Beersheba, and there called on the name of the Lord, the Everlasting God."
[18] Exodus NKJV 30:22-25: 22 Moreover the Lord spoke to Moses, saying:
23 “Also take for yourself quality spices—five hundred shekels of liquid myrrh, half as much sweet-smelling cinnamon (two hundred and fifty shekels), two hundred and fifty shekels of sweet-smelling cane,
24 five hundred shekels of cassia, according to the shekel of the sanctuary, and a hin of olive oil.
25 And you shall make from these a holy anointing oil, an ointment compounded according to the art of the perfumer. It shall be a holy anointing oil."
[19] Numbers NKJV 17:8: "Now it came to pass on the next day that Moses went into the tabernacle of witness, and behold, the rod of Aaron, of the house of Levi, had sprouted and put forth buds, had produced blossoms and yielded ripe almonds."
[20] Jeremiah NKJV 1:11-12: 11 Moreover the word of the Lord came to me, saying, “Jeremiah, what do you see?”
And I said, “I see a branch of an almond tree.”
12 Then the Lord said to me, “You have seen well, for I am ready to perform My word.”
[21] It is the laurel crown.
[22] It is the laurel tree.
[23] Daphne was also a naiad, a variety of female nymph associated with fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of freshwater. Due to a curse made by the fierce wrath of the god Cupid, son of Venus, on the god Apollo (Phoebus), she became the unwilling object of the infatuation of Apollo, who chased her against her wishes. Just before being kissed by him, Daphne invoked her river god father, who transformed her into a laurel tree, thus foiling Apollo. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphne
[24] Cārĭca was a type of dry fig from Caria, a country in south-west Asia Minor. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caria
[25] Călŏr means both heat and fever in Latin.
[26] The word sĭtŭs has various meanings: it usually means location, position but it also means rust, mould, dirt.
[27] It is referring to the bramble/blackberry tree, the Rubus Fruticosus. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubus_fruticosus
[28] Mōrum or mōrus is the mulberry tree, Morus Nigra, and its leaves are similar to the leaves of a fig tree. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morus_(plant)
[29] This tree is very similar to the fig tree and is also called the Egyptian fig. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus_sycomorus
[30] The Greek word for this tree is συκόμορος/sykómoros
[31] In Latin, fătŭus meant silly/foolish/idiotic but when it referred to food, it meant tasteless/insipid.
[32] The Romans called the mulberry also celsa, from celsus, which means high/elevated. In fact, the word for mulberry in Modern Italian is gelso because it derives from celsus. The language evolved and the letter c was replaced with the letter g, thus resulting in gelso. https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/gelso_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/
[33] Osee, or Hosea, is a significant figure in the Bible, particularly known as a prophet in the Old Testament. He is often referred to as "the shepherd" in various contexts, particularly in the metaphorical sense.
[34] The act of plucking sycamore fruits is not a detailed focus in Hosea’s writings but sycamore figs are mentioned in Amos NKJV 7:14: "Then Amos answered and said to Amaziah: 'I was no prophet, nor was I a son of a prophet, but I was a sheep breeder and a tender of sycamore fruit.'"
[35] Myrice was also a figure in Greek mythology who was transformed into a tamarisk tree, possibly by Aphrodite, the goddess associated with the tree. The story suggests that Myrice was grieving the death of her kinsman Adonis, who was killed by a boar while hunting.
[36] This tree is loaded with symbolism and is mentioned in the Bible, in Genesis NKJV 21:33: "Then Abraham planted a tamarisk tree in Beersheba, and there called on the name of the Lord, the Everlasting God."
[37] It is called Chinese cassia or Chinese cinnamon, Cinnamomum cassia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamomum_cassia
[38] Ordinary cinnamon, also called the true Cinnamon or Ceylon cinnamon, the Cinnamomum verum https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamomum_verum
[39] The word "amygdala," referring to the almond tree, appears in several verses in the Bible, specifically in the context of the almond tree as a symbol or in descriptions.
Numbers NKJV 17:8: "Et factum est, in crastinum, ingressus est Moyses in tabernaculum testimonii, et ecce, germinavit virga Aaron de domo Levi, et protulit germina, et floruit flores, et reddidit amygdala."
"Now it came to pass on the next day that Moses went into the tabernacle of witness, and behold, the rod of Aaron, of the house of Levi, had sprouted and put forth buds, had produced blossoms and yielded ripe almonds."
Jeremiah NKJV 1:11-12: "Et factus est sermo Domini ad me, dicens: Quid tu vides, Ieremia? Et dixi: Amygdalam videns; et dixit Dominus ad me: Bene vidisti, quia vigilabo super verbum meum, ut adimpleam illud."
"Moreover, the word of the LORD came to me, saying, 'Jeremiah, what do you see?' And I said, 'I see a branch of an almond tree.' Then the LORD said to me, 'You have seen well, for I am ready to perform My word.'"
Ecclesiastes NKJV 12:5: "Quia timebitur, et viae erunt terribiles, et amygdala florebit, et onus erit locusta, et deficiet desiderium: quia in domum aeternitatis vadit homo, et circumibunt in plateis plorantes."
"Also they are afraid of height, and of terrors in the way; when the almond tree blossoms, the grasshopper is a burden, and desire fails. For man goes to his eternal home, and the mourners go about the streets."
[40] This tree, Populus tremula, has various names according to the species: poplar, aspen and cottonwood. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus
[41] Ērĭdănus is a mythical river mentioned in Greek mythology and is believed to be in Northern Europe. It is also believed to be the modern river Po, in Northern Italy. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridanos_(river_of_Hades)
[42] In reality, the Greek word for juniper is ἄρκευθος/arkeythos. The etymological dictionary divides the word into junix(heifer) + pario (to give birth) because the juniper is an emmenagogue, an agent that promotes menstrual discharge and it was given to cows to facilitate their delivery. Others replaced junix with junior(young)+ pario because the tree always produces young sprouts. https://www.etimo.it/?term=ginepro&find=Cerca
[43] The ΛΟΓΕΙΟΝ dictionary defines ĕpĭthўmŏn as a parasitic plant growing on thyme, Cuscuta Epithymum https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuscuta_epithymum
[44] θύμον/thymon: Accusative (direct object) form of thyme, used in specific grammatical contexts.
[45] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vachellia_seyal , https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shittah_tree. The shittim tree is mentioned in the Bible, especially in the context of the construction of the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle (Exodus 25:10). The wood was used for these sacred structures because of its lasting qualities. It symbolises endurance, strength and purity in various cultural and religious contexts.
[46] Psalm NKJV 92:12-13: The righteous shall flourish like a palm tree, He shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon. Those who are planted in the house of the Lord shall flourish in the courts of our God.
[47] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyparissus
[48] Psalm NKJV 137:1-2:
1 By the rivers of Babylon, There we sat down, yea, we wept when we remembered Zion.
2 We hung our harps upon the willows in the midst of it.
[49] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecate
[50] Genesis NKJV 35:4: So they gave Jacob all the foreign gods which were in their hands, and the earrings which were in their ears; and Jacob hid them under the terebinth tree which was by Shechem.
[51] Genesis NKJV 2:12: And the gold of that land is good. Bdellium and the onyx stone are there.
[52] Roman poet and satirist of Etruscan origin. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persius
[53] In classical and medieval literature, the swan often symbolised purity, beauty and poetic excellence. Therefore, worthy of the swan emphasises something elevated or noble in nature, fitting the swan’s symbolic association with grace and high standards. Persius’s words or ideas being worthy of such an elegant or enduring symbol connects the durability and nobility of the cedar with the poetic loftiness symbolised by the swan.
[54] Transcription error. Virgil actually wrote in the Georgics: “et casus abies visura marinos” and not “et casus abies insura marmos”.
[55] Cōnus means cone or pine cone in Latin.
[56] Song of Songs NKJV 1:17: “The beams of our houses are cedar, And our rafters of fir.”
[57] Variation of hispanum. The oil made from white olives was called Spanish oil, ŏlĕum hispānum.
[58] Probably from lux(light) or lŭcerna(lamp) and it is referring to the oil used for lighting lamps.
[59] It means light, lamp and comes from the Greek word λύχνος/lýchnos.
[60] The word ēlectus comes from the verb ēlego, to choose.
[61] The word is an adjective referring to the oak. There are variants: quernus, quernĕus, querculus, quercĭnus.
[62] The verb quaero means to seek answers/responses, to look or to ask for something.
[63] The Oak of Mamre or Oak of Sibta at Khirbet es-Sibte or Ain Sibta in Hebron in the West Bank is a site venerated by some as the "Oak of Abraham". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_of_Mamre
[64] Mambra (or Mamre) in the Bible refers to a site near Hebron in ancient Canaan. Mamre is associated with Abraham, who settled there and built an altar to the Lord. In Genesis 13:18, it is mentioned that Abraham moved to the oak grove of Mamre, which is near Hebron. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamre
[65] Parthia is a historical region located in North Eastern Greater Iran. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia
[66] Pīnŭs also meant spear or lance in Latin.
[67] Germania was a historical region in north-central Europe during the Roman era, which was associated by Roman authors with the Germanic peoples. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germania
[68] Isaiah NKJV 60:13: "The glory of Lebanon shall come to you, the cypress, the pine, and the box tree together, to beautify the place of My sanctuary; and I will make the place of My feet glorious."
[69] Isaiah NKJV 41:19: "I will put in the wilderness the cedar, the acacia tree, the myrtle, and the olive tree; I will set in the desert the cypress tree and the pine and the box tree together."
[70] The word ăpex not only means top, point or summit but also the outlines of the letters of the alphabet and ĕlĕmenta are also the characters of the letters of the alphabet.
[71] This passage highlights the qualities of the box tree and its significance in writing, particularly its use in creating writing implements such as tablets for instance. In fact, buxus also means tablet in Latin. In Habakkuk NKJV 2:2: Then the LORD answered me and said: “Write the vision And make it plain on tablets, That he may run who reads it.
[72] 2 Esdras NKJV 14:24: "But look thou prepare thee many box trees, and take with thee Sarea, Dabria, Selemia, Ecanus, and Asiel, these five which are ready to write swiftly"
[73] There is a confusion between Egypt and India. The term Mareotis refers to the Mareotic Lake in Egypt, known for the presence of ebony. This type of geographical confusion was common in ancient texts, as the authors often had limited knowledge of distant lands and their resources.