Manticore, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f27r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The manticore was the cruellest and most bloodthirsty animal of all beasts, owing to its longing for human flesh.
This beast has a leonine body, a human face and a tail resembling a scorpion’s sting and its origin is to be traced back to India or Persia. Its name comes from the Persian mardkhora, which means man-eater.
In Gustave Flaubert’s The Temptation of St Anthony, the manticore says of itself:
“The gleam of my scarlet hair mingles with the reflection of the great sands. I breathe through my nostrils the terror of solitudes. I spit forth plague. I devour armies when they venture into the desert. My claws are twisted like screws, my teeth shaped like saws, and my curving tail bristles with darts, that I broadcast right and left, before and behind.”
In Christian symbolism, this animal was associated with the prophet Jeremiah because he was buried beneath the ground whilst there were rumours that a manticore was living in a cave, but this association short-lived.
The manticore represented envy, tyranny and the embodiment of evil but also sinful desires: its insatiable appetite for human flesh could be interpreted as a symbol of sinful desires and the dangers of giving in to hedonistic or immoral behaviour. This allegory emphasized the importance of resisting such temptations.
The manticore's hybrid nature, combining features of different creatures, was sometimes seen as a symbol of moral confusion or lack of a clear moral foundation. It served as a cautionary tale about the consequences of straying from virtuous paths.
Transcription
Translation
hominis. glaucis oculis. sanguineo colore. corpore-
leonino. cauda velut scorpionis aculeo. spiculata
voce tanquam sibila ut imitetur modulos fistularum.
humanas carnes avidissime affectat. pedibus sic viget;
saltibus sic potest. ut mori eam nec extensissima spa-
cia possint cogere; nec obstacula latissima;
The manticore is a beast born in India. It has three rows of teeth that intertwine like the teeth of a comb. It has the face of a human, greyish-blue eyes and a blood-red colour. It has a leonine body, and its tail resembles a scorpion's sting. It has a sharp, hissing voice similar to the sound of flutes and bagpipes. It eagerly longs for human flesh. It is so swift and jumps so high that neither the vastest areas nor the most insuperable obstacles can force it to die.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Crocodile, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast146.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 Extentus/extensus
2 The Latin spelling is mantĭchōrās and comes from the Greek μαρτιχόρας/martikhórās.
Tarandrus, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f27r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The tarand was first mentioned as tarandos/tάρανδος by Aristotle in his Corpus Aristotelicum, then by Pliny in his History of The Animals as tarandus and also Solinus called it parandrus.
In Medieval bestiaries and Christian symbolism, the tarand was often associated with strength and endurance due to its ability to navigate harsh winter environments and pull heavy loads. This symbolism was sometimes used to represent the perseverance and resilience of Christians in facing the challenges of life.
The tarand's antlers, which shed and regrow annually, were seen as a symbol of renewal and rebirth, paralleling themes of spiritual renewal and the resurrection of Christ.
The image of the tarand pulling a sleigh or carrying burdens was sometimes interpreted allegorically as an emblem of humility and service, reflecting Christ's role as a servant leader and the Christian call to serve others.
Transcription
Translation
preferens ultra modum longa. ad obsequium cuius velit
motus accomodata. Neque enim rigent; sed moventur
ut usus exigit preliandi. Quorum alterum cum pug-
nat; pretendit; alterum replicat. Ut si ictu aliquo
alterius acumen offenderit; acies succedat alterius;
The beast called yale is as large as a horse, has a tail like that of an elephant, is of black colour, has caprine jaws, and exceedingly long horns that adjust to any movements it wishes to make, for they do not stiffen, but they move as the need for fighting requires. When the yale has to fight, one horn moves forward whereas the other one folds back. If the tip of the first horn is damaged by a blow, it is replaced by the tip of the second one.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Yale, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast142.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Wolf, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff27v-28v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The most common interpretation of the wolf in medieval Christian symbolism is as the enemy of man and a representation of evil, sin, and temptation. This association stems from the predatory nature of wolves, which were seen as symbols of spiritual danger and moral corruption. The wolf's voracious appetite and cunning, hunting tactics were often used to illustrate the dangers of succumbing to sinful desires.
In addition to representing general sinfulness, the wolf was sometimes used metaphorically to symbolize false teachers or heretics who sought to lead Christians astray from true faith. This interpretation draws on biblical passages warning of "wolves in sheep's clothing" (Matthew 7:15) who deceive others with their false teachings.
Despite its negative connotations, the wolf could also symbolize redemption and transformation in some Christian allegories. The story of St. Francis of Assisi[1] taming the wolf of Gubbio[2], for instance, was interpreted as a metaphor for the power of faith and compassion to overcome hostility and bring about reconciliation.
In rare cases, the wolf was associated with positive qualities such as guardianship and protection. This interpretation drew on the medieval belief in the noble and loyal nature of certain wolves, particularly those that were tamed.
References to wolves in the Bible are numerous, with various passages using wolves as a symbol of danger, destruction, or moral corruption. For instance, in the Old Testament, wolves are often mentioned in the context of desolation and destruction as in Jeremiah NKJV 5:6:
“Therefore a lion from the forest shall slay them, A wolf of the deserts shall destroy them; A leopard will watch over their cities. Everyone who goes out from there shall be torn in pieces, Because their transgressions are many; Their backslidings have increased.” or in Ezekiel NKJV 22:27: “Her princes in her midst are like wolves tearing the prey, to shed blood, to destroy people, and to get dishonest gain.”
In the New Testament, as mentioned earlier, Jesus warns his disciples to beware of false prophets who come in sheep's clothing but are inwardly ravenous wolves as we see in Matthew 7:15:
“Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravenous wolves.”.
Transcription
Translation
tur. Lupos enim dicunt illi; licos. sic a morsibus ap-
pellati. quod rabie rapacitatis quecumque. invenerint;
trucidant. Alii lupos vocatos aiunt quasi leo pus.
eoquod virtus leonis sit illis in pedibus. Unde et quic-
quid presserint; non vivit. Lupus a rapacitate di-
citur. Unde et meretrices lupas vocamus. eo quod aman-
tium bona vastant. Rapax autem bestia et cruores
appetens. In pectore vel ore; vires habet. In renibus
vero minime. Collum numquam retro flectere potest.
Aliquando fertur vivere preda; aliquando terra. nonnumquam;
vento. Lupa namque mense alio nisi in maio quando
fit tonitruum; catulos non gignit. Cuius astutia est.
tanta. ut in viscinia sua predam non capiat ca-
tulis suis. sed in longinquo. Quod si opus fuerit et noc-
tu predam querat. tanquam canis mansuetus passim ad
ovile pergit. et ne fortuitu sui flatus odorem sentiant ca-
nes. et evigilent pastores; contra ventum vadit. Et si ramus
aut aliquid sub eius pede tangendo sonaverit; ipsum pe-
dem castigat morsu aperto. Oculi eius in nocte lucent; ve-
lut lucerne. Cuius natura talis est. ut si prior hominem vi-
derit; vocem eripet. et despicit eum tanquam victor vocis
ablate. Unde subito tacenti; dicitur. Lupus est. in fabu-
la. Idem si se previsum se senserit; deponit ferocitatis auda-
ciam. et non potest currere. Famen diu portat et post mul-
ta ieiunia; multum devorat. Lupi toto anno non am-
plius quam dies .xii. coeunt. Lupos ethiopia mittit iiibatos
cervice. et tantum varios; ut nullum eis colorem dicant
abesse. Bruma autem comati sunt. estate nudi. Dicitur a’
quod homo cui vox ablata est quem lupus prior vidit. si de
ponit vestimentum suum pedibus conculcandum sumens in ma-
nibus duos lapides quos feriat alterutrum; recipiet vocem
suam. et lupus perdet audatiam suam. Solinus qui plura
de naturis rerum refert; dicit quod caude animalis huius;
amatorium est vel amatorium inest. added above vellus; perexiguum. quod dentibus ipse evellit
et proicit. si capi timuerit. Nec habet potentiam(corrected from potentiantiam) nisi illo
The word lupus, wolf, derives from Greek and has been transferred into our language. The Greeks called wolves λύκος/lýkos from the bites they inflict, and due to the rage of their rapacity, they slaughter whatever they encounter. Others say that wolves are called lŭpi sounding like leo (lion)+ pes, for the strength of a lion is in their legs (pēs). Hence, whatever they trample will not survive. Wolves are said to take their name from their rapacity. Hence, we also call harlots lŭpae, for they ravage the possessions of their lovers. This rapacious animal seeks blood and has strength in its chest or mouth, but not in the loins. Its neck cannot bend backward. Sometimes, the wolf is said to live on its preys, sometimes on earth, sometimes on the wind. A she-wolf, however, gives birth only in May, when thunder occurs. Its cunning is so great that it does not catch the prey for its own cubs in the vicinity but far away. When it needs to hunt at night, it goes everywhere like a tame dog goes here and there to the sheepfold, lest the dogs accidentally smell its odour and the shepherds awake, it goes against the wind. If a twig or anything under its foot makes a sound, it punishes its own foot by biting it. Its eyes shine at night like lamps. It has such a characteristic that if it sees a person first, it takes away their voice, watches them with disdain and feels victorious over them after their voice has been taken away. Hence, silence is associated with the presence of wolves in fables. If a wolf senses that it is noticed first from afar, it loses its ferocity and is not able to run. It remains starved for a long time and after many fasts, it devours aplenty. Wolves mate no more than twelve days throughout the year. In Ethiopia, there are wolves with manes on their necks that are so variegated that people say that they are definitely not lacking in colour. However, they have long hair in winter and are naked in summer. A man, whom a wolf has seen first and whose voice has been taken away, should take off his garment, put it under his feet to be trampled upon, take two stones in his hands, strike one against the other and he will recover his voice, and the wolf will lose its temerity. Solinus, who tells of the nature of things, states that if a wolf fears that it may be captured, there is a tiny tuft of hair serving as a love philtre within the tail of this beast, which the wolf tears off with its teeth and whereof it rids. The wolf has power as long as it is alive, or else its power is taken away.
qui semper humano generi invidet. ac iugiter circuit cau-
las ecclesie fidelium. ut mactet et perdat animas eorum. Quod vero
generat tonitruo primo mensis(corrected from mansis) maii. significat diabolum
prius in celo angelum fuisse. nunc deorsum apostatum factum
esse. Oculi eius in nocte lucent velut lucerne. quia quedam
diaboli opera. cecis et fatuis viris videntur esse pulcra et salubria.
Cum catulos gignit non nisi in longinquo predam capit; quia
eos diabolus bonis temporalibus fovet de quibus certus est in ge-
hennalibus claustris secum penas perpeti. Illos autem omnino inse-
quitur; qui bonis operibus ab eo elongant. Sicut de beato iob;
legitur. cui omnem substantiam. nec non et filios et filias abstulit;
ut a domino recederet cor eius. Quod numquam collum retro sine
toto corpore valet flectere; significat diabolum ad penitu-
dinis correctionem nuquam flecti. Quid agendum est. homini
cui lupus abstulit vires clamandi. qui vero non habet potestatem
vociferandi; perdit ausilium longe stantis. Sed quid agendum
est; deponat homo vestimentum suum pedibus suis concul-
candum. sumens in manibus duos lapides. quos feriat al-
terutrum. Qui deinde lupus audaciam sue virtutis per-
dens; fugiet. Homo vero tutus suo ingenio liber;
erit; sicut in principio. Spiritualiter hoc intelligen-
The Devil has the same nature as the wolf. He envies the human race and continually circles the cells of the faithful Church in search of souls to slaughter and corrupt. The fact that the she-wolf gives birth as soon as the first thunder of May is heard, it signifies that the devil was once an angel in heaven, and now he has become an apostate below, in the nether world. Its eyes shine at night like lamps, for certain works of the devil seem beautiful and beneficial to blind and foolish men. When the she-wolf gives birth to her cubs, she catches her prey only from afar, for the devil rewards with temporary goods those of whom he is certain that they will endure eternal torments in hell with him. He pursues altogether those who distance themselves from him by doing good deeds. As we read about the blessed Job, we learn that the Devil stripped him of his wealth and killed his sons and daughters, so that his heart might distance itself from the Lord. Those who cannot bend their neck backward without turning their whole body symbolise that the devil can never be subdued into repentance. What should a man whose power of shouting has been taken away by a wolf do? Those who do not have the power of shouting lose the help of those standing from afar. What is to be done? A man should take off his garment and trample upon it, taking in his hands two stones to strike one against the other. When the wolf loses its temerity coming from its power, it will flee. In truth, a man confident in his intelligence will be free, as he was in the beginning. This is to be understood
enim per lupum nisi diabolum. quid per hominem nisi peccatum. quid
per lapides nisi apostolos seu ceteros sanctos vel dominum nostrum
significare poterimus; Omnes enim per prophetam adamantini lapides dicti
sunt. Ipse enim dominus noster iesus christus in lege vocatur lapis offensionis
et petra scandali. De quo dicit propheta. Vidi virum stantem supra mon-
tem adamantinum. Antequam denique redempti essemus; sub potestate
inimici eramus. Vocemque clamandi perdideramus. Qm peccatis
nostris exigentibus; a deo non audiebamur. neque aliquem sanctorum
in auxilium nobis interpellabamus. Postquam vero clementissimus
deus gratificavit nos in filio suo; deposuimus in baptismo vete-
rem hominem cum actibus suis. ac induimus novum qui secundum deum
creatus est. Deinde sumpsimus lapides in manibus de quibus alteru-
trum ferimus. Quia sanctos dei qui iam in celis regnant cum
christo; nostri oris ferimus alloquio. ut ipsi aures pulsent iudicis. ac
veniam nobis impetrent criminis. ne nos quem nescimus absor-
beat baratrus. nostro gaudens interitu. Ethiopicis lupis proprium
est quod in saliendo ita nisus habent alitis. ut non magis pro-
ficiant cursu; quam meatu. Homines tamen numquam impetunt.
in spiritual terms and can be taken to a higher level as an allegory. What do we mean by the wolf if not the devil, by man if not sin, and by stones if not the apostles or other saints or our Lord? All are called adamantine stones through the words of the prophets. Our Lord Jesus Christ himself is called the stone of stumbling and the rock of offence in the law . The prophet says of him, “I saw a man standing above an adamant mountain.” Finally, before we were redeemed, we were under the authority of the enemy, and we had lost the ability to shout and much as our sins required it, we were not heard by God, nor could we call any of the saints to our aid. After our most merciful God bestowed us his grace through His Son, in the act of baptism we rid ourselves of the old person we were before with all our deeds and we become the new person created in the image of God. Then, we took stones in our hands wherewith we strike one another. With our mouths, we exhort the saints of God, who now reign in heaven with Christ, in order that they may ring in the ears of our Judge and obtain forgiveness for our sins, lest the abyss that we do not know swallow us, rejoicing at our death. It is characteristic of Ethiopian wolves that they leap so high that they seem to have wings, going further than they would by running. However, they never attack humans.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Wolf, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast180.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 Legend has it that when St. Francis was living in Gubbio, he tamed a wolf that was terrorising livestock and humans by making the sign of the cross and commanding the wolf to cease its attacks. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_of_Gubbio
2 Medieval town in the province of Perugia, in the Region of Umbria, central Italy.
3 Cells refer to the rooms of monks and friars or priests in monasteries, churches and convents.
4 Zechariah KJV 7:12: “Yea, they made their hearts as an adamant stone, lest they should hear the law, and the words which the LORD of hosts hath sent in his spirit by the former prophets: therefore came a great wrath from the LORD of hosts.” Ezekiel KJV 3:9: “As an adamant harder than flint have I made thy forehead: fear them not, neither be dismayed at their looks, though they be a rebellious house.”
5 1 Peter KJV 2:8: “And a stone of stumbling, and a rock of offence, even to them which stumble at the word, being disobedient: whereunto also they were appointed.”
Romans KJV 9:33: “As it is written, Behold, I lay in Sion a stumbling stone and rock of offence: and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed.”
Dog, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff29r-33r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Nowadays, dogs are extolled for their loyalty, faithfulness and unconditional love for their masters. In Medieval Christianity, they were also depicted as symbols of loyalty and faithfulness due to their reputation as faithful companions to humans. This loyalty was often seen as an allegory for the faithful devotion that Christians should have towards God and His teachings.
Dogs' instinct to protect their owners and territories made them symbols of guardianship and protection. This aspect of their nature was often used to represent the role of Christians in guarding against spiritual dangers and defending the faith.
Dogs are known for their keen sense of smell and hearing, as well as their vigilance in watching over their surroundings. As such, they were also seen as symbols of vigilance and alertness, reminding Christians to be watchful for temptation and spiritual threats.
Their ability to distinguish between friend and foe, as well as their obedience to commands, made them symbols of discernment and discipleship. Christians were encouraged to discern between good and evil and to follow the teachings of Christ obediently, much like a well-trained dog follows its master's commands.
References to dogs in the Bible include both positive and negative connotations:
Positive References: Dogs are occasionally portrayed positively in the Bible, such as in the story of the faithful dog accompanying Tobit on his journey as we see in Tobit 6:2-8: “The young man went out and the angel went with him; and the dog came out with him and went along with them. So they both journeyed along, and when the first night overtook them they camped by the Tigris river. Then the young man went down to wash his feet in the Tigris river.”
In some contexts, dogs are associated with impurity, scavenging, and contempt as we see in Exodus NKJV 22:31:
“And you shall be holy men to Me: you shall not eat meat torn by beasts in the field; you shall throw it to the dogs.”and in Philippians NKJV 3:2:
“Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers, beware of the mutilation!”.
Transcription
Translation
videtur. Grece enim cenos dicitur. licet quidem a canore
latratu appellatum existiment. eoquod insonat. Unde et
canere dicitur. Nichil autem sagatius canibus. Plus enim sensus
ceteris animalibus habent. Nam soli sua nomina recognoscunt.
The Latin word cănis, dog, seems to be of Greek etymology. The Greek word for dog is κύων/κυνός (kyon/kynos). Some may think dogs take their name after their melodious barking. Its barking is similar to singing, which is cănĕre in Latin. However, nothing is more intelligent than dogs; they have more understanding than other animals, for they are the only ones that recognize their own names, when heard,
capiendum investigant feras silvarum. alii ab infestationibus
luporum vigilando greges ovium custodiunt. Alii custodes domorum
substantiam dominorum suorum custodiunt. ne forte rapiatur in noc-
te a latronibus. Etiam pro dominis suis se morti subiciunt. Volunta-
rie ad predam cum domino currunt. Corpus domini sui; etiam mortuum;
custodiunt. et non relinqunt. Quorum postremo nature est; extra
homines esse non posse.
and love their masters. There are many kinds of dogs. Some scent the trails of animals in forests in order to catch them. Others shepherd flocks to protect them from wolf attacks. Others guard the houses and the possessions of their masters, lest they be stolen by thieves at night. They even sacrifice their lives for their masters. They willingly run along with their masters after a prey. They even guard the body of their masters when they are dead and do not abandon it. Their nature is such that they cannot exist without man.
ab inimicis captum ac in custodia mancipatum; ducenti canes
agmine facto per medias acies inimicorum reduxerunt. preliantes
adversus resistentes. Iasone licio interfecto; canis eius eius asper-
natus cibum; inedia obiit. Lismachi regis canis; se in flammis
iniecit. et accenso rogo domini sui inflamma pariter et igne com-
sumptus est. Apio. Iunio. Pictimo consulibus. dampnatum dominum;
canis cum abigi non posset; comitatus in carcerem mox percussum;
ululatu prosecutus est. Cumque ex miseratione populi romani potes-
tas ei fieret cibi; ad os defuncti escam tulit. Ultimo idem deiectum
in tyberum; cadaver adnatans sustentare conatur. Cani vero
ubi vestigium leporis cervi ve repperit; atque ad diverticulum
semite semite venerit; et quoddam variumvel viarum added compitum quod
partes in plurimas scinditur. obiciens singularum semitarum exor-
dia tacitus ipse secum pertractat. velut sillogisticam vocem
sagacitate colligendi odoris emittens. aut in hanc partem inquit
deflexit; aut in illam. aut certe in hunc anfractum se contu-
lit; Sed nec in istam nec in illam; ingressus est. Superest igitur ut
in istam se partem contulerit. Et sic falsitate repudiata; inve-
nit veritatem;
We read that dogs love their masters so much that when King Gărămās was captured by the enemies and taken as hostage, two hundred dogs formed a troop and brought him back through the midst of the enemy's ranks, fighting against those who resisted. When Jason was killed, his dog refused food and died of starvation. The dog of King Lysimachus threw itself into the flames when its master’s funeral pyre was lit and was consumed by fire along with him. During the consulships of Appius, Iunius, and Pictimus, there was a dog that could not be taken away from its convicted master and when the latter was being taken to prison, the dog accompanied him and howled during the execution. When the people of Rome fed the dog out of pity, it carried the food to the mouth of its deceased master. Lastly, when the master was thrown into the Tiber, the dog tried to keep it from sinking. In truth, when the dog scents the trail of a hare or a deer and comes to a crossroad or junction branching off into many directions, it places itself at the beginning of every single path and silently examines them thoroughly as if it were uttering a syllogistic bark. Then, it infers to itself, relying on the sharpness of its sense of smell: “the animal turned into this or that path, or certainly took this bend. Neither into this nor into that did it turn. Therefore, the fact remains that it turned into this path”. Thus, having rejected the wrong assumptions, it finds the truth
reos; indicia prodiderunt. ut muto eorum testimonio;
plerumque sit credendum. Antiochie ferunt in remotiore parte ur-
bis quendam virum crepusculo necatum. qui canem sibi ad-
iunctum haberet. Miles quidam occisus est astabat canis. questu
lacrimabili; domini deflebat erumpnam. Mane occurrunt turbe
multe ad spectaculum. Inter quas occurit et occisor; ut fidem
innocentie faceret. et velut miserans; appropinquavit ad
funus. Tunc canis sequestrato paulisper questu doloris;
apprehendit eum et tenuit. et velud in eum insultans mi-
serabile carmen inmurmurans; universos convertit in lacri-
When a murder has been committed, dogs have often provided evidence and helped to convict wrongdoers. Their silent testimony is mostly believed. In Antioch, a man was reported to be about to be killed at dusk in a remote part of the city and had a dog accompanying him. When a certain soldier was killed, his dog stood near with tearful wails, lamenting the death of its master. Early in the morning, the crowd gathered for the spectacle, among whom the killer appeared to prove his innocence. Feigning grief, he approached the funeral. The dog, having ceased wailing briefly, seized and held him. After jumping on him, it started to wail plaintively and moved everyone to
quid responderet; crimen professus est. et sic ultionem per(dots underneath)
perpessus est. Canis quo3 ubi vestigium leporis cervi ve rep-
perit; atque ad diverticulum venerit. ubi fuerint capita
plurimarum viarium; ad singula odorat nare sagaci. et sic
falsitate repudiata; viam veritatis ingreditur; donec
predam inveniat. Preterea lingua canis dum lingit vulnus
sanat illud. Catuli lingua; vulneratorum intestinorum solet esse
saluti. Item natura eius est; ut ad vomitum revertatur;
et iterum commedat. Item modicus victus cani sifficit. Item cum
canis flumen transnatat. carnem vel aliquid tale in ore te-
nens. cum viderit umbram os suum aperit. atque dum properat
carnem aliam sumere; ipsum quam tenet perdit. Preterea
linces dicuntur canes qui ex lupis et canibus nascuntur. cum inter
se forte miscentur. Solent et inde femine canes noctu in sil-
vis alligate admisci ad tygres bestias. a quibus insiliri et
nasci ex eodem fetu canes acerrimi. et adeo fortes; ut com-
plexu leones prosternant. Cuius figuram in quibusdam
rebus predicatores habent. qui admonendo semper ac exercendo
que recta sunt; insidias diaboli pellunt. ne thesaurum
dei. idest animas christianorum rapiendo ipse auferat. Lingua
canis dum lingit curat; quia peccatorum vulnera predica-
tione sanctorum curantur. et secreta cordis sepe mundantur
opere et sermone doctoris. Item quod ad vomitum reverti-
tears. It held him for so long until the man confessed the crime, having nothing to say, and had to endure the dog’s vengeance. As for the dog, when it finds the trails of a hare or a deer and comes to a crossroad branching off in many directions, it sniffs the air at the beginning of each path, rejects the wrong assumptions and walks the path of truth until it finds the prey. Furthermore, the tongue of a dog heals wounds when it licks them. The tongue of a puppy is said to be a remedy for the health of an aching and wounded intestine. It is characteristic of a dog to return to its own vomit in order to eat it again. A moderate diet is sufficient for a dog. When a dog swims across a river holding meat or something of the kind in its mouth, it opens the mouth upon seeing its own shadow, and whilst rushing to take another piece of meat, it loses what it was already holding. Furthermore, cubs born from the crossbreeding of wolves and dogs are called lynces, lynxes; female dogs are said to mate with tigers at night in the woods. From the crossbreeding, savage dogs are born that are so strong that they can overpower lions in a fight. Preachers have this characteristic in certain things, always admonishing and exercising what is right, driving away the devil’s snares, lest he steal and seize God’s treasure, i.e. the souls of Christians. The tongue of a dog has healing properties, for the the preaching of holy men heals the wounds of sin, and the secrets of the heart are often purified by the work and speech of teachers. Just as a dog returns to its vomit,
tum redeunt. Item modicus victus ei sufficit. Quia pre-
dicator crapulam detestatur. Nam in saturitate panis
sodoma periit. Item cum canis flumen transit et cetera; signifi-
cat stultos. qui propter cupiditatem rei ignote; quod pro-
prii viris est amittunt. Canis dicitur a canendo. cuius
consuetudo est illa loca descendere in quibus se norit ali-
moniam invenire. Cuius figuram gerunt figuram(dots underneath) fideles
doctores. qui persecuntur infideles. fures abigunt. ovilia sancta
custodiunt. lupos occidunt. De quibus in libro regum legitur. Qui
mortuus fuerit de baasa; in civitate; comedent eum ca-
nes. Et qui mortuis fuerit ex eo in agro; comedent eum vo-
lucres. agri(dots underneath) celi. De baasa; idest de corpore diaboli confusio-
ne penissimo. Ille in civitate est mortuus; qui in ecclesia fide-
tenus perseverans; criminaliter vivit. Hic ore canum la-
ceratur; idest sententiis patrum et sanctorum doctorum
increpatur. arguitur. dampnatur. Unde. Ut canes circui-
bunt civitatem; ecclesie. Illi ex baasa in agro moriuntur; qui
extra ecclesiam ydolatrie vel heresi; ore et opere nephano deser-/ viunt. Hos volucres celi comedunt id est demones qui secus via’
sparsum semen comedunt. qui honustos peccatis secum ad eter-
num interitum rapiunt. Vel totum in malum accipi potest.
Quia canes malos comedunt; dum demones sibi peccatores incor-
porant. blanditiis sibi eos allicientes. Hii bene in civitate mo-
canis cum aquam lambit; genua non flectit. Item super om-
nia cetera animalia; amorem domini sui servat. ita utaffectus
ipsius nec amore alterius. nec terrore nec iniuriis flecti pot.
Tales sunt electi qui postquam ad aquas baptismi venerunt. quasi
canis discretionem boni et mali tenent. mala reprobando;
et bona diligendo. et sermone et opere fidem quam acceperunt;
tenent. qui gressus rectorum operum ad necessitates corporeas q2
terrenas flectere nesciunt. qui vitiis non indulgent. nec pro
peccati sitim sternuntur proni. Item pro contemptu canis habetur
Sic fideles contemptibiles videntur mundo; sed deo probati
sunt. et humilitate se custodiunt. Quia contemptibilia et igno-
bilia elegit deus. David quoque tanquam contemptibilem se canem ap-
pellat. Similiter prop contemptu habetur canis; Ut ibi. Non est. bo-
num sumere panem filiorum et mittere canibus. et cetera. Item canis ma-
gis sequitur consuetudinem; quam rationem. ita seudo predicato-
res consuetudinem legis tenent. et contra veritatem irrationabili-
ter latrant. et mordent. Ipsiquoque sunt mali operarii zizania
seminantes et frumentum calcantes. Idem sunt conscisi. quia
a christo cesi sunt. et seperati et alios scindunt et separant. Et sic per
canes. et boni et mali predicatores designantur; De malis
predicatoribus; scribit apostolus ad philippenses. Videte
canes. videte malos operarios. videte conscisionem;.
placere; necessarium est. ei et utile ut tres spirituales
conductores querat. qui tres spirituales legatos cum tribus
donis spiritualibus ad reconciliationem sui coram factore con-
ducant. Qui conductores et legati cum suis donis spi-
ritualibus ita disponuntur. Primus legatus est; cordis
ploratus. Secundus; vera confessio. Tertius; vera pe-
nitentia. Conductores eorum sunt amor dei. bona vo-
luntas. rectum opus. Bona spiritualia sunt; munditia
corporis et anime oratio pura. boni operis perseverantia.
Qui legati et conductores cum spiritualibus donis sic coram
trinitate procedunt. Coram deo procedit ploratus cum
amore dei deferens mundiciam corporis et anime. Coram
filio; vera confessio cum voluntate bona puram oratio-
nem deferens co(erased) Coram spiritu sancto; penitentia vera cum
recto opere perseverantiam boni operis portans. Sicut corpori debilitato necessarie sunt potiones ad sanandas illius
infirmitates. ita anime peccatrici necessaria est. potio per
quam spiritualis oris corruptio exit. Fit autem potio
anime ex quatuor speciebus id est cordis ploratu. vera confes-
sione. penitentia vera. operatione recta. Que ita compe-
tens est ad sanandas illius infirmitates. quod dum ab ea
anima inungitur; statim a suis infirmitatibus sanatur.
Sed sanata si sine honesto indumento relinqueretur; quomodo in
celesti curia ubi debet presentari. coram factore suo presenta-
Whenever a sinner wishes to please his creator, it is necessary for him to seek out three spiritual masters, who will send three spiritual messengers with three spiritual gifts in order to lead him to reconciliation before his creator. These guides and messengers with their spiritual gifts are arranged as follows: The first is the bewailing of the heart, the second true confession, the third true penance. Their masters are the love of God, good will, and righteous deeds. Good spiritual things are purity of body and soul, pure prayer, and perseverance with good deeds. The messengers and the guides appear before the Trinity as follows: before God, there appears the bewailing of the heart with the love of God, bearing the cleanliness of body and soul. Before the Son, the true confession with good will, bearing pure prayer. Before the Holy Spirit, the true penance with righteous deeds, bearing the perseverance with good deeds.
endum eam suscepit; ita honeste et competenter induat;
ut laudabiliter coram angelis in celo eam presentare va-
leat. Primum vero indumentum unde anima vestiri debet; est. mun-
dicia. Nulla enim in celesti curia presentatur; que vel hic vel
in futuro non mundetur. Alia vero indumenta sunt;
pietas. misericordia. cetereque virtutes quibus vestiri debet
Vestita vero talibus indumentis; cum tribus conductoribus. idest
cogitatione pura. verbo bono. opere perfecto. in celesti glo-
ria honeste poterit presentari. Ubi remunerabitur illa
beatudine; quam optinent angeli. Ad quam obtinen-
dam; deus hominem creavit. et tres consiliatores ei tribuit
Scilicet spiritualem intellectum. potestatem bene agendi.
et sapientiam. Quibus si adquiesceret; regnum celeste non
amitteret. Sed quia illis non adquievit; hereditatem
suam amisit;
Just as potions are necessary to heal the infirmities of a weakened body, so is a potion necessary for a sinful soul to heal spiritual corruption. Such potion is of four types: the bewailing of the heart, true confession, true penance, and righteous deeds. This potion is able to heal the infirmities of the soul to such an extent that the soul is immediately healed when anointed therewith. If the soul were left unclad once healed, how could it be presented in the celestial court where it must be presented before its creator? Therefore, the man who has undertaken the task to guide it and clothe it also needs to dress it decently and competently so that he can present it commendably before the angels in heaven. In truth, the first garment wherein the soul should be clad is cleanliness, for nothing is presented in the heavenly court that is not cleansed neither in this moment nor in the future. Other garments are piety, mercy, and other virtues wherein one should be clad. Clad in such garments, with three guides, i.e. with pure thought, good word, perfect deeds, the soul can be presented decently in the heavenly glory, where it will be rewarded with that happiness which angels enjoy. For this beatitude, God created man and gave him three counselors, namely, spiritual understanding, wisdom and the ability to do good. If he acquiesced in this, he would not lose the Kingdom of Heaven; however, he lost his inheritance, for he did not acquiesce in them.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Dog, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast181.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 Garamas, also called Amphithemis, son of Apollo and Acalle, daughter of Minos. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphithemis
2 He was an officer and a successor of Alexander the Great. In 306 BC, he became king of Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedon. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysimachus
3 In reality, David calls himself a worm in Psalms 22:6: “But I am a worm, and not human; scorned by others, and despised by the people.”
4 It is referring to sowing discord.
On Adam naming animals, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff34r-34v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
This passage explores the nuanced categorization of animals based on their traits, functions, and relationships with humans, reflecting both practical considerations and philosophical insights.
Adam, in a symbolic act of understanding and respect for the essence of all living beings, assigned names to them according to their inherent qualities. He chose Hebrew, the language common to humanity before the flood, as the medium for this task. Unlike later nations who named animals in their own languages, Adam's naming process transcended linguistic barriers.
In Latin, animals are categorized based on their characteristics and utility. Animalĭa denotes creatures animated by life and spirit, whereas the word quadrupeds describes those moving on four legs. However, distinctions arise between livestock and beasts of burden such as lions or animals used for labour.
Pĕcŭs encompasses non-humanoid creatures, with pecora referring to animals suitable for consumption or human activities, such as sheep, pigs, horses, and oxen. Pecudes specifically denotes grazers led to pasture, while iumenta emphasizes animals aiding human labour, such as oxen, horses, and donkeys, due to their strength and utility.
Similarly, armenta denotes animals used in battle or those embraced as friends, including oxen and horses. The term contrasts with greges, which specifically refers to flocks of goats and sheep.
Transcription
Translation
Appellans unicuique nomen ex presenti institutione.
iuxta conditionem nature. Gentes autem unicuique anima-
lium ex propria lingua dederunt vocabula. Non autem secundum
latinam linguam aut grecam aut quarumlibet gentium
barbararum nomina illa inposuit adam. set illa lingua
que una ante diluvium fuit omnium. que hebrea nuncupatur.
Latine autem animalia sive animantia dicta; quod ani-
mentur vita; et moventur spiritu. Quadrupedia vocata;
quia quatuor gradiuntur pedibus. que dum similia
sunt pecoribus; tamen sub cura humana non sunt. Ut cervi.
damme. Onagri et cetera. Sed neque bestie sunt. ut leones.
neque iumenta. ut usus hominum iuvare possint. Pe-
cus dicimus omne quod humana et effigie caret. Proprie(corrected from Propriie) autem
nomen hiis animalibus accommodari solet que sunt ad ves-
cendum apta. ut oves et sues. au in usu hominum commo-
da. ut equi et boves. Differt autem inter peccora et pecu-
des. Nam veteres communiter in significatione omnium
animalia pecora dixerunt. Pecudes autem tantum illa
animalia que edunt quasi pedes. Generaliter autem omne
pecus a pascendo vocatum. Iumenta inde nomina traxe-
runt quod nostrum laborem vel onus suo adiutorio(corrected from adiutoreio)
sub vehendo vel arando iuvent. Nam bos carpenta
trahit. et durissimas terre glebas vomere vertit. Equs
et asinus onera portant. et hominum laborem gradiendo;
homines. Sunt enim magnarum virium animalia. Item quoque
armenta. vel quod sint armis(dots underneath) armis apta. idest bello;
vel quod hiis in armis utimur. Alii armenta tantum bo-
ves intelligunt. ab arando. vel quod sint cornibus arma-
ta. Discretio autem est inter armenta et greges. Nam armen-
ta equorum et boum sunt. Greges vero caprarum et ovium.
Therefore, these animals are called iumenta, for they help humans. Indeed, they are animals that possess great strength. Similarly, the animals we call armenta include those armed for battles and that we take to war or those we are friends with and that we embrace. Other armenta refer only to oxen suitable for ploughing or bulls having horns. The difference between armenta and greges lies in the fact that armenta include horses and oxen, while greges refer to flocks of goats and sheep.
Bibliography
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Footnotes
1 Both pecora and pecudes come from pĕcŭs: the former is a feminine noun and the latter a neuter noun. The latter refers to all animals in general whereas the latter can also refer to sheep.
2 Armenta in the plural form means also domestic animals, namely pets.
3 Greges is the plural form of grex, meaning flock/herd.
Sheep, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff35r-35v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
In medieval Christian symbolism, sheep were often seen as symbolic of Christ himself, reflecting His qualities of innocence, purity, and sacrifice. This symbolism is deeply rooted in biblical imagery, particularly in the portrayal of Jesus as the sacrificial Lamb of God (John 1:29)[1].
They also represented the Christian faithful, highlighting their dependence on Christ as their shepherd and their need for spiritual guidance and protection within the Church and symbolized virtues such as meekness, humility, and obedience, which were considered essential qualities for Christians to cultivate in their spiritual lives.
In the Bible, particularly in the Old Testament, sheep are frequently used as symbols of purity, innocence, and docility. Psalm 23, for instance, famously portrays God as a shepherd and his people as his sheep, symbolizing his care and guidance.
Jesus Christ is often referred to as the Good Shepherd in the New Testament (John 10:11)[2], emphasizing his role as a caring and protective leader of his followers.
Transcription
Translation
placidum. ab oblatione dictum. eoquod apud
veteres initio non tauri. sed oves mactarentur. Ex hiis
quasdam bidentes vocant. eoquod inter octo dentes;
duos altiores habent. quas maxime gentiles in sacrificium
offerebant. Ovis sub adventu hiemis; inexplebilis est
The sheep is an animal whose fur is made of soft wool. Its body is helpless and its spirit calm. Its name comes from an offering, a sacrifice, for among the ancients, sheep were sacrificed initially, instead of bulls. Some of them are called bidentes, two-tooths, for two of its eight teeth are taller. Nations used to offer in sacrifice especially these two-tooths. Upon the arrival of winter, sheep become
tiat asperitatem hiemis affuturam. Ut se prius herbe pa-
bulo farciat; quam gelu adurente omnis herba deficiat;
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Sheep, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast193.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 John NKJV 1:29: “The next day John saw Jesus coming toward him, and said, “Behold! The Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world!”
2 John 10:11: “I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd gives His life for the sheep.”
Ram, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The ram is known particularly because of its role in the story of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac, where it was provided as a substitute offering. This narrative, found in the Book of Genesis NKJV 22:13:
“Then Abraham lifted his eyes and looked, and there behind him was a ram caught in a thicket by its horns. So Abraham went and took the ram, and offered it up for a burnt offering instead of his son”in the Bible, symbolizes obedience to God and the concept of substitutionary sacrifice.In Christian symbolism, the ram was sometimes seen as a precursor to Christ: just as the ram was offered as a substitute sacrifice in place of Isaac, Christians saw Jesus Christ as the ultimate substitute sacrifice for humanity's sins.
The ram's prominent horns symbolised leadership and strength, reflecting attributes often associated with kingship and authority and its watchful nature and habit of protecting the flock were seen as symbols of faithfulness and vigilance in guarding against spiritual dangers.
Another reference to the ram can be found in Daniel 8:3-8:
“Then I lifted my eyes and looked, and behold, a ram which had two horns was standing in front of the canal. Now the two horns were long, but one was longer than the other, with the longer one coming up last. I saw the ram butting westward, northward, and southward, and no other beasts could stand before him nor was there anyone to rescue from his power, but he did as he pleased and magnified himself”where the ram with two horns symbolises the kingdom of Media and Persia.
Transcription
Translation
or. vel quod sit vir id est masculus. vel quod vermes in
capite habeat. quarum excitati pruritu; invicem se con-
cutiunt. et pugnantes cum magno impetu. se invicem
feriunt. Aries vel atotoapfoc. idest a marte vocatus
Unde apud nos in gregibus masculi mares dicuntur si-
ve quod hoc pecus a gentilibus primo est aris inmolatum.
Unde est illud Aries mactatur ad aram.
A ram is called vervex from its strength, both for it is stronger than the other sheep, and for it is of male sex, or for it has worms in its head. When these are stimulated by itching, they shake mutually and, fighting with great force, strike each other. A ram is also called ărĭēs which is also the name of the God Mars, in Greek Ἄρης/Ares . Hence, among us, in herds, males are called mares, for this type of animal was at first sacrificed on the altars, area, by the pagans. Hence, that ram was slaughtered on the altar.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ram, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast194.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 In Roman religion, there were some rituals called suovetaurilia maiora, apotropaic rituals designed to avert evil influences. Usually, a boar, a ram and a bull wee sacrificed to the God Mars. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suovetaurilia
2 It might be referring to the ram that Adam sacrificed to God.
Boar, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff36v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The boar is a ferocious and an aggressive animal and therefore, it became symbolic of wrath and unbridled violence. In Christian allegory, the boar may represent the dangers of unchecked anger and the destructive consequences of sinful behaviour.
In some medieval Christian contexts, particularly in regions where paganism persisted or where there was conflict with non-Christian cultures, the boar may have symbolised pagan beliefs or heretical practices. This association may have been influenced by pagan traditions that revered the boar as a symbol of strength and fertility.
Similar to other wild and untamed animals, the boar may be associated with demonic forces and evil influences. Its fierce nature and association with darkness and the wilderness made it a fitting symbol for the temptations and trials faced by Christians in their spiritual journey.
Despite its negative connotations, the boar's strength and resilience also made it symbolic of courage and determination in some contexts. This interpretation focused on its ability to confront challenges and emerge victorious, reflecting virtues valued by medieval Christian society.
In the Bible, the boar is mentioned in a few contexts to symbolise wildness or danger:
In Psalm NKJV 80:13:
“The boar out of the woods uproots it, And the wild beast of the field devours it”, the Psalmist laments that the boar from the forest ravages the vineyard, symbolising the destruction wreaked upon Israel.
Transcription
Translation
dicitur. Omne enim quod ferum est et inmite; abu-
sive agreste vocamus
A wild boar takes the name ăpĕr from its ferocity. The letter f was removed and replaced with p. The Greeks called the same wild creature suagros[1]. Everything that is wild and rude, we call it metaphorically rustic, rural.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Boar, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast197.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 The Greeks called the wild boar suagros from σύς/sùs/(pig) and ἀγριος/agrios(wild).
Ox, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The ox's primary symbolic representation was strength and labour: it was commonly seen as a symbol of hard work, patience, and endurance, particularly in agricultural contexts where oxen were used as draft animals.
Its role as a working animal and its association with agricultural labour made it a symbol of sacrifice in the context of offering one's labour to God.
In Christian iconography, the ox is often associated with Luke, one of the four evangelists. This association is based on the descriptions of the four living creatures in the Book of Revelation, which are often interpreted as symbolic representations of the four evangelists.
The ox's role as a domesticated animal that served humans symbolised the virtues of service and submission to God's will.
According to Isidore of Seville, in his Etymologies 12, 4, 22, the ox was capable of curing the bites of water snakes with its own dung.
References to the ox in the Bible can be found in Isaiah NKJV 1:3: “The ox knows its owner And the donkey its master’s crib; But Israel does not know, My people do not consider”: this passage metaphorically compares the relationship between Israel and God to that of an ox and its owner, highlighting Israel's rebellion and lack of understanding.
In Deuteronomy NKJV 25:4: “You shall not muzzle an ox while it treads out the grain”, the verse instructs that one should not muzzle an ox while it is treading out grain, which was interpreted as a principle of fairness and compassion towards animals.
Transcription
Translation
cant. eoquod terram terat. quasi terionem. Bo-
um in sociis eximia pietas. Nam alter alterum inqui-
rit; cum quo ducere collo aratra consuevit. et frequen-
ti mugitu pium testatur affectum; si forte defuerit.
Boves inpendente(changed to inpendriente) pluvia; ad presepia se tenere no-
verunt. Idem ubi naturali sensu collegerint muta-
tionem celi foras spectant. et ultra presepia cervices
suas extendunt. una omnes specie; ut prodire se velle
testentur. Viri; agrestes boves sunt in germania. habentes cor-
nua imensa. in tantum; ut regiis mensis insigni ca-
pacitate ex eis gerula potuum fiant. Sunt etiam in
india boves unicornes. solidis ungulis. nec bicissis. sed
atrocissimis. bubali vocationem inde trahunt. quod
sint similes boum adeo indomiti; ut pro feritate iu-
gum non recipiant. Vacca dicta; quasi boacca. Est enim
ex qualitate mobilium nominum. sicut leo leena. dra-
co. dracena. vitulus et(corrected from a) vitula. a viriditate vocati sunt.
idest etate viridi sicut virgo. Vitulam enim parvu-
lam esse. et nondum enixam; dicunt. Nam enixa; iu-
venca est id est vacca.
The Greeks called the ox βοῦς/voús. The Latins called oxen trĭōnes, for they plough the land, from the Greek word θηρίον/thiríon, beast. These animals show unswerving loyalty towards their companions. Since they usually pull the plough with their neck, they look for and care for one another; with frequent bellows, they show sincere affection. Owing to the impending rain, they have learned to seek shelter in mangers. Similarly, when they have perceived a change in the weather by their natural intuition, they look outside and stretch their necks beyond the mangers. They show all together their desire to go out with one glance. In Germania , wild oxen are male having huge horns to such an extent that they are used as carriers of drinks for royal banquets owing to their remarkable capacity. Also in India, there are oxen with one horn, with solid hooves, not cloven, but very fierce. Buffaloes take their name therefrom, as they are similar to oxen in being so untamed that they do not accept the yoke due to their ferocity. Vacca is the cow, sounding like bōaca, bogue,[2] for it is similar to variable names such as lĕo for lion, lĕaena for lioness, drăco for dragon, dracaena for she-dragon, vĭtŭlus for calf, and vĭtŭla for heifer, named from their youthful vigour, i.e., from their blooming, young age that is a characteristic of virgins. A heifer is very young and has not calved yet; when it has calved, it becomes a young cow, that is, a iŭvenca.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ox, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast199.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 The land of the ancient Germanic people.
2 Bōca or boaca is bogue in English, also known as boops boops from Ancient Greek βόωψ, literally 'ox-eyed'. It is a type of seabream native to the Eastern Atlantic. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boops_boops
Camel, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff37v-38r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The camel was often associated with wealth and luxury due to its ability to carry heavy loads across long distances, particularly in desert regions and temperance owing to its resistance and ability to endure thirst in the absence of water. In medieval Europe, where camels were rare and exotic animals, they came to symbolize opulence and extravagance.
The hair of a camel symbolised John the Baptist, who was said to wear camel hair whilst preaching in the desert, as we see in Matthew NKJV 3:4: “Now John himself was clothed in camel’s hair, with a leather belt around his waist; and his food was locusts and wild honey”.
Despite its association with wealth, the camel was also seen as symbolic of humility and asceticism. Its ability to endure long journeys across harsh terrain made it a symbol of endurance and perseverance in the face of adversity.
This interpretation stems from the teachings of Jesus Christ, who famously said that it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter the kingdom of God (Matthew 19:24 , Mark 10:25, Luke 18:25 ). This passage emphasized the dangers of wealth and the importance of spiritual humility.
The camel's habit of storing fat in its hump for sustenance during long journeys symbolized prudence and preparedness, encouraging Christians to be wise stewards of their resources and to be prepared for spiritual challenges.
According to Albert Magnus, a Dominican monk, mixing vinegar with the brain of a camel helps with epilepsy and its saliva mixed with water drives demons out of drunkards.
References to the camel in the Bible also include Genesis 24: The story of Abraham's servant finding a wife for Isaac involves camels as a means of transport and is often interpreted allegorically in Christian tradition. The camels' role in carrying the servant and his provisions to Abraham's homeland can be interpreted allegorically as a symbol of God's provision and preparation for His people. Just as the camels were necessary for the success of the servant's mission, God provides everything needed for His people to fulfil His purposes.
Transcription
Translation
tur. ut brevior et humilior fiat; accubat. quia
grece cami; humile et breve dicitur. sive quia curvus
est dorso. Camur greco verbo; curvum significat. Hos
licet et alie regiones mittant; sed arabia plurimos gig-
nit. Verum in hoc differunt; quod arabici bina tube-
ra in dorso habent; Reliquarum regionem singuli singu-
la. Cameli habentur in duplex ministerium. Sunt
alii honeri ferendo accomodi. alii pronitiores. Sed illi;
non ultra iustum; pondera recipiunt. nec isti amplius
quam solita spacia volunt ire. et rei gestu; e. cupidine. ef-
frenantur. adeo ut seviant; cum venerem requirunt.
Odio habent equinum genus. Sitim etiam triduo tole-
Camels take their name from the fact that they crouch to the ground, when laden, to bend down as if they were humbling themselves and become smaller: perhaps for in Greek, χαμαί/chamai means to the ground/earth, that is to humble oneself or for they have a curved back. Cămŭr means curved, bent. Although they can be found in various regions, they are indigenous to Arabia. However, they differ in this respect: Arabian camels have two humps on their back, whereas those from other regions have a single hump. Camels serve a dual purpose: some are suited to be beasts of burden, whereas others are swifter. However, the former only carry loads up to a certain limit, and the latter do not travel more than the usual distances whereto they are accustomed. They are controlled by gestures or lust to such an extent that they rage when seeking mating. They hate the horse species. They endure thirst for up to three days.
tur quantum et saciet desideria preterita; et in futura;
diu prosit. Luculentas aquas captant. puras; refugiunt.
Denique nisi cenosior liquor fuerit. ipsi assidua conculca-
tione lutum excitant; ut turbidetur. Durant in an-
nos centum. Si forte translati ad peregrinas regiones
vel terras. ex insolentia mutati aeris; morbos contra-
hunt. Ad bella femine preparantur. Inventumque est.
ut fiant validores; eas debere arteri a coitibus. Came-
lus in lege; inmundus est. quia licet ruminet; tamen
ungulam non findit sicut equus.
However, when the opportunity to drink arises, they only drink enough to satisfy for a long time past and future needs. They seek muddy water and avoid the clean and clear one unless it is somewhat muddier. They themselves stir up the mud by trampling on it constantly, causing it to become turbid. They live for hundred years unless they contract diseases due to the change in climate or when they are transferred by chance to foreign regions or lands. The female camels are trained for war. It has been discovered that camels become stronger if they refrain from coitus. Normally, camels are unclean animals, for they do not split the hoof as a horse does, although they chew the cud.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Camel, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast208.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Gray, Doug, Christian Symbology, Chapter – Animals, 2021 -2023, https://www.christiansymbols.net/animals.html
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 Matthew NKJV 19:24: “And again I say to you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.”
2 Luke NKJV 18:25: “For it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.”
3 Spelling or transcription mistake. According to the original De Mirabilibus Mundi Chapter 49.11 by Solinus, the original word was lŭtŭlentus meaning muddy, dirty. Lūcŭlentus is also a word but it means the opposite shining, crystal-clear. https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/solinus5.html
Dromedary, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The dromedary is smaller than the camel but is faster. Its role in facilitating trade and transportation across desert regions contributed to its association with opulence and extravagance.
Similar to the camel, the dromedary was also seen as a symbol of humility and asceticism, particularly in contrast to its association with wealth and luxury. This interpretation was influenced by Jesus' teaching about the difficulty of a rich person entering the kingdom of God, using the metaphor of a camel passing through the eye of a needle (Matthew 19:24, Mark 10:25, Luke 18:25).
Transcription
Translation
stature. sed velotioris. Unde et nomen habet. Nam
dromos grece; cursus et velocitas appellatur. Centum enim
et amplius milia; una die perge solet. Quod animal
sicut et bos. et ovis et camelus; ruminat. Rumina-
tio autem dicta est; a ruma eminente gutturis parte
per quam dimissus cibus; a ceteris revocatur animalibus.
The dromedary is a species of camels, of smaller stature indeed, but swifter. Its name derives from the Greek word δρόμος/drómos that means run/running, for this beast covers more than a hundred miles in a single day. This animal ruminates just as oxen, sheep and camels do. Ruminating takes its name from the word rūma, the prominent part of the throat through which the swallowed food travels back from the rumen to the mouth, unlike other animals.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Dromedary, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast209.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Ass, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff38v-39v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
In the Middle Ages, the ass has mainly negative connotations.
On one hand, it was symbolic of humility due to its humble nature and its role in serving humans, such as carrying burdens or being used for transportation. This humility was often contrasted with the prideful nature of other animals.
On the other hand, the ass could also symbolize stubbornness and ignorance, particularly when it resisted direction or refused to learn. This interpretation was often used to caution against the dangers of arrogance and obstinacy.
As a beast of burden, the ass symbolized servitude and endurance, representing the virtues of patience and perseverance in the face of hardship. This aspect of the ass's symbolism aligned with Christian teachings on the value of humility and service to others.
Due to the size of its sexual organs, the ass was associated to lewdness and embodied sexual pleasure, which was condemned by the Church. It represented the contrast between carnal and spiritual man, Christians and Pagans as well the educated and the ignoramuses.
In Christian theology, the ass is sometimes associated with specific events in the life of Jesus Christ. For example, the Gospel of Matthew recounts Jesus's entry into Jerusalem riding on a donkey (ass) on Palm Sunday, which was seen as fulfilling a prophecy from the Old Testament (Zechariah 9:9) . This event symbolized humility, peace, and the arrival of the Messiah.
Transcription
Translation
hoc nomen quod magis equis convenit. ideo hoc
animal sumpsit; quia priusquam equos caperent ho-
mines; huic insidere ceperunt. Animal quippe tar-
dum. et nulla ratione renitens. Statim ut voluerit
sibi homo subtrahit. Asinos arcadicos dictos. eoquod ab
arcadia primum vectisunt. magni et alti. Minor autem
asellus onagro; plus necessarius est. qui et laborem tolerat;
The words ăsĭnus for ass and ăsellus for donkey come from sĕdendo (sitting), and sounds as if the word were asedus but this name is more suitable for horses. Therefore, this animal took this name, for humans began to sit on this creature, prior to utilizing horses. Indeed, it is a slow-moving animal by nature and offers no resistance in any way; therefore, men used to bend it to their will as they pleased. The Arcadian donkeys are called so, for they were first used in Arcadia . They are large and tall.
However, the smaller donkey is called ŏnăgrus , onager or wild ass; it is a more useful beast, for it tolerates labour
Asini sive asine nomine; aliquando dicitur gentilis po-
pulus. aliquando iudaicus populus. aliquando infidelis. ali-
quando simplices et idiote honera ecclesie portan-
tes. aliquando stultus et hebes. et luxuriosus et carna-
lis. et sensualis. aliquando stulta sensualitas. et irra-
tionabilis motus carnis. aliquando sancta anima. aliquando
pacientia predicatorum. Que omnia patent in .iiiita.
parte pantheologi. libro .iio. capitulo. xxiii. Asini.
and does not withdraw therefrom. The words ăsĭni or ăsĭnae are also used to refer sometimes to the pagans, sometimes to the Jews, sometimes to infidels, sometimes to simple people carrying the burdens of the church. Sometimes, they refer to foolish and half-witted people, and sometimes to someone indulging in luxury and carnal pleasures. They also denote foolish sensuality and irrational passions of the flesh. Other times, they represent the holy soul, patience of preachers, and all these are explained in the third part of the Pantheology , Book 2, Chapter 23 on donkeys.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ass, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast210.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 Zechariah NKJV 9:9: “Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem! Behold, your King is coming to you; He is just and having salvation, Lowly and riding on a donkey, A colt, the foal of a donkey.”
2 The Etymologies, Book 12, 1:38, by Isidore of Seville show asedus. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Isidore/12*.html
3 Arcadia is a region in the central Peloponnese. Its name comes from the mythological character Arcas, and in Greek mythology, it was the home of the gods Hermes and Pan.
4 Another name for ŏnăgrus is ŏnăgĕr.
5 The name of the author is not specified. The author is perhaps referring to the Pantheologia, sive Summa universae theologiae by Rainerius de Pisis (https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-6089361) or Summa universae theologiae (Partes I-IV) by Alexander of Hales (https://archive.org/details/ita-bnc-in2-00001143-001).
Horse, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff40r-42v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
In the intricate tapestry of ancient times, horses were not merely creatures of utility but embodiments of power, grace, and enigma. Known by various names like ĕqui and căballi, they commanded awe as well as respect and their very essence intertwined with human history.
Their significance was not merely in their physical prowess but also in their emotional depth. From rejoicing in open fields to sensing the urgency of battle at the sound of a trumpet, horses displayed a range of emotions akin to their human counterparts. Their loyalty and connection with their masters were legendary, with tales of horses like Būcĕphălās and Caesar's mount forging unbreakable bonds with their riders.
Yet, their existence was not confined to servitude alone: horses possessed a vibrant spectrum of colours and characteristics, each denoting strength, beauty, and temperament. From the sturdy bay horse, symbolizing strength, to the elegant myrtle with its purple hue, each colour and trait held significance in the ancient lexicon.
Moreover, horses were not immune to the complexities of love and desire. Mares, with their manes shorn to create love charms, demonstrated a tender vulnerability, while their tears upon the loss of a master echoed a profound connection that transcended mere servitude.
Amidst the splendour of horses lay a realm of mystery and intrigue, epitomized by the notion of hybrids. From mules born of donkeys and horses to the tirus borne of sheep and goats, these creatures blurred the lines of nature, reflecting human ingenuity and curiosity.
The horse was often depicted as symbolic of strength, valour and courage. This symbolism is rooted in its physical attributes and its historical association with warfare. In Christian allegory, the horse represented the courageous soul ready to face spiritual battles against sin and temptation.
Its strength could also symbolize pride and arrogance if not tempered by humility. This interpretation draws from the idea of the horse as a powerful and majestic creature that might become haughty and self-centred if not guided by virtue.
In the Bible, horses are often associated with warfare and conquest. In the Book of Revelation 19:11 , the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse include a rider on a white horse, symbolizing conquest or victory.
The horse also appears in biblical narratives as a symbol of divine intervention and salvation. In the Old Testament, horses are sometimes associated with deliverance and victory, particularly in the Psalm 20:7 and prophetic literature; it also represented the soul's journey through life, with various virtues and vices acting as riders guiding its path towards salvation or damnation.
Transcription
Translation
equabantur. paresque forma similes et cursu copu-
labantur. Caballus autem a cavo pede dictus. prop-
ter quod ungula pressa terra gradiens concavat. quod
reliqua animalia non habent. Inde et sonipes quod
pedibus sonat. Vivacitas equorum; multa. Exultant
enim in campis. odorantur bellum. excitantur sono tu-
be; ad prelium. voce accensi; ad cursum provocantur.
dolent cum victi fuerint; exultant; cum vicerint. In
norvvegia quidam equi custodiuntur tantum ad hoc.
ut proposita equa ante oculos eorum. pro ea provocen-
tur inter se ad bellum. Mirum spectaculum et crude-
lissimum bellum et mauditum tale inter aliquas besti-
as. Pertutiunt. mordent. stantes recte; inter se luctan-
tur. et alter alterum vel vi vel arte si potest proster-
nit. Quidam equi hostes in bello sentiunt. adeo; ut
adversarios petant morsibus. Aliqui etriam proprios
dominos recognoscunt. obliti mansuetudinis; si mutentur.
Aliqui preter dominos; nullum recipiunt. Alexandri enim
regis equs bucephala dictus; accepto regio stramento;
neminem unquam preter dominum portare dignatus est. Docu-
menta eius in preliis; erant multa. quibus alexandrum
crudelissimis certaminibus sospitem ope sua extulit.
ff40: Horses were called ĕqui, for when they were yoked to the quadrigae , they were equal, aequi , in number and the yoke consisted of horses similar in shape and in their way of running. The horse is also called căballus for its concave hoof: its feet slightly bend when the hooves are pressed upon the ground, which other animals do not have. Hence, the word for steed, sŏnĭpēs , also means having resonant feet. The vitality of horses is enormous: they rejoice in the fields, scent battles and are urged to battle by the sound of the trumpet. When incited by voice, they start to run. They grieve when defeated, they rejoice when winning. In Norway, some horses are kept solely for this purpose: a mare is presented before the stallions and the latter are incited to battle for her. It is a wondrous and most savage spectacle and such a cursed battle among some animals. They kick, bite whilst standing upright, fight one another, and one tries to strike the other down either by strength or by skill if it can. Some horses sense the enemies in battle to the extent that they attack their adversaries with bites. Some even recognize their own masters. If they change masters, they forget their own tameness. Some accept no other master. For instance, the horse of King Alexander, named Būcĕphălās, after receiving the caparison , never deigned to carry anyone but his master. There are many accounts of this horse even in the cruellest battles, wherefrom Alexander came out alive and unscathed through its own aid.
ff 40v
recepit. Regem citarum singulari certamine inter-
emptum cum adversarius eius victor spoliare vel-
let; ab equo eius calcibus morsuque laceratus est. Nico-
mede rege interfecto; equus eius adversario ;vitam
expulit. Cum prelio anthiocus. galathas subegisset;
cithareti nomine ducis; qui in aciem ceciderat. equm
insiluit pugnaturus. Isque adeo sprevit eum; ite de
industria cernuatus; ruina pariter et se et equitem
affligeret. Inter equos; mares plus vivunt. Legimus
equm usque ad annos septuaginta vixisse. Equarum libi-
do extinguitur; iubis tonsis. in quarum parte; amo-
ris nascitur veneficium. quod in frontibus preferunt
fulfo colore. carricis simile ypponenses nominatur
Quod sipreraptum statim fuerit; nequaquam mater pul-
lo mater(dots underneath) ubera prebet fellicando. Quo equis sanior fuerit. maiorisque spei; eoque profundius nares mergit bi-
bendo. Interfectis vel morientibus dominis; equi lacri-
mas fundunt. Solum enim equum dicunt propter
hominem lacrimasse et doloris affectum sentire. Unde
et in centauris(corrected from centanris); equorum et hominum natura est permix-
ta. Solent enim ex equorum mesticia vel alacritate even-
tum rei futurum; dimicaturi colligere. In generosis
equis ut aiunt veteres; iiiior. expectantur. forma. pulcri-
tudo. meritum. color. Forma; ut sit validum corpus.
Similarly, the horse of Gaius Caesar, accepted no one on its back except Caesar himself. When the king of the Scythians was defeated in single combat by his adversary, who wanted to plunder him, the king’s horse kicked and bit the enemy. After King Nicomedes was killed, his horse took the life of the adversary . When Antiochus conquered the Galatians, he leapt upon the horse of a general named Centaretus, who had fallen in battle, in order to go on fighting. The horse disdained him to such an extent that it fell headfirst on purpose, injuring both itself and the horseman in the fall. Among horses, males live longer. We read of horses living up to seventy years. The libido of mares is quenched by having their manes shorn, and in that part, a magic love charm is produced, which they prefer displaying on their foreheads: it has a tawny colour similar to sedge and is called hipponenses. If it is removed prematurely, the mare immediately refuses to offer her udder to the foal to suckle it. The healthier the horse is, the more the chance it will dip its nostrils deeper when drinking. When their masters are killed or are dying, horses shed tears. Only horses are said to weep for a human and to feel the emotion of grief. Hence, in Centaurs, the nature of both horses and humans is mixed. In fact, they are accustomed to predicting that which will happen in the future from their sadness or from their alacrity, especially when they are about to fight. As the ancients said, four things are expected in thoroughbred horses: form, beauty, character, and colour. Form means it needs to have a strong and
gum. substrictum. maximi et rotundi clunes. pectus
late patens. corpus omne masculorum; densitate no-
dosum. Pes siccus. et cornu concavo solidatus. Pulchri-
tudo; ut sit exiguum capud et siccum. pelle prope
ossibus adherente. Aures breves et argute. oculi mag-
ni. Nares patule; et erecta cervix. Coma densa et
cauda. Ungularum soliditate fixa rotunditas. Me-
ritum; ut sit animo audax. pedibus alacer. tremen-
tibus membris. quod est fortitudinis indicium. quique
ex summa quiete facile excitatur(changed to excitetur). et excitata festina-
tione; non difficile teneatur. Motus autem equi; in
auribus intelligitur. virtus; in membris trementibus
Color hic precipue spectandus est. Badius. aureus. ro-
seus. mirteus. cervinus. gilvus. glaucus. scutulatus.
Canus. candidus. albus. guttatus. niger. Sequenti autem
ordine; varius. ex nigro badioque distinctus. Reliqus
varius color. vel cinereus deterrimus. Badium autem an-
tiqui validum dicebant. quod inter cetera animalia
fortuis vadat. Ipse est et spadix quem fenicatum vo-
cant. et dictus a colore palme; quam siculi spadicem vo-
cant. Glaucus vero est. veluti pictos habens oculos.
et quodam splendore perfusos. Gilvus autem melinuset medius added colorem. sub-
solid body, its height in proportion to its strength, long and lean flanks, large and rounded haunches, a broad chest and a body knotted together by the density of its muscles. Dry hoof and horn strengthened by a concave shape.
Beauty means having a small and dry head, with its skin adhering closely to the bones. Short and alert ears, large eyes, wide nostrils and an upright neck. Thick mane and tail. The roundness fixed by the solidity of the hooves. Character means being bold in spirit, swift-footed, with trembling limbs, which is an indication of strength, and easily aroused from deep rest and it should not be difficult to control when it is agitated. However, you can understand the movement of the horse by its ears, its strength by its trembling limbs. Colour is particularly noteworthy here: bay, golden, rosy, myrtle, fawn, pale yellow, blue-green, dappled, dun, bright white, white, piebald and black and after these, there come variegated colours based on black or bay. Other variegated colours or ashen colours are not good. The ancients regarded the bay horse as strong, for its pace is stronger among the other animals. The same horse was called spadix or fenicatus named from the colour of the palm, which the Sicels called spadix. The blue-green is like the colour of painted eyes suffused with brightness. The fawn, however, is a mixture of the colour of honey and
tis. Candidus autem et albus; ab invicem differunt. Nam
albus; cumquodam pallore est. Candidus autem est
niveus. et pura luce perfusus. Canus dictus; quia ex
candido colore et nigro est. Scutulatus dictus; vel
vocatus; propter orbes quos habet candidos inter pur-
puras. Varius; quod vias habet imparium colorum
Qui autem tantum pedes habent; petili appellantur. Qui
frontem albam; calidi. Cervinus est. quem vulgo gau-
rantem dicunt. Mirteus est pressus in purpura. Dos-
mus autem dictus; quod sit color eius de asino. Idem
et cinereus. Sunt autem hii agresti genere orti. quos
equiferos dicimus. et proinde ad urbanam dignita-
tem transire non possunt. Mauron; niger est.
Nigrum enim greci; mauron vocant. Mannus vero equs
brevior est. quem vulgo brunium vocant. Veredos
antiqui dixerunt quod veherent. id est ducerent redas
vel quod vias publicas curant. per quas et redas ire
solitum erat. Equorum tria genera sunt. Unum gene-
rosum. preliis et hominibus aptum. Alterum vulgare.
atque gregarium. ad vehendum. non ad equitandum
aptum. Tertium; ex permixtione diversorum ge-
nerum ortum. quod etiam dicitur bigenerum.
quia ex diversis nascitur generibus. ut mulus ex equa
ff42r: an off-white colour. A piebald horse is white mottled with black. The two whites candĭdus and albus differ from each other. The albus white has a sort of paleness, but the candĭdus one is niveous and suffused with pure light. The cānus one is called such, for it is a mixture of white and black. The dappled one takes its name from the white patches it has among the purple ones. The variegated one has stripes of different colours. However, those with white feet are called pĕtĭli, slenderfeet, and those with white foreheads are călĭdi, hotheads. The fawn (or tawny-red) one, cervīnus, has a yellowish colour and is commonly called gauranis. Myrtle is imprinted in purple. The dun one is so called, for its colour is like that of an ass, the colour of ash. However, these are found in the countryside and we call them ĕquĭfĕri, wild horses. Therefore, they are not to be tamed. The maurus horse is black, for the Greek word for black is μαύρος/mávros. The mannus is a foal, a small horse that is commonly called brunicus. The ancients called post horses vĕrēdi, for they pulled carriages or covered public roads, along which carriages usually went. There are three types of horses: the thoroughbred one suitable for battles and for men. The common and gregarious one suitable for carrying weights, not for riding.
et porcis. Tirus; ex ove et hirco. Musmo. ex capra
et ariete. Est autem dux gregis. Mulus a greco trac-
tum vocabulum habet. Grece enim sic vocatur. vel
quod iugo pistorum subactus. tardas in girum du-
cat moas. Iudei asserunt quod anna abnepos esau
equarum greges ab asinis in deserto ipe prius fecerit
ascendi. ut multorum inde contra naturam animalia
nascerentur. Onagros quoque ad hoc missos ad asi-
nas. et ipsum istiusmodi repperisse concubitum. ut ex
hiis velocissimi asini nascerentur. Industria quip-
pe humana diversum animal in coitu coegit;
Sicque adulterina commixtione genus aliud repperit.
sicut et iacob contra naturam colorum similitudines
procreavit. Nam tales fetus oves illius concipie-
bant. quales umbras arietum desuper ascenden-
tium in aquarum speculo contemplabantur. Denique
et hoc ipsum equarum gregibus fieri fertur. ut inge-
nerosos obiciant equos visibus concipientium. quo eorum
similes concipere et creare possint. Nam et columbarum
dilectores. depictas ponunt pulcherimas columbas
isdem locis quibus ille versantur. quo rapiente visu.
The third type originates from the mixing of different types also called bĭgĕnĕr, hybrid, for it arises from various types such as the mule from a mare and an ass, the burdo from a horse and a she-ass. A hybrid originates from wild sows and pigs, the tirus from the sheep and the goat, the mūsĭmo, the mouflon, from the goat and the ram. The word for mule, mūlus, takes its name from the Greek word μῆκος/míkos for tract. It is called thus in Greek, either for it passes under the yoke of the millers or for it makes slow movements in the millstone. The Jews assert that Anah, the great-great grandson of Esau, was the first to create mules by mating his father’s donkeys with horses so that many animals against nature might be born from them. Onagers also were sent to mate with donkeys with the purpose of obtaining the same kind of crossbreeding, so that very swift-footed donkeys could be generated. Indeed, human ingenuity has brought together a variety of animals to mate and thus produced hybrids through adulterous crossbreeding, just as Jacob created hybrids contrary to the nature of colours . Such offspring conceived sheep of the same colour as the rams that mounted them, seeing them reflected in water. Indeed, it is said that this even happens in herds of mares: thoroughbred horses are presented to the sight of those that are about to conceive, so that the latter may conceive and create offspring in the image of the horses. Pigeon lovers also place the most beautiful painted pigeon images in the same places where they flock to catch the birds’ eye, hoping
vidas mulieres nullos intueri turpissimos vultus ani-
malium. Ut zenophalos et simias. ne visibus occurren-
tes. similes fetus pariant(spariant?). Hanc enim ut(dots underneath) aiunt femina-
rum esse naturam; ut quales perspexerint; sive men-
te conceperint; in extremo voluptatis estu; dum conci-
piunt; talem et subolem procreent. Etenim animalia
in usu venerio formas extrinsecus transmittunt intus.
eorumque tipis sacrata; rapit species eorum in propriam qua-
litatem;
In animantibus bigenera dicuntur qui ex diversis nascuntur ut mulus ex equa et asino burdo ex equo et asina hibride ex apris et porcis tyrius ex ove et hirco musino ex capra et ariete est autem dux gregis
they may generate offspring resembling them. Some say that pregnant women do not look at the ugliest faces of animals such as apes and monkeys, lest they conceive children resembling what they have seen. In fact, this is the nature of women: they conceive children just like that which they have observed or formed in their mind at the mercy of voluptuousness as they conceive. Indeed, animals transmit the images they see from without within themselves during sexual intercourse, and, contented with these images, they take on the features of those images as their own. In animals, hybrids are called bĭgĕnĕra, for they are born from the mating of two different species, such as the mule from a mare and an ass, burdo from a horse and a she-ass. A hybrid originates from wild sows and pigs, the tirus from the sheep and the goat, the mūsĭmo, the mouflon, from the goat and the ram is the leader of the herd.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Horse, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast212.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 Revelation NKJV 19:11: “Now I saw heaven opened, and behold, a white horse. And He who sat on him was called Faithful and True, and in righteousness He judges and makes war.”
2 Psalm 20:7: “Some trust in chariots, and some in horses; But we will remember the name of the LORD our God.”
3 A chariot drawn by four horses abreast used for racing. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadriga
4 The word for horse is ĕquus whereas the word for equal is aequus. In the Classical Latin pronunciation, the difference in sound is between ĕ and ae. If one is using the Ecclesiastical pronunciation, the two words sound the same. In Medieval Latin, the classical ae was replaced by the letter e; therefore, ĕquus and aequus sounded as if it were the same word.
5 The word sŏnĭpēs meant both steed and “having resonant feet/to tap one's foot to the music”.
6 Saddle-cloth.
7 The text is likely to be referring to Darius III and the Battle of Issus 333 BC where Alexander the Great defeated the King of the Scythians. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Issus
8 The author of the bestiary has a different story about Nicomedes’s horse, that it took the adversary’s life. In his Naturalis Historia Book 8.64-65, Pliny the Elder tells us that the horse ended its own life by starving to death: “Interfecto Nicomede rege equus eius inedia vitam finivit/when King Nicomedes was killed, ended its own life by starving to death”.
The Latin text of the Aberdeen bestiary also shows “Nichomede rege interfecto equus eius inedia vi\tam expulit/when King Nicomedes was killed, his dog ended its own life by starving to death”.
9 The Sicels, Sicelī or Siculī, were an Indo-European tribe who inhabited eastern Sicily during the Iron Age. They spoke the Siculian language. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicels
10 A mule or ass
11 Hybrid between a sheep and a goat, usually called geep or shoat.
12 Genesis KJV 30:40: “And Jacob did separate the lambs, and set the faces of the flocks toward the ringstraked, and all the brown in the flock of Laban; and he put his own flocks by themselves, and put them not unto Laban's cattle.”
Cat, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f43r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
In the enchanting realm of feline lore, the cat reigns supreme with its mystique and cunning nature. Known by various names, each hinting at its prowess and demeanour, the cat holds a special place in human imagination.
The Latin term musio hints at its ancient rivalry with mice, embodying its role as a relentless hunter in the rodent kingdom. Yet, it is the moniker căttus that truly captures the essence of this enigmatic creature. Derived from captūra, evoking images of stealth and precision, the cat is the epitome of a skilled predator, effortlessly ensnaring its prey.
By delving deeper into the etymology, you will uncover a subtler narrative. Some suggest that cătus derives from captat, highlighting the feline's acute senses and piercing gaze. With eyes that pierce through the darkness of night, the cat navigates its domain with an astuteness that borders on the supernatural.
Transcription
Translation
vulgus catum a captura vocant. Alii dicunt
quod cattat id est videt. Nam in tanto acumine cernit;
ut fulgore luminis; tenebras noctis superet. Unde
a greco venit catus. idest ingeniosus.
The cat is called musio, for it is hostile to mice. It is commonly called căttus from captūra, catching or prey. Others say that the word comes from captat that is, it senses, for its sight is so sharp that it is able to prevail over the darkness of the night owing to its glowing eyes. Hence, the word cătus comes from Greek and means meaning astute, cunning.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Cat, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast213.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Mouse, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff9r-9v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The humble mouse scampers into the spotlight, bearing secrets and mysteries that defy its diminutive size. Born from the very moisture of the earth, it dances in harmony with the lunar cycle, its liver swelling under the full moon's radiant gaze, akin to the ebb and flow of the sea's denizens.
The mouse is more than a mere creature of the night: it embodies untamed timidity, scurrying on four legs with a grace that belies its fear. In the shadowy corners, it finds kinship with the shrew, a larger cousin whose name rings with the sharpness of a saw, a relentless gnawer that strikes fear even in the hearts of cats.
Amidst the rodents' domain, there exists a curious outlier—the dormouse. Despite its mouse-like appearance, it slumbers through the winter months, a motionless sentinel in the icy embrace of hibernation. Upon the arrival of summer, it stirs from its slumber, breathing life into the verdant world once more.
The symbolism of the mouse extends beyond its earthly realm, echoing in ancient texts and religious doctrines. Leviticus marks it among the unclean, alongside the weasel and the crocodile, while Isaiah's prophetic words cast it as an abomination, a symbol of impurity and spiritual decay: it embodies worldly desires and gluttony, evoking cautionary tales of excess and moral peril. Just as the pig revels in mud, the mouse dances on the edge of danger, its hunger driving it into the jaws of fate.
Despite its small stature, the mouse was also associated with negative qualities such as destructiveness and sin. Its tendency to gnaw on crops and belongings was seen as symbolic of the damage caused by sinful behaviour.
In Christian allegory, the mouse represented temporal and spiritual decay. Its presence in dark and hidden places evoked imagery of sin lurking in the shadows of human consciousness, reminding believers of the need for constant vigilance against moral corruption.
In Leviticus 11:29 , the mouse is listed among the unclean animals, alongside other creatures considered impure or unfit for consumption. This classification reinforced the idea of the mouse as a symbol of impurity and spiritual contamination.
Weakness and Vulnerability: The mouse's perceived vulnerability and susceptibility to predation also served as a metaphor for human weakness and mortality. Its fleeting existence and constant struggle for survival reflected the transient nature of earthly life and the inevitability of death.
Transcription
Translation
cui iecur in plenilunio crescit. sicut quedam mari-
tima augentur. que rursus iminente luna; deficiunt.
Et est mus; indomitum animal et timidum et quadrupes.
Sorex autem est mus maior. sic dictus; eoquod in modum
serre precidat. Utrique est musio infestus. Glires autem
licet videantur; mures non sunt. quia tota hieme dor-
miunt et inmobiles sunt quasi mortui. Tempore estivo
reviviscunt. Muris igitur nomine; significatur terre-
na amans. vel inguiiiiiem ventris. quia pro iiigliiiiie
ventris; mus nulla vitat pericula. Unde inlevitico. mus-
tela et mus et cocodrillus inter inmunda animalia re-
putantur. Hinc etiam ysaias ait. Qui commederint
carnem suillam et abhominationem et murem; simul
consumentur. Sus quia lutosa diligit luxuriosos sig-
nificat et inmundos;.
The mouse is a small animal produced by the moisture of the earth; its liver grows during the full moon: just as certain creatures of the sea increase and diminish with the waning of the moon. The mouse is an untamed, timid, and quadrupedal animal. However, the shrew is a larger mouse, so named, for it gnaws cutting like a saw. Both are enemies of cats. Although dormice may seem so, they are not mice, for they sleep the entire winter and are motionless as if they were dead. In summer, they revive. Therefore, the word mūs also signifies a worldly lover or the gluttony of the belly, for a mouse avoids no dangers out of gluttony. In Leviticus, the weasel, the mouse, and the crocodile are considered unclean animals. Isaiah says, “Those who sanctify themselves and purify themselves, To go to the gardens After an idol in the midst, Eating swine’s flesh and the abomination and the mouse, Shall be consumed together”. (Isaiah NKJV 66:17). The pig signifies excess and impurity, for it loves mud.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Mouse, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast214.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Footnotes
1 Leviticus NKJV 11:29: ‘These also shall be unclean to you among the creeping things that creep on the earth: the mole, the mouse, and the large lizard after its kind;
Weasel, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f44r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The weasel is a creature of mystery and intrigue, its slender form resembling a long-tailed mouse.
Echoing ancient texts like Leviticus, where it is listed among the unclean creatures, the weasel embodies a duality of symbolism. On one hand, it is a cunning hunter, relentless in its pursuit of its preys, whether it be snakes or mice. On the other hand, it is a creature of change and adaptation, forsaking old dens for new ones, a symbol of constant renewal and transformation.
Amidst the tales of its cunning and agility, there are myths of its alleged ability to conceive through the mouth and birth through the ear, a notion as fantastical as it is intriguing. In the hands of experienced physicians, the weasel's offspring are believed to hold the key to resurrection, a testament to the enduring mysteries of nature.
A deeper allegory lies in the weasel's enigmatic presence. Just as it conceals its cubs and changes its dens, so do many souls hide their true beliefs and desires, constrained by the love of earthly pleasures. In the weasel's silent dance through the shadows, we glimpse a reflection of our own struggles to heed the principles of the divine amidst the distractions of the material world.
Thus, in the weasel's cunning and adaptability, in its elusive nature and whispered secrets, we find a mirror to our own journey—a reminder to seek truth amidst the shadows and to embrace change as the harbinger of growth and renewal.
Transcription
Translation
nens. Nam thelon greci longum dicunt. et ideo
furtum prohibet. De qua in levitico dicitur. Mus-
tela et mus et cocodrillis; inmunda erunt vobis.
Mustela est ingenio subdola. In domibus ubi nutrit
catulos suos; transfert mutataque sedem. Serpentes
muresque persequitur. Duo sunt genera mustelarum.
Alterum enim silvestre est. distans longitudine. alte-
rum in domibus oberrans. Falso qutem opinantur
quidam qui dicunt mustelam ore concipere. aure
partum effundere. Dicunt periti medici. si forte fue-
rint occisi eorum fetus. si invenire potuerint;
redivivos faciant. Significant aliquantos qui
libenter quidem audiunt divini verbi semen sed
amore terrenarum rerum detenti; pretermittunt et dissimu-
lant quod audierint;
The weasel is said to be like a long mouse and to remain on the ground. The weasel is called mustēla as if it were a mouse, mūs that has a long dart, tēlum for preventing theft. Leviticus says of it: “These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind (Leviticus KJV 11:29)”.The weasel is cunning in character. Once it has fed its cubs in one den, it changes the den and seeks a new one. It hunts snakes and mice. There are two kinds of weasels: one is wild and roves far away in the forests; the other one wanders in dens or houses. Some falsely believe that the weasel conceives through the mouth and gives birth through the ear. Experienced physicians say that if their offspring happen to be killed, and the parents find them, they can bring them back to life. The weasel signifies that a fair amount of people who willingly heed the principles of the Word of God but they are restrained by the love for earthly things, neglect and conceal what they have heard.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Domouse, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast101972.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Mole, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f44v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The humble mole emerges as a potent allegory, condemned to eternal darkness by its very nature. This small, sightless creature, perpetually engaged in its subterranean pursuits, embodies the insidious traits of greed and avarice. With its earthy domain as its kingdom, the mole ceaselessly burrows, devouring the roots of herbs and grains from beneath, its very existence a testament to its voracious appetite.
In the profound words of Isaiah, the mole finds its spiritual resonance. "In that day a man will cast away his idols of silver And his idols of gold, Which they made, each for himself to worship, To the moles and bats" (Isaiah NKJV 2:20).
In the prophetic vision, the idols of silver and gold, once revered as embodiments of eloquence and wisdom, are now discarded, relegated to the realm of darkness alongside the moles and bats. These creatures, both blind in their own ways, represent the twin vices of avarice and false doctrine, luring humanity into the shadows of ignorance and idolatry.
Thus, the mole serves as a warning against the pitfalls of earthly desires and spiritual blindness. In its ceaseless digging and insatiable hunger for earthly treasures, it reflects the darker impulses that lurk within the human heart. As we tread the path of enlightenment, we must heed the lessons of the mole, casting aside the idols of greed by embracing the truth.
Transcription
Translation
tate perpetua. Est enim animal parvum. quadru-
pes. absque oculis. semper terram fodiens. et eiciens;
subter fodiendo. et radices herbarum et frugum.
subter comedens. Super terram non diu vivere pt.
et habet pedes quasi manus cum digitis ut facilius
terram eruat. Significat cupidum. avarum. ter-
ram fodientem. Unde et ysaias dicit de primo adven-
tu christi. In die illa proiciet homo ydola argenti sui.
et simulacra auri fui. que fecerat sibi ut adhoraret
talpas. et vespertiliones. Simulacra auri et argenti sunt;
figmta eloquentie et sapiencie prophetorum. in quibus conside-
bant adhorantes talpas id est avariciam. que est. ydolorum
servitus. et vespertiliones id est ceca et falsa dogmata. que
veritatis luci non appropinquant. sed ignorantie te-
nebras amant;
It is called a mole, for it is condemned to darkness by perpetual blindness. It is a small animal, a quadruped without eyes, always digging and throwing out the earth; by digging below, it consumes the roots of herbs and grains from beneath. Above ground, it cannot live long and has feet resembling hands with fingers wherewith it digs the earth easily. The mole signifies greed, avarice, digging into the earth. Hence, Isaiah speaks of the first coming of Christ: “In that day mankind will cast away their idols of silver and their idols of gold, which they made for themselves to worship, to the moles and to the bats (Isaiah ESV 2:20)”. The idols of gold and silver are the images of eloquence and wisdom of the prophets, wherein there are engrossed those worshipping moles, that is, avarice, which is the submission to idols, and bats, that is, blind and false doctrines, which do not approach the light of truth but love the darkness of ignorance.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Mole, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast216.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Laurel, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Laurel is an aromatic evergreen tree or large shrub with smooth green leaves. It is in the flowering plant family Lauraceae, native to the Mediterranean region, and is used as bay leaf for seasoning in cooking.
Its common names include bay tree (especially in the United Kingdom), bay laurel, sweet bay, true laurel, Grecian laurel, or simply laurel.
Bay laurel was used to fashion the laurel wreath of ancient Greece, a symbol of highest status. A wreath of bay laurels was given as the prize at the Pythian Games because the games were in honour of Apollo, and the laurel was one of his symbols. The symbolism carried over to Roman culture, which held the laurel as a symbol of victory. It was also associated with immortality with ritual purification, prosperity and health.
Bay leaf is also used in folk medicine. Chemicals in bay leaf might affect blood sugar and cholesterol levels. People have used bay leaf to treat diabetes, common cold, high cholesterol, asthma, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support these uses.
Transcription
Translation
capita victorum apud antiquos coronabantur.
et apud eosdem laudea nominabatur; Postea
.D. littera sublata. et subrogata .R; dicta est laurus.
Ut auricule. que antiquitus audicule dicebantur.
dicte sunt et medidies qui nunc meridies dicitur
Et medidies que nunc meridies dicitur. Hanc ar-
borem dampnem vocant. eo quod numquam deponat vi-
riditatem. Sola quoque hec arbor vulgo fulminari creditur; vel fluminari
Now the laurel is called praise from this word. For with this the heads of the victors were crowned among the ancients, and among them it was called praise. Afterwards the letter D was removed, and replaced by R; it was called the laurel. As the auricle, which in ancient times was called the ear, was also called medius, which is now called meridius. And in the middle that is now called the south, they call this tree a waste tree, because it never sheds its greenness. This tree alone is also commonly believed to be struck by lightning; or the river.
Hedgehog, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff44v-45r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The hedgehog embodies layers of meaning that delve into the depths of human nature and spirituality. This small creature, equipped with a protective armour of quills, serves as a potent metaphor for sinners ensnared by the thorns of their own transgressions.
When danger looms, the hedgehog instinctively curls into a ball, relying on its defences to ward off threats. This defensive posture mirrors the resilience of sinners who, confronted with the consequences of their actions, seek refuge behind the barriers of their wrongdoing.
Amidst this imagery of sin and vulnerability, a deeper symbolism emerges. The hedgehog, in its act of rolling over grapes to provide for its cubs, takes on the likeness of Christ in the flesh, bearing the burden of human sinfulness and offering redemption through sacrifice.
This duality of symbolism is echoed in the prophetic words of Zephaniah, where the hedgehog is mentioned alongside other creatures in a scene of desolation. Here, the hedgehog represents both the fallen state of humanity, dwelling in the ruins of worldly glory, and the transformative power of Christ's advent, which heralds the dawn of spiritual renewal.
The pelican, with its dual nature as both aquatic and wilderness-dwelling, symbolizes the spread of Christ's message to all corners of the earth, while the raven embodies the struggle between enlightenment and sin, preaching from the thresholds of our senses and the lintels of our reason.
A clear message transpires amidst the allegories: the constant battle of the human soul between vice and virtue, sin and redemption. As the hedgehog bristles with quills of protection, we must also arm ourselves against the temptations of the world, seeking refuge in the grace of divine forgiveness.
Transcription
Translation
contra insidians(changed to insidias) se spinis vallans. et cum primo
aliquid sentre; statim se subrigite. atque in globum con-
versus; in sua se arma recolligit. hoc animal cum u-
nam(changed to vam) de vite abscindit; supinus super eam volutat.
et sic eam spinis infixam; exhibet natis suis. Hericius
spinosum animal significat peccatorem. spinis pecato-
rum circundatum. Vel christum in similitudinem carnis pecca-
ti apparentem vel diabolum. Hinc per sophomam de nini-
ve dicitur. et eius desolatione futura. Omnes bestie gentium
et onocrotalus et heritius in lumbis eius morabuntur.
Vox cantantis in fenestra. Corvus in superliminari. qm atte-
nuabo robur eius. Hec est civitas gloriosa habitans in confi-
dentia. Ninive; significat mundi gloriam. que per adven-
tum christi et predicatorum eius desolata est. Onacrotalorum(changed to Onocrotalorum)
duo sunt genera. Aliud aquatile. aliud solitudinis.
The hedgehog is a small animal, a quadruped and is surrounded all around by quills to protect itself from attacks. As soon as it senses anything, it immediately bristles, rolls itself into a ball and regains courage by relying on its defences. When this animal tears off a bunch of grapes, it rolls about on its back over it, thus giving the grapes full of quills to its cubs. The hedgehog symbolises sinners surrounded by the quills of sin or represents Christ in the likeness of sinful flesh or the devil. Hence, Zephaniah says of Nineveh and its future desolation. All the beasts of the nations, and “both the pelican and the hedgehog will lodge in the tops of her pillars. A cry shall resound in the window: the raven shall be in the porch. For he shall uncover (Zephaniah 2:13-15)”. This is the glorious city dwelling in impudence, Nineveh, representing the glory of the world, which was forsaken upon the advent of Christ and his preachers. There are two kinds of pelicans: an aquatic one and the one of the wilderness:
res christi; verba christi usque ad fines orbis terrarum dissemi-
nantes. tan in iudea; quam in solitudine gentium. Heritius
est ipse christus. tectus similitudine carnis peccati. vel pre-
dicator spinis sententiarum subtilium; peccata nostra;
delens.Corvus est predicator gentilis. qui niger fuit
in pccatis. sed in adventu christi; cantate predicando; in
fenestra sensuum nostrorum. et in superliminari; videlicet
menti nostre sapientie verba infigens. Vel in ma-
lam partem totum legi potest. Per hec enim animalia
que omnia inmunda sunt; significantur vicia vel de-
monia que habitant in anima per ypocrisis similitudi-
nem; spinosa vel speciosam added. et mentis rationem. et sensus nostros se-
ducunt. Limen enim; corpus vel sensualitas est. Super
liminare autem anima vel ratio. que omnia seduc-
tione demonum viciantur.
they are birds with long bills, signifying the preachers of Christ, preaching the words of Christ to the ends of the earth, both in Judea and in the wilderness of the nations. The hedgehog is Christ himself in the likeness of sinful flesh, or the preacher with the quills of their direct opinions, erasing our sins. The raven is the pagan preacher befogged by sin who sings and preaches upon the coming of Christ, in the window of our senses and in the lintels, namely, impressing words of wisdom on our minds. It can also be understood in a bad sense entirely. The fact that these animals are all unclean means that vices or demons, which dwell in the soul in the likeness of hypocrisy, corrupt our minds and our senses. The threshold represents the body or sensuality but the lintel represents the soul or reason, which are corrupted by the temptation of the devil.
Bibliography
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Hedgehog, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast216.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Ant, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff45v-46v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The tiny ant emerges as symbolic of remarkable industry, foresight, and wisdom. With its diligent work ethic and ingenious survival strategies, the ant serves as a model for human behaviour and spiritual enlightenment.
Its industrious nature is evident in its meticulous preparation for the future, gathering grains of wheat during harvest season to sustain itself through the winter. Unlike other creatures, the ant relies on its own efforts, marching in line and carrying its own grain back to the nest.
Moreover, the ant demonstrates remarkable foresight, predicting rain by observing the behaviour of the grains it collects. Its ability to forecast weather patterns demonstrates its wisdom and practicality, ensuring the preservation of its precious food supply.
Not content with mere survival, the ant also shows a knack for resource management, dividing its grain stores to prevent spoilage and taking measures to protect its nest from floods.
The ant's actions have deeper spiritual significance. Just as the ant divides grains into two, so too must mankind divide their time and attention between spiritual and worldly matters, between the Old and New Testament.
The ant's aversion to barley, considered the food of brutes, serves as a cautionary tale against embracing false doctrines and spiritual laziness. Just as Job warns against the growth of barley instead of wheat, so too must believers discern between true spiritual nourishment and deceptive teachings.
Amidst the wisdom and industry of the ant, there lurks a threat in the form of the antlion, a symbol of temptation and spiritual danger. This small creature preys on the ants, reminding humans of the constant battle between virtue and vice, wisdom and folly.
Ultimately, the ant's story serves as a timeless parable, urging readers to emulate its virtues, heed its warnings, and "consider her ways and be wise" (Proverbs NKJV 6:6).
Transcription
Translation
Cuius sollercia multa. Providet enim in futurum.
et preparet in estate quod in hieme comedat. In messe
enim colligit triticum ordeum non tangit. Ordina-
te ambulant. et granum in ore baiulant. et hee que
vacue sunt non dicunt. Date nobis de granis vestris
sed vadunt per vestigia priorum. ad locum ubi frumen-
tum inveniunt. et afferunt frumentum in cubile suum.
Dum pluit super frumentum totum propriis humeris eicit.
Novit enim formica explorare serenitatis tempora. ut
sub iuge(changed to iugi) solis calore; siccentur frumenta sua. Namque
enim imbres videbis; cum foris fuerint formicarum frumenta.
Cum autem ea reposuerint; imbres sperare poteris. La-
borem alterius non tollit. set itinere proprio vadens.
proprium granum portat. Cum domum venerit; di-
vidit granum in duo. ne forte pluvia perfundatur
in hieme. et germinent granum. et ipsa fame pereat.
Preterea canales facte formica circa tectum suum. ut
cum inundatio veterit; preterfluant aque; et salve-
tur ipsa et cibus eius. Dicuntur in ethiopia esse. for-
mice. ad formam canis. que arenas aureas eruunt;
pedibus. quas custodunt ne quis auferat. captan-
The ant is called so, for it carries grains of wheat. Its ingenuity is considerable. Since it provides itself for the future, it prepares in summer what it will eat in winter. During harvest, it collects wheat, but it does not touch barley. Ants march in line and carry grain in their mouths. Those who carry nothing do not say "Give us some of your grains" but follow the tracks of those who went before them to the place where they find grain and take it to their nest.
If it rains on the grain, they carry it all on their back. An ant knows how to forecast rays of sunshine, for it knows that grain dries up in the heat of the sun. Therefore, you will see rainclouds when the grain is outside but you can hope for rain when they carry it back in. An ant does not saddle itself with the labour of another ant but goes on its own way and carries its own grain. When the ant goes back to the nest, it divides the grain into two, lest it be soaked by rain in winter and the grain sprout, or else it would starve to death. Moreover, ants mould channels around their nest, so that the water may flow away in the event of a flood and therefore, they save themselves and their food.Apparently, there exist ants in the form of dogs in Ethiopia, which extract golden sands with their feet and they guard them, lest they be taken:
aurum accipere; accipiunt equas cum viventibus pullis. et
fame affligunt eas tribus diebus. Denique religant pullos
earum ad litus aque que currit inter eos et formicas.
Et eque transeunt aquam illam inpositis clitellis super dor-
sum earum. Que ubi vident trans fumen herbas viren-
tes; pascuntur per campos untra flumen. Formice autem vi-
dentes scrinia et clitellas super dorsum earum; conpor-
tant aureas arenas in eis. volentes eas ibi recondere. Ves-
perascente autem die postquam saciate sunt eque; audiunt
pullos suos hinnientes propter famen. et ita regrediun-
tur ad eos cum auro multo. Formicaleon autem est. qui
formicis est. leo; sed aliis est formica. Est enim animal par-
vum. formicis satis infestum. quod se inpulvere abscon-
dit. et formicas frumenta gestantes; interficit. Nomine
igitur formice dicitur prudens et sapiens. Unde in parabolis.
Vade ad formicam o piger. et considera vias eius et disce;
sapientiam. Formica dividit grana in duo. Sic et tu homo
divide inter vetus et novum testamentum. et inter spiritualia
et carnalia. Iudei granum littere a spiritu non dividen-
tes. fame necati sunt. Formica ordeum non curat. Orde-
if someone takes them, they will be pursued to their dying day. Those who wish to receive gold from them will receive mares with living foals and they will starve the mares for three days. Finally, they tie their foals near the bank of the stream that flows between them and the ants. The mares cross that stream with packsaddles placed on their backs; when they see green grass on the other side of the stream, they feed thereon amid the fields beyond the river. Upon seeing the boxes and packsaddles on the mares’ backs, the ants put golden sands therein in order to hide them. When it grows dark after they are replete, the mares hear their foals neighing out of hunger. Therefore, they return to them with plenty of gold.
There is also the antlion, which is a lion towards ants but it is an ant towards others. It is a small animal, rather harmful to ants, for it hides in dust and kills ants carrying grain. Therefore, ants are said to be skilled and wise by name. Hence, the parable says: “Go to the ant, you sluggard! Consider her ways and be wise,” (Proverbs NKJV 6:6). An ant divides grains into two. Similarly, you, o man, divide your time between the Old and New Testament, and between spiritual and carnal things. The Jews were starved to death, for they were not able to divide the grains of the letters from the grains of the spirit . Ants disregard barley, for
it is the food of brutes. Job says with regard to the doctrine of heretics and of the Catholic one: “Instead of wheat, barley grows."