Eagle, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff47v-48v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The name eagle refers to any of a wide range of species that are large enough to hunt large prey. Most of the 68 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa although species are recorded on every continent.
The medieval bestiary records that eagles have the sharpest sight and can see far further than man. It will see fish in the sea from the air and will dive like a thunderbolt to catch it. As it gets old its wings become heavy and its sight will get cloudy so it will look for a fountain and then fly high up towards the sun its wings catch fire and its eyes lose the darkness it dives under the water three times and its wings and eyes are restored (Barber 2008).
Transcription
Translation
que tam acute videt. ut dum super maria imobili pen-
na feratur. nec humanis pateat obtutibus; detanta
sublimitate pisciculos natare videat. ac tormenti in-
star descendens raptam predam pennis ad litus trahit.
Pullos quoque plumescentes; alis verberat et ad volandum
provocat. Item cum pullos plumescere videt. piis un-
guibus adsolem suspendens; convertit. et illum quasi
proprium nutrit filium; qui irreverberata acie; solem
aspicit. Si lumina deflectit; quasi degenerem abicit.
Pullos quoque ad volandum provocat; et lassos alis sus-
tentat. Item cum senuerit; gravantur ale ipsius. et
oculi eius caligine obducuntur. Que in altum vo-
lans; radio solis exurit et alas et caliginem oculorum.
et denscendens trina mersione in fonte; se renovat
in multo vigore alarum et oculorum. Nomine aquile
According to the naturalists, the eagle is so called, because of its acute vision, in that, whilst it is in flight over the seas, its as if it has motionless feathers and in a way unclear to humans, it can see the little fishes swimming below, from its great height. And like a missile, it falls upon and captures its prey and carries it to the shore, whilst still in flight. As for other feathered ones like chickens, whilst flying with beating wings, the eagle confronts them. it turns them towards the sun, to hang from its perfect talons. And it is as it were that he feeds it, as if it were his own son. Which breaks the focus, he then looks towards the sun. If it deflects the light; he throws it away as if it is some contemptible thing. The eagle also keeps the chickens in the air and maintains their weariness. Also, when it is grown old and its own wings weigh it down. And the eyes have become covered by a veil, then it is that flying high; the rays of the sun burn both the wings and the darkness of the eyes. And descending three times into the water, it renews itself many times over, in the strength of its wings and eyes.
The name of the Eagle sometimes
hereticus. aliquando contemplativi qui rapine et cupiditati
terrene vacant. aliquando contemplativi et sancti quo-
rum conversatio est. in celis. Pullos plumescentes alis
verberat et ad volandum provocat aquila; sic christus dic-
tis et exemplis et doctrina duorum testamentorum. sive ge-
mine caritatis exhortans ad alta provehit. ut sequa-
mur quo ipse precessit. Lassos alis sustentat; et christus in
humeris suos portavit; dum in cruce peccata eorum
sustinuit. Super etiam exaltatus et humanis subtrac-
tus aspectibus. in mari huius mundi natantes; oculis mi-
sericordie videt. et pennis amoris pertrahit ad litus eter-
ne securitatis. Unde si exaltatus fuero a terra; omnia
traham ad me ipsum. Aquila plumescens ad solem
suspendens convertit. et cetera. ut supra; sic deus adverum
solem nos invitat. Infirmitatibus nostris compatitur.
et alis gracie sustentat. Qui vero verum solem atten-
dere nouerit diligens tenebras mundi; a deo despi-
citur; sicut ab aquila negligitur. non acerbitate na-
ture; sed viditii integritate; qui ei degener inve-
nitur. Item aquila cum senuerit; gravantur ale ipsius. (et cetera added)
is (to do with) Christ, sometimes the Devil, sometimes an overbearing heretic, sometimes religious mystics who give themselves to rape and earthly lust. Sometimes those self same religious and holy men whose dwelling is in heaven. The eagle beats the fledgling chicks and challenges them to fly; thus also does Christ by His sayings and example and the teachings of the two testaments. So also he, encouraging, carries (us) upwards by (this) twin of love . So that we may follow where he has gone before. He endures the weariness; and Christ has carried his own on his shoulders; while he bore their sins on the cross. Above everything, he was lifted up and removed from the sight of humans. those that swim in the seas of this world; he regards with the eyes of mercy. He carries (them) away to the eternal shores of safety. Whence I exist lifted above the earth and draw all things to myself. As it hovered, the feathered eagle turned toward the sun. And again, as above, so God draws us towards the true sun. He has compassion on our weaknesses. And (by) grace with (his) wings he upholds (us). Who indeed (would) enthusiastically face the true sun (but then) acknowledge (lit ‘nod to’) the darkness of the world? (Such a one) is despised by God. Likewise (such a) one is held in disdain by the eagle; such a one is found unworthy by him. not with a bitter nature; but with integrity (of vision); who to him is found unworthy. In the same way, when the eagle has grown old, they are (become) burdened (by) their own wings.
et senuerint ab illa virtutum veste quam habue-
rant. et caligaverint oculi cordis eorum; per penitencie
alas volant ad vetum solem. et in caritatis eius ig-
ne; deponunut suam vetustatem. et in fonte baptis-
mi vel gracie. vel penitencie; renovatur ut aquile
iuventus eorum. Ferunt quod avis cui nomen fulica est.
que grece dicitur phene. susceptum illum abdica-
tum sive non agnitum aquile pullum; cum sua
prole connectit. et eodem quo proprios fetus ma-
terne sollicitudinis officio et pari nutrimentorum
sub ministratione; pascit et nutrit. ergo phene alie-
nos nutrit. Nos vero nostros inmiti crudelitate;
proicimus. Aquila enim si proicit; non quasi suum proicit.
sed quasi degenerem; non recognoscit. Nos vero quod peius
est; quos nostros recognoscimus abdicamus.
Thus, when the saints have been preoccupied with some offense, and have grown old from that garment of virtues which they had, and the eyes of their heart have become dim, they fly wings to the ancient sun through penance, and in the fire of his charity, they lay down their old age, and in the fountain of baptism or grace. or by penance, their youth is renewed like an eagle. They say that the bird whose name is the sparrowhawk, which in Greek is called phene, takes up that chick, abandoned or not recognized by the eagle, connects it with its own offspring, and feeds and nurtures its own offspring with the duty of maternal care and equal nourishment under the ministration, therefore phene nourishes strangers. We, however, cast out our enemies with cruelty. For if an eagle throws it, it does not throw it as if it were its own, but as if it were degenerate, and does not recognize it. But what is worse, we renounce those whom we recognize as our own.
On the naming of birds, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff46v-47r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Transcription
Translation
Nam sicut specie sibi differunt; ita et nature di-
versitate. Nam alie simplices sunt sicut columbe.
Alie astute; ut perdix. erasure Alie ad manum se subiciunt.
ut accipitres. Alie reformidant; ut garramantes. Alie
converstionem hominum delectantur ut hyrundo. Alie
in deserto secretam vitam diligunt; ut turtur. Alie
solo semine reperto; pascuntur. ut anser. Alie carnes
edunt et rapinis intendunt; ut milvus. Alie grega-
tim volante; ut sturni et coturnices. Alie solivage;
id est solitarie propter insidias depredandi ut aquila et
accipiter. Alie voce strepunt ut hyrundo. Alie cantus
edunt dulcissimos ut cignus et merula. Alie verba
et voces hominum imitantur. ut psitacus. et pica. Sed
alia sicut genere; ita et moribus innumerabiles. Nam
et volucrum quot genera sunt; invenire quis non
potest. Neque omnia scithie et indie ac ethiopie deser-
ta quis penetrare potuit. qui earum genus vel diffe-
rentias nosset. Aves dicte; eoquod rectas vias non habent.
But the name of birds is one, but of a different kind. For they differ from each other in appearance; so also by nature. For others are as simple as the dove. Others are cunning; like a partridge Others submit themselves to the hand, like hawks. Others shrink; as they growled. Others delight in the conversion of men as a swallow. Others love a secret life in the desert; as a turtle Others were found in the soil of the seed; they feed, like a goose. Others eat meat and aim at rapine; like a kite Others flying in flocks; as starlings and quails. Other solivage; that is alone because of the snares of prey like the eagle and the hawk. Others shriek like a swallow. Some eat very sweet songs, such as swans and blackbirds. Other words and voices are imitated by humans, such as the parrot and the pica. But other things, like gender; so also innumerable manners. For how many kinds of birds are there? who cannot find No one could penetrate all the deserts of Scythia and India and Ethiopia, who knew their kind or differences. Say the birds; because they do not have straight roads,
ad alta tendunt. et ad sullimia remigio alarum con-
tendunt. Volucres a volando. Nam unde volare; inde
et ambulare dicimus. Vola enim; est. media pars pedis
vel manus. et in avibus; media pars alarum. quarum
motu; penne agitantur. inde volucres pulli dicuntur.
Et homo parvus; pullus. Recentes nati igitur pulli dicunt-
tur. eoquod polluti sunt. Unde et vestis nigra; pulla
est. dicta. Alie sunt in quibus penne per ordinem fixe vo-
landi exhibent usum. Vocate autem ale; quod hiis
aves complexus alant. ac fovent pullos. penna; a
pendendo id est a volando; dicta. Unde et pendere. Volucres
enim pennarum auxilio moventur; quando se aeri;
mandant. Pluma; quasi piluma. Nam sicut pili in
quadrupedum corpore; ita pluma in avibus. Avium;
multa nomina a sono vocis constat esse. composita.
Ut grus. corvus. cignus. bubo. milvus. ulula. cu-
culus. garrulus. graculus et cetera. Varietas enim vo-
cis earum; docuit quid homines eas vocarent.
but they run through each and every byway. The fans; because the wings tend to be high, and the rowing of the wings tends to be high. Birds from flying. For whence to fly; hence we say to walk. For fly; that is, the middle part of the foot or hand, and in birds; the middle part of the wings, whose motion; they are moved with a feather, hence the birds are called chicks. And the little man, the chicken. Therefore the recently born chicks are said to be polluted by this. Hence the black garment; she is a chick, she said. There are others in which the pen exhibits the use of flying in fixed order. Now call ale; that by means of these the fowls feed, and foster their young, with feathers; from hanging, that is from flying; said Hence it depends. For birds move with the help of their wings; when they are aired; they command Feather; like a feather For like hairs on the body of a quadruped; so a feather in birds. Many names of birds are compounded from the sound of their voice. As the crane, the crow, the swan, the owl, the kite, the howler, the cuckoo, the chatterbox, the jackdaw, and the rest. For the variety of their voice; he taught them what men should call them.
Crane, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff60v-61r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The medieval bestiary records that when cranes set out on a journey they are organised and disciplined. To avoid being blown off their course by strong winds they eat sand and gravel to weigh themselves down. They fly very high in the sky so they can see the land they are aiming for, and follow the leader that knows the way and keeps the line in order by his calls. If his voice gets hoarse another bird will take over. They check on each other and look out for weary birds and will support them until they regain their strength. When they sleep there are watchmen in the flock that keep an eye open for danger. When one finishes its shift he wakes another to take over. The watchman holds a rock in its claw to stop it falling to sleep (Barber 2008).
Transcription
Translation
Tali enim sono susurrant. Que ut expeditio-
nes suas dirigant; sub militie eunt signo. et ne
pergentes ad destinatam terram vi flatuum impedi-
antur; harenas devorant. sublatisque lapillulis ad
moderatam gravitatem; saburrantur id est saburra.
id est arena ponderantur. Tunc contendunt in altis-
sima. ut de facilius intueantur quas petant terras.
Hee autem; dum properant. unam omnes sequntur.
bata perit dispersis littera penius. Fidens volatu;
preit cateruas. Volatus desidiam castigat voce; que
cogit agmen. Hunc enim volantes ordine in servant.
et hac moderatione omnem laborem allevant.
ut per vices fungantur ducatur munere. Precedit enim
una ceteras. et quasi antesignaria precurrit. Ea
postquam obraucata est ve. lassa. dat alii ducatus
principatum. Concors omnium cura; pro fatigatis.
Adeo; ut si qua defecerit; congruant universe. las-
satasque sustollunt; usque dum vires otio recuperent.
Grues quoque in nocte sollicitam exercent custodiam.
Dispositos vigiles cernas. et ceteris quiescentibus alie
circueunt. et explorant. ne qua ex parte insidie temp-
tentur. Vigiles cum stant aliquo loco custodientes
per ordines vices suas; vigilias noctis. tenent lapil-
los suspensis pedum digitis quibus sompnos suos
arguant. Quod cavendum erit; clamor vigilum
indicat. Post quam tempus vigiliarum expletum
fuerit. grus que vigilis offitio functa fuerat in
sompnum se premisso clamore componit. et exci-
traditura est. At illa volenti animmo statim sus-
cipit vigilis offitum. ne usu humano invita et
pigrior sompno; laborem refutat. sed inpigre suis
excutitur stratis. vicem reddit. et alias custodit. donec
et illa alio tempore vigiliarum decurso; munus hoc
alii iniungat. Ecce et inprincipatu ducatus et in custo-
die labore sibi parent. Quod hoc pulcrius et laborem
omnibus. et homorem esse communem; Talis deberet esse. rei
publice status. ut communus esset labor. communisque digni-
tas. et ut obsequia et imperia dividere discerent;
homines. Olim sic erat. Nullus enim expers fuit aut
laboris aut honoris. Nemo enim insolescebat per-
petua potestate. Nec diuturio servitio;
frangebantur. quia sine invidia erat tempo-
ris moderatione; delata promotio. et tole-
rabilior videbatur. que communi cadebat sorte sub-
iectio. Nemo audebat servitio premere. quia eum
sciebat sibi successorem fore. et sibi posse vicem reddere.
Nemini erat labor gravis; quem secutura dignitas
sit; cepit servitus esse. non libera; sed invita et coac-
ta. Nichil enim tam facile; quin hanc cum invito;
difficultatem. Ergo et iugis labor avertit affectum.
et diuturna potentia gignit insolentiam. Quem
hominem modo invenias. qui ducatum principatumque
libenter alii concedat. fiatque volens de primo no-
vissimus; Ecce nos etiam primos in cena discubitus
desideramus. et si adepti fuerimus; non siiie invi-
dia alii concedimus. Olim inter bonos sicut nunc inter
qrues equanimitas fuit in laboribus; et humilitas
in potestatibus. Preterea natura gruis est; ut in senec-
tute nigrescat. et cum clamat; celum consideret. et
ut verticem capitis rubeum habeat. videlicet plumis
nudatum. Tibias et collum longa habe-
at. Avis inimica pueris. Quid igitur melius
per gruem significatur quam ordo predicatorum. qui
comam pro christo deposuerunt. celi domino gloriam in vo-
ce predicationis sue dantes. quorum sonora predicatio
in omnem terram cito delata est. qui stultus inimicantur.
Parrot, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff52r-52v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The medieval bestiary records that parrots have a large tongue broader than other birds which enable them to speak, and that if you could not see it you may think it is a man speaking. The parrot has a hard beak and a strong head and if you need to teach it with blows to speak you would need an iron rod. When the bird is young it learns quickly and remembers longer, but when it gets older it is forgetful and difficult to teach (Barber 2008).
Transcription
Translation
di. torque punicea. grandi lingua. et ceteris
avibus latiore. Unde et articulata verba exprimit.
ita ut(dots underneath) ut si eam non videris. hominem loqui putes.
Ex natura autem salutat dicens ave. vel kere. ce-
tera nomina institutione discit. Hinc est illud.
Psitacus avebis. aliorum nomina discam. Hoc didi-
ci per me dicere cesar ave. Cuius rostri tanta duri-
cia est; ut cum e sullimi precipitatur in saxum;
nisu oris se excipiat. Capud vero tantum valens ut
India alone sends a parrot bird, green in color, with a pink neck, a large tongue, and wider than other birds. Hence it expresses articulate words, so that if you did not see it, you would think that a man was speaking. But by nature he greets by saying bird, or kere, the other names he learns by training. Hence it is that you will take away the parrot, I will learn the names of others. I learned this by myself to say, Caesar, the bird. Whose face is so hard; as when he falls from a height upon a rock; let him receive himself with the effort of the mouth. The head, however, is so strong
sicut homines loquatur; ferrea sit ferula verberan-
dus. Nam cum pullis est et intra alterum etatis
sue annum; que monstrata sunt et citius discit;
et retinet tenatius. Paulo senior obliviosus est et
indocilis.
Caladrius, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff53r-53v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The charadrius), With a glance (sometimes spelt Charadrius) can tell you if a sick person will live or die. The Caladrius is brought to the bedside of sick person; if the bird turns away , the patient is going to die, but if the bird continues to look into the face of the patient, it will draw all the sickness into itself, and then fly into the sun where the sickness will be burnt up and destroyed, curing the sick person. It is also said that the dung of the caladrius can heal blindness.
The Caladrius is seen as a representation of Christ, it's white plumage is without blemish, just as Christ was without blemish. Just as the Caladrius turns away from the dying, so Jesus turned away from the Jews because of their unbelief, and instead turned his face towards the gentiles, taking their sins upon himself, just as the Caladrius takes sickness upon itself. It's flight towards the sun is a reflection of Christ's ascension into Heaven.
Transcription
Translation
totus est albus sicut cignus. et longum collum
habet. cuius interior fimus; curat caliginem oculorum.
Hic in atriis regum invenitur. Si quis est in egritudi-
ne; ex hoc caladrio cognoscitur; si vivat an moriatur.
Si enim homo mori debet; avertit faciem suam ab eo;
Et quo signo cognoscunt homines; quia moriturus est.
Si vivere debet; intendit in faciem illius. Et qui as-
sumeret omnem egritudinem illius intra se; volat in
aera contra contra solem quasi comburendo infir-
mitatem ipsius et eam dispergendo. et sic sanatur in-
firmus. Caladrius habet personam nostri salvatoris.
Totus enim est candidus. quia non fecit peccatum. nec
inventus est dolus in ore eius. Veniens autem christus de
excelsis; avertit faciem suam a iudeis propter incre-
dulitatem eorum. et convertit se ad nos gentes. tollens
infirmitates nostras exaltatus in ligno crucis. et as-
cendens in altum; captivam duxit captivitatem.
dedit dona hominibus. Caladrius tamen in levitico inter
inmundas aves numeratur; que commedi id est imitari;
Caladrius or caradrius, as the physiologist says; he is all white like a swan, and has a long neck, the innermost part of which is a breast; cures the darkness of the eyes. Here it is found in the courts of kings. If someone is sick; it is known from this caldera; if he lives or dies. For if a man must die; she turned her face away from him. And by what sign do men know; because he is going to die. If he must live; he focused on his face. And who would assume all his illness within himself; he flies in the air against the sun as if burning his weakness and dispersing it, and thus the in-firm is healed. Caladrius has the person of our savior. For he is entirely white, because he committed no sin, and no guile was found in his mouth. And Christ coming from on high; he turned his face away from the Jews because of their unbelief, and turned himself to us Gentiles, taking away our infirmities, being exalted on the wood of the cross, and ascending on high; He led the captive into captivity, and gave gifts to the people. However, in Leviticus, the cockerel is numbered among the unclean birds; that I ate, that is to imitate;
est secundum proprietatem illam qui longum collum ha-
bens cibum querit sibi de profundis visceribus terre.
Et ideo secundum illam proprietatem significat contemplati-
vum. habentem specium religionis. cuius lectio est de celestibus;
et vita de terrenis. qui in hoc imitandus non est. Se-
cundum autem illam proprietatem qua se avertit a morturis
et se convertit victuris volans in altum contra solem;
significat christum. Sicut leo et aquila licet inmunda sunt
secundum legem; tamen christum significant secundum aliquam sui
proprietatem. Quia leo est rex ferarum. et aquila vola-
tilium. et christus omnium fidelium;
are forbidden And yet it signifies Christ. For he is unclean according to that property, who, having a long neck, begs for food from the deep entrails of the earth. And therefore, according to that property, it signifies contemplative, having a kind of religion, the reading of which is about the heavenly things; and the life of the earthly, who in this is not to be imitated. But according to that property by which he turns away from the dead and turns to the living, flying high against the sun; it means Christ. Even as the lion and the eagle are unclean according to the law; yet they signify Christ according to some characteristic of himself. Because the lion is the king of beasts, and the eagle of birds, and the Christ of all the faithful.
Swan, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f54r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Sailors see them as a good omen, and they swim with their neck high like a proud man (Barber 2008).
Transcription
Translation
totus albus plumis. Nullus enim unquam vidit cig-
num nigrum. Olo enim grece; totum latine. Cignus;
a canendo est appellatus. eo quod carminis dulcedi-
nem modul vocibus fundit. Unde ad vada menan-
dri; concunt albus olor. Hec avis contra pericula in-
minentis sibi morits; dulcissimis vocibus sonat. Ideo
autem suavissime cignum canere dicunt; quod collum
longum et inflexum habet. et necesse est. eluctantem vo-
cem per longum et flexuosum iter; varias reddere mo-
dulationes. Ferunt autem in hiperboreis partibus precinentibus
citharedis; olores plurimos advocari. apteque ad-
modum concinere. Dicunt tamen quidem quod olor
latinum nomen est. Nam greci; cignus dicunt. Naute
vero sibi hunc; bonam prognosum facere dicunt.
Sicut emilianus ait. Cignus in auspitiis semper letis-
simus ales. Hunc optant naute; quia se non mer-
git in undis. Cignus in levitico inter inmundas
aves; reputatur. Quia nullus imitari debet con-
templativum cuius lectio est de celestibus et vita de ter-
is about the earthly. In the depths of earthiness and vices he begs for food for himself, having a want of purity and words of sound doctrine, yet drowning himself in the lower parts of the earth.
Stork, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff54v-56r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The bestiary is full of praise, and a few inaccuracies, about the famously caring storks.
The medieval bestiary records that stork are the enemies of snakes. Their cry is made by their beak not their voice, as they were thought to have no tongue. They fly in flocks and love their young, keeping their nests so warm that their feathers fall out from continuous incubation. The young return the love they get from their parents by caring for them (Barber 2008).
Transcription
Translation
Quem sonum oris potius scimus esse. quam vocis. quia
eum quaciente rostro; faciunt. Hec; veris; nuncie.
societatis comites. serpentium hostes. maria transvo-
lant. In asiam collecto agmine pergunt. Cornices du-
ces; precedunt eas. et ipse quasi exercitus ordinatus ad
bellum; sequntur. Unde creduntur in alieno solo. eas
bella contra inimicas aves. vel desertrices nature vel
consuetudinis proprie; inferre. Simul enim quotquot
fuerint in aliqua regione pergunt ordinate ad bellum.
They are called storks from the sound they make, like a cicada. Which we know to be the sound of the mouth, rather than of the voice, because it is produced by a quivering beak; they do. This one; in truth; messengers, friends of society, enemies of serpents, fly across the seas. They proceed in a train to Asia. Cornice leaders; They go before them, and he himself, like an army, is ordered to war. they follow Whence they are believed to be in foreign soil, those warlike birds against their enemies, or deserters by nature or custom; to bring For at the same time as many as have been in any country proceed in order to the war. It is an indication of the fact; that there was none for a certain interval of time; He is then found to reside in those places, and because they return with wounds, with a clear voice of their own blood; with certain indications that he speaks; that he had undergone serious conflicts. Behold what nature has given, that is to say, that no one dares to retreat by war;
lum aliquod temporis; residere tunc in illis lo-
cis reperitur. et quia cum vulneribus reverten-
tes manifesta quadam sanguinis sui voce; cer-
tis que loquitur inditiis; gravium certaminum
se subisse conflictum. Ecce quid natura dedit. vi-
delicet quod nulla se subtrahere audeat bellis;
pro communi utilitate susceptis. Aves istas ferunt
linguas non habere. Eximia illis circa filios pie-
tas est. Nam adeo nidos inpensius fovent; ut assi-
duo incubitu; plumas exuant. Quantum autem tem-
pus inpenderint fetibus educandis et in curis;
tantum et ipse invicem a pullis suis aluntur. me-
lius servantes federa inter parentes et filios; quam
homines. homines enim qui etiam inperatorum precep-tis et liegibus arcantur ad dilectionem patrum
suorum; patres suos vetulos abiciunt. et ciconiis
inferiores inveniuntur. Nam antiqui patris ar-
tus per longeue senectutis tempus plumarum
tegmine et alarum remigio nudatos; circum-
stans soboles penius propriis fovet. et collato cibo
taken for the common good. These birds are said to have no tongues. They have an extraordinary compassion for children. For they foster nests so much more expensively; as constant recumbency; they take off their feathers. And how much time they spend in bringing up and caring for the fetuses; so much so that they feed each other from their young, better keeping the bond between parents and children; than men, for men who are bound even by the precepts and laws of the unruly to the love of their fathers; they throw away their old fathers, and are found inferior to the storks. For the ancient frame of the father, during the long period of old age, was stripped of the covering of feathers and the rowing of wings; the surrounding fosters the children worse than his own, and feeds them with the food provided;
apud romanos; pia avis dicitur cyconia. ad eius
pietatis exemplum; leges imperatorum homi-
nes informant. ut discant coconias imitari.
Nomine igitur ciconie; significatur predicator sanc-
tus. qui inimicus est serpentibus. et sollicitus circa fi-
liorum educationem. pugnans pro nobis contra
inimicas potestates. Unde ieremias. Milvus in celo
cognovit tempus suum. turtur et hirundo et
ciconia custodierunt tempus adventus sui. Dicunt
quoque quidam quod ciconia uxor si cum altero quam
cum proprio viro adulterata fuerit. statim ne a viro
revertente deprehendatur; lavat se et baptizat
in aqau. et sic res domino latebit. Si autem antequam bap-
tizetur redeat dominus; statim per odorem; adulte-
rium deprehendit. et convocans multitudinem
coconiarum; rem illis insinuat. que omnes contra adulte-
ram quasi sancto iuditio; insurgunt. et occidunt. Sic
si aliquis fidelis cum diabolo vel ydolis vel hereticis.
vel cum muliere adulteratur; statim se baptizat in
aqua lacrimarum et penitencie. alioquin a multitudi-
until it returns to its former state. Whence among the Romans; The pious bird is called the stork, as an example of its piety; The laws of the emperors inform the people, so that they learn to imitate the cocoons. By the name of the stork; is signified the holy preacher, who is an enemy to serpents, and concerned about the education of children. fighting for us against hostile powers. Hence Jeremiah. The kite in the sky knew his time, the turtle and the swallow and the storks kept the time of his coming. Some also say that a stork's wife commits adultery with someone other than her own husband. lest he should be discovered at once by the man returning; he washes himself and baptizes himself in water, and thus the matter will be hidden from the master, but if the master returns before he is baptized; immediately by smell; He discovered the adultery, and calling together a multitude of cocoons; He insinuates to them the fact that all are against adultery as a holy judgment; they rise up and kill. Thus, if a believer commits adultery with the devil or idols or heretics, or with a woman; he immediately baptizes himself in the water of tears and penance, otherwise he is condemned by a multitude of
citur.
preachers and cast out of the church.
Ibis, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff56r-58r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Transcription
Translation
alvum suum. et semetipsam purgat rostro
in anum aquam fundens. hec serpentum
ovis vescitur. et morticinis. et ex eis gravissimum
cibum pullis suis reportat. Nam in aquam ingre-
di timet; quia natandi naturam nescit. sed iuxta
litus die nocte obambulat. querens aut mor-
tuos pisciculos aut aliqua cadavera. que ab aqua
foras eiecta fuerint. Habet et longum collum
sicut ciconia. ut et aluum purget et cibum sibi
de profundo eliciat. Hec avis inimica est serpen-
tulit moyses secum cum iret contra ethiopes. quoniam in
illis regionibus serpentes habundant. Ibis sig-
nificat mortales homines. qui mortiferis operibus
quasi escis utuntur quibus misere anime nutri-
untur ad penam. Tu vero christiane qui aqua et
spiritu sancto renatus es. ingredere ad spiritua-
les aquas misteriorum dei; et inde tibi sume mun-
dissimos cibos quos enumerat apostolus dicens.
Fructus autem spiritus est; caritas. gaudium. pax.
pacientia. longanimitas. et cetera. Nisi sol et lu-
na extenderint radios suos; non lucent. Volu-
cres nisi extenderint alas suas; volare non po-
terunt. Sic et tu homo si signo crucis non munieris;
gemineque dilectionis alas non extenderis ad quietis-
simum portum celestis patrie per medias huius
mundi procellas; transmeare non poteris. Denique
cum moyses elevaret manus suas; superabat israhel
Cum vero remitteret manus; superabat Amalech;
Nomine igitur ibicis aliquando significatur contemplativus
terrena diligens. aliquando diabolus vel luxuriosus. vel
cuius lectio est de celestibus. et cordis cogitatio de
terrenis. querens sibi cibum de profundis terre-
norum. Unde in levitico. ibis inter inmundas aves
que commedi non debent reputatur. Quia contemplati-
vus ille non est imitandus; qui non in celestibus. set
in terrenis conversationem habet. Ibis item dicitur dia-
bolus vel luxuriosus. vel curiosus. Unde ysaias de re-
probatione iudee vel perverse mentis dicit. Posside-
bunt eam onocrotalus et hericius et ibis. et corvus
habitabunt in ea. et cetera. Item ibices dicuntur pre-
predicatores sancti. Unde dominus ad iob ait. Nunquid
nostis tempus patrus ibicum; Quasi diceret. Ego so-
lus novi; quando predicator in predicatione profi-
ciet. quido auditoribus cum volo compunctionem
veram;
curious. Hence Isaiah speaks of the rejection of the Jew or of the perverted mind. The onocrotalus and the heretic will possess it, and you will go. and ravens shall dwell therein, and so forth. Likewise, the Ibizans are called the preachers of the saint. Whence the Lord said to Job. Do you know the time of the father there; As if to say. I alone know; when the preacher succeeds in his preaching, why do I want the hearers to have true remorse?
mum animal. Cadavere non vescitur. Nec aliun-
de pervolat sive oberrat. sed in uno loco commoratur.
et permanet usque in finem. et ibi escam suam habet
et requiescit. Et dicitur fulica eo quod caro eius car-
nem leporinam sapiat. Lagos enim lepus. Unde et apud
grecos lagos vocatur. Est autem stagnensis avis. vel
marina. habens nidos in medio aque. vel in petris
quas circundant aque. Maritimoque semper delectatur
profundo. Que dum tempestatem persenserit; fugi-
ens; in vado ludit. Sic ergo omnis fide-
lis se conservet. non huc atque illuc per diversa
oberrans circumvolet sicut faciunt heretici.
non desiderus secularibus et voluptatibus de-
lectetur. sed semper in uno loco se contineat. et
quiescat; in ecclesia catholica. ubi dominus habitare
facit unanimes in domo. Ibique habeat cotidianum
victum suum id est panem inmortalitatis. potum
vero; pretiosum sanguinem christi. reficiens se super mel et
favum; suavissimis eloquiis dei. Item hec avis
The flying toad is quite an intelligible and very intelligent animal. The carcass is not eaten. Nor does it fly or wander from another place, but it stays in one place and continues to the end. and there he has his food and rests. And it is called a toad because its flesh tastes like the flesh of a hare. For Lagos the rabbit. Hence also among the Greeks it is called lakes. But it is a pond bird. or the sea, having nests in the middle of the water, or on the rocks which the water surrounds. The sea always delights in the deep. That while he felt the storm; fleeing he plays in the ford. In this way, therefore, let every believer preserve himself, not wander hither and thither in divers things, as heretics do, and not be longing for worldly things and delight in pleasures. but let him always keep himself in one place, and rest; in the Catholic church, where the Lord makes the like-minded to dwell in the house, and there he may have his daily sustenance, that is, the bread of immortality, and indeed his drink; the precious blood of Christ, renewing itself on honey and honeycomb; with the sweetest words of God. Again, this bird mystically signifies the faithful, who glories in the
tismi gloriantem. qui habet nidum fidei sue in bap-
tismo supra petram que est christus. que fluctus seculi
quibus tunditur; frangit. Unde david ubi nos
habemus. herodii domus dux est. eorum; fulice
domus dux est eorum. idest passerum id est sanctorum
de quibus prius locutus fuerat. Fulice enim domus;
est petra christus. super quem fundatus est nidus fulice. qui
xpistus; est dux omnium sanctorum;
sacrament of baptism, who has the nest of his faith in baptism above the rock which is Christ, on which the waves of the ages are battered; breaks Wherefore we have David, the leader of Herod's house. theirs; The house of the toad is the leader of them, that is, of the sparrows, that is the saints of whom he had spoken before. For the house of Fulice; Christ is the rock on which the nest of the sparrows is founded; He is the leader of all the saints.
Ostrich, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff58v-59r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
They digs into the earth and lay eggs then cover them with sand. If they get up from the eggs and leave they forget where they are and never return to them (Barber 2008).
Transcription
Translation
tecamelon vocant. latini vero strucion. ha-
bet quidem pennas sed non volat. Pedes autem
cameli similes. Cum vero venerit tempus ut ova
sua pariat; elevat oculos suos ad celum. et in-
tendit si stella que dicitur virgilia appareat.
Non enim ponit ova sua nisi quando oritur stella illa.
Quando autem viderit circa mensem iunium ipsam
stellam; fodit in terram ova sua. et cooperit
sabulo. Cum ascenderit de loco illo; statim ob-
liviscitur eorum. et numquam redit ad ova sua.
Tranquillitas ad quidem aeris et temperies hoc pres-
tare videtur. ut estate calefacta arena; ex-
coquat ova sua. et fotu pulveris animentur.
et producat pullos. Si ergo assida cognoscit
tempus suum et obliviscitur posteritatis sue.
ac terrena postponens sequitur celestia; quanto
magis o homo tibi ad bravium superne vocatio-
nis tendendum est; Propter quem deus homo
factus est. ut eriperet de potestate tenebrarum
et collocaret cum principibus populi sui in
regno glorie sue. Strutiones etiam dicuntur ypocrite.
There is an animal which is called assida, which the Greeks call stra-tecamelon. but the Latin ostrich has indeed wings but does not fly. And the feet are like those of a camel. But when the time comes for her to lay her eggs; he raises his eyes to the sky and looks to see if the star called Virgil appears. For she lays her eggs only when that star rises. But when he saw the star itself about the month of June; she digs her eggs into the ground and covers them with sand. When he ascended from that place; it immediately molts from them, and never returns to its eggs. The tranquility of the air and temperature seems to presuppose this, as in summer heated sand; it cooks its eggs, and feeds them with dust, and produces chicks. If, then, the assailant knows his time and forgets his posterity, and putting aside the earthly, follows the heavenly; how much more, O man, should you be inclined to the bravery of your calling above. Because of whom the god became man, that he might deliver him from the power of darkness and place him with the princes of his people in his glorious kingdom. Wherefore concerning the hypocrites
plicantes. Unde de ypocritis qui alas et speciem sci -
tatis habent set non rem; dicit ysaias contra perversam
mentem; sub spetie iudee. Erit cubile draconum. et
pascua strutionum. Et iterum per prophetam. Glo-
rificabit me bestia agri. dracones et strutiones
hinc dominus ad iob. Penna strutionis; similis est. penne
horodii et accipitris. Item iob. Frater sui draconum.
et sotius strutionum. Sancti enim quandiii sunt in hoc
seculo; habitare noverunt et pacem habere cum
draconibus id est aperte sevientibus. et cum strutionibus
id est fictis et ypocritis et occulte malis. Hec avis;
in levitico inter inmundas reputatur. nec comme-
di debet; quia nemo militans deo inplicans se
negotiis secularibus; imitandus est. Inmundus enim
est; qui religionis habitum habet et lectionibus
in celestibus fertur. et tamen per vite cupiditatem; cira
terram sempter habitat.
Kingfisher, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff59v-60v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Transcription
Translation
in canone; vel in sacra scriptura. quia eius
natura moraliter nos instruit; de ea dicemus
aliqua. Altion igitur que romane dicitur mawe;
avis est maritima. que in littoribus fetus suos
edere solet. ita ut arenis ova sua deponat medio
fere hiemis. Nam id temporis fovendis habet depu-
tatum partibus; quando maxime insurgit mare.
et vehementior fluctus; litoribus illuditur. quo
magis repentine placiditatis solempnitate; avis
sitis ovis; subito mitescit. et omnes cadunt
ventorum procelle. flatusque aurarum mitescunt.
ac placidum ventis; stat mare; donec ova fo-
veat hec avis. Diebus septem fovet ova sua.
quibus decursis; producit pullos. Adiungit ali-
os septem dies quibus nutrit eos et fovet donec
incipiant adolescere. Hos .xiiii. dies naute vo-
cant altionitas. quibus securi sunt de tranquil-
litate maris et temporis. Ecce qualiter hec
avis nos invitat. un non simus modice fidei sed
securi presumamus de bonitate dei. qui in se spe-
rantes liberat ab omni periculo. Qui si ha-
beamus fidem tanquam granum sinapis;
dicemus monti huic ut transferat se in mare
et transferet se. Quid igitur dubitatis modice fi-
dei; Multis passeribus et altionibus omnibus;
meliores estis vos. qui non irrationales estis
ut altiones; sed ad ymaginem dei creati. Alti-
on enim que irrationalis est; tempestates
videns insurgere. sevire ventos. fluctus contra
se mugire. secura de dei bonitate; timore non
let the grace of this bird shine. For laying sheep on the undulating sea; suddenly it abates, and all fall to the gales of the winds, and the blasts of the winds are abated, and the winds are calm; the sea stands; until the eggs are fostered by this bird. She nurtures her eggs for seven days, after which they run; produces chicks He adds another seven days during which he nourishes and cherishes them until they begin to grow. The sailors call these 13 days "altionitas", during which they are assured of the calmness of the sea and the weather. Behold, how this bird invites us, that we may not be of little faith, but be sure of the goodness of God, who delivers those who trust in him from all danger. If we have faith like a grain of mustard seed; we will tell this mountain to transfer itself into the sea and transfer itself. Why, then, do you doubt a little faith? With many sparrows and birds of prey; You are better, who are not irrational, like others; but they were created in the image of God. For otherwise that is irrational; seeing the storms rise, the winds howling, the waves roaring against them, secure in the goodness of God; it is not reflected by fear;
maria. et venti; quasi ad meritum fidei altio-
nis. Quanta igitur faciet homo ad dei ymanginem
creatus si fidem altionis habeat.
but he is driven, and immediately the seas and winds are stilled; as if for the merit of faith. How much, therefore, will a man, created in the image of God, do, if he has faith in God?
Heron, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff60v-61r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Transcription
Translation
quia eius in ores nos instruunt; pauca
de ea dicemus. Ardea igitur dicitur; quasi ardua.
propter altos volatus. Unde lucanus. Quodque
ausa avolare ardea. Formidat enim inibres.
et super nubes evolat; ut procellas imbrium
sentire non possit. Cum autem altius volave-
rit; significat tempestatem. Hanc multi tanta;
Heron may not be found in the canon; yet because they instruct us in his mouth; we will say a little about it. Therefore it is called heron; as if steep because of high flights. Hence Lucanus. And whatever dares to fly away burns. For he fears the clouds, and flies above the clouds; so that he cannot feel the storms of rain. But when he flew higher; it means the storm. This is so great for many;
secundum fabulas dicitur esse. Hec enim avis similis
grui in longitudine tibiarum et colli; iuxta
flumina libenter habitat. stanset sollicite in-
quirens piscem aliquem sibi fore predam. et di-
citur romane heyrun. Hec avis bene con-
tempatiuum significat. cuius vita est in celestibus
et remota a tempestate curarum seculi; iuxta
fluenta sacre scripture residentem inde sibi spi-
ritualem cibum unde anima vivat elicien-
tem
they call it light. Because tantalum is said to be among the waters according to the fables. For this bird is like a crane in the length of its legs and neck; He lives happily by the rivers, he would stand anxiously inquiring whether some fish would be prey for him, and is called heyrun in Roman. This bird signifies the well-tempered, whose life is in the heavens and removed from the stormy cares of the age; residing next to the flowing sacred scriptures, extracting for himself the spiritual food from which the soul lives.
Goose, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f61v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The medieval bestiary suggests the goose can smell man better than any other creature, and that there are two types of goose: the wild goose that flies high in the sky in strict order and the tame goose that lives in villages. They are noisy and call constantly at night if they catch the scent of man (Barber 2008).
Transcription
Translation
batur in sacra scriptura; audire delectat. Inmun-
da tn avis presumitur esse. sicut et anas. nec eo sed
legem licitum est vesci. quia clausum pellicula habet
pedem. et ideo non dundit ungulam. Preterea et
in terra et in aqua valens. et ideo inmundus. Anser
multis aucis uxoribus suis; dominatur. sicut et gallus.
Anser vigilias noctis assiduitate clangoris testatur.
Nullum quoque animal it odorem hominis sentit;
ut anser. Unde et clangore eius quasi buccina op-
timi vigilis; gallorum ascensus in capitolio deprehensus
est. Anseribus igitur debes roma quod regnas. Dii tui
dormiebant. et vigilabant ansere. Ideo illis die-
bus anseri sacrificas; et non iovi. Cedunt enim dii uri-
anseribus a quibus se sciunt esse defensos;
ne et ipsi ab hostibus caperentur.
The nature of the goose also, although nothing is traced about it in the sacred scriptures; it is pleasing to hear. A bird is presumed to be unclean, like a duck, but it is not lawful to eat it, because its foot is closed by a film, and therefore it does not break the hoof. Moreover, he is strong both on land and in water, and therefore unclean. A goose has many fowls for his wives; he dominates, just like the rooster.
Goose watches the night with constant squawking. Nor does any animal smell the scent of a man; as a goose Hence also his clarion like the trumpet of the best watchman; the ascent of the cocks in the capitol was apprehended. Therefore, you need geese to rome that you rule. Your gods were asleep, and the goose was watching. Therefore in those days you sacrifice a goose; and I did not rejoice. For the gods yield to the Urians, against whom they know that they are defended; lest they themselves should be taken by the enemy.
Owl, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f62r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Transcription
Translation
Avis feralis. honusta quidem plumis. set gra-
vis semper decenta pigricie. In speluncis die ac noc-
te moratur. et semper commorans in cavernis. De qua
ovidius. Fedaque sit volucris venturi iiiintia luctus;
Ignavus bubo. durum mortalibus omen. Denique
apud augures; malum portendere fertur. Nam
cum in urbe visa fuerit; solitudinem significare di-
cunt. In levitico hec avis contemplatiuum vel quem
libet fidelem significat. cuius conversatio in celis esse
deberet. sed tristatur de commissione terrenorum Unde
et ibi inter inmundas aves reputatur. cuius car-
nibus vesci illicitum est; idest acciones imitari. Se-
culi enim tristicia mortem operatur. Qui autem deum
diligit debet gaudere. sine intermissione orare. in omnibus
gracias agere.
est. licet in deuteronomio cum una numeretur
inter inmundas aves; statim subiungatur de alia.
quod et ipsa inter inmundas aves habenda sit. Quod
quidem videtur probare quod diverse sint aves. Noctua
igitur sive nicticorax secundum ysidorum dicitur; quod nocte
circumvolet et per diem non possit videre. Nam ex orto
splendore solis; visus illius tanquam habentis glaucas
oculorum pupillas ut dicit ambrosius; hebetatur.
Et quantum fuerit vox obscurior; eo contra usum
aliarum avium; in offensos exercet volatus. Solis
autem lumen illius tenebre est. Et quanto di-
es clarior. tanto plus in ea quasi in tenebris ober-
rat. Hanc autem cretensis insula non habet. et si-
veniat aliunde; statim moritur. Noctua autem
non est bubo ut dicit ysidorus; nam bubo maior
est. Nicticorax; ipsa est noctua. quia noctem amat
Est enim avis lucifuga et solem videre non patitur.
Hec avis in levitico sive in deuteronomio inter inmun-
das reputatur. cuius carne vesci illicitum est. quia
nemo actionem illius imitari debet; qui noctis operibus
The nocturnal and nycticorax are the same bird according to the ysidus, although in Deuteronomy they are counted as one among the unclean birds; it must be immediately joined to another, that she too should be counted among the unclean birds. This indeed seems to prove that they are different birds. Therefore it is called nocturnal or nicticorex according to the Ysidians; that he flies around at night and cannot see during the day. For from the rising brightness of the sun; the sight of him as having gray pupils, as Ambrosius says; is dulled And how much the voice was darker; against the use of other birds; he exercises flights on the offensive. But the light of the sun is that darkness. And the brighter the day, the more he lurks in it as if in darkness. But the Cretan island does not have this, and it should be from somewhere else; he dies immediately. But night is not an owl, as Isidorus says; for the owl is greater. Nicticorax; she is nocturnal, because she loves the night, for she is a flightless bird and does not allow herself to see the sun. This bird in Leviticus or in Deuteronomy is considered among the unclean, whose flesh it is unlawful to eat, because no one should imitate its action; who engages in the works of the night. They are fornication. Dirt
dicicia. et cetera. Tales erant gentes. quia nicticorax tamen
nocte rapit. Et est nicticorax quasi noctis corvus.
Vel hec avis figuram tenet iudeorum qui non potue-
runt videre christum verum solem qui illuminat O
ho vi h mundum. Et plus dilexerunt tenebras.
quam lucem. Unde dixerunt. Non habemus regem nisi
cesarem. Et attende quod strix nocturua avis; alia
avis est; quam noctua. vel nicticorax. vel aliqa aliarum
premissarum. quia eam post alias ponit ysidorus. Strix enim
dicitur; quia cum clamat; stridet. De qua lucanus.
Quod trepidus bubo quod stric nocturna queriuntur.
Hec strix; vulgo dicitur anima. ab amando parvu-
los. Unde et lac prebere fertur nascentibus. Noctua igitur
sive nocticorax sive strix que est nocturna avis sig-
nificare possunt illos qui in nocte stellas contem-
plantur et cursus siderum. demoniorum tenebrosa
rimantur. et celi altitudinem se videre credunt. des-
cribentes radio mundum mensuram quoque aeris col-
ligentes. lumen tamen quod christus est. nec fidem eius qui in proxi-
mo est. quia ceci sunt et duces cecorum; videre non possunt.
Impudence, and the rest. Such were the nations, because the nightingale still steals away at night. And he is a night owl like a night raven. Or this bird holds the figure of the Jews who could not see Christ, the true sun that illuminates the world. And they loved darkness more than light. Wherefore they said We have no king but Caesar. And note that the starling is a nocturnal bird; there is another bird; than noctua, or nicticorax, or aliqa of other premisses, because Ysidorus places it after the others. For it is called a strix; because when he cries; screams Of which Lucanus That alarmed owl that the night owl complains. This is the stricture; It is commonly called the soul, from loving little ones. Whence it is said to give milk to those who are born. Therefore, the night owl, or the nightingale, or the owl, which is a night bird, can signify those who in the night gaze upon the stars and search the course of the stars, the darkness of demons, and believe that they see the depth of the sky, describing the world with a ray, and gathering up the measure of air, yet the light which is Christ , nor the faith of him who is near, because the leaders of the blind have also fallen; they cannot see.
enim clamat; aut fletum imitatur; aut gemitum non in alio
Unde apud augures. filamentetur; tristiciam. tacens;
ostendere prosperitatem; Et est magnitudinis corvine.
sed maculis respersa. que rostro in palude fixo; or-
ribiliter ululat et stridet. Significat hec avis;
The screech owl is a bird named after mourning or weeping. For when he cries, he either imitates a cry, or a moan. And it is of the size of a raven, but sprinkled with spots, which fixed its beak in the marsh, howls and screeches horribly. This bird signifies
habitant in mente confusa. Unde ysaias de b-
bilone dicit post alia. Et respondebunt ibi ulu-
le; in edibus eius. et sirene in edibus voluptatis.
mystical demons or heretics and other vices that dwell in a confused mind. Whence Isaiah says of Babylon after other things. And there they will answer the howl, in his food, and the siren in the food of pleasure.
Phoenix, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff63r-64r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The medieval bestiary records that the phoenix is a bird from Arabia which lives for five hundred years. There is only one living Phoenix in the world at any time. When it feels itself growing old, it builds a pyre of wood and spices and sits on it, facing the sun and spreading its wings, setting itself on fire. When it has been consumed by fire, the next day a new bird arises out of the ashes. The Phoenix is sometimes depicted in medieval art and literature as endowed with a halo, which emphasises the birds connection to the sun.
The story of the Phoenix is allegorical of the death and resurrection of Christ, who said "I have the power to lay down my life, and I have the power to take it again (John 10:18).
Transcription
Translation
quia tamen nos natura eius instruit; pauca de
eo dicemus. Fenix igitur est. arabie avis. sic dicta; quod
colorem pheniceum habeat. Vel quod sit in toto or-
be singularis et unica. Nam arabes singularem et
unicam fenicem vocant. Hec quingentos et ultra annos
vivens. dum se viderit senuisse collectis aroma-
tum virgultis; rogum sibi instruit. et conversa
ad radium solis alarum plausu voluntarium sibi
The phoenix, too, may not be found in the sacred scriptures; because, nevertheless, his nature instructs us; we will say a little about him. So the phoenix is a bird of Arabia. so called; which has a Phoenician color. Or that it is singular and unique in the whole world. For the Arabs call it a singular and unique phoenix. He lived five hundred years and more, while he seemed to grow old by gathering spices; He prepares a pyre for himself, and turning to the sun's rays, with the clapping of his wings, he feeds himself a voluntary
na; avis de cineribus suis surgit. Huius figuram
gerit dominus noster iesus christus. qui dicit. Potestatem ha-
beo ponendi animam meam et iterum sumendi
eam. Si ergo phenix mortificandi et vivificandi se
potestatem habet. cur stulti homines irascuntur in
verbo dei qui verus dei filius est. qui dicit. Potesta-
tem habeo et cetera. Descendit namque salvator noster
de celo. alas suavitatis. odoribus novi et veteris ~
testamenti replevit. et in ara crucis seipsum pro nobis
deo patri obtulit. et tercia die resurrexit.
fire, and then burns. Later, however, on a no-na day; a bird rises from its ashes. Our Lord Jesus Christ bears the figure of this, who says. I have the power to lay down my soul and take it up again. If then the phoenix has the power to kill and to give life, why are foolish men angry at the word of God, who is the true son of God, who says? I have power and so on. For our savior came down from heaven, filled his wings with the fragrance of the new and old testaments, and on the altar of the cross he offered himself to God the father for us, and rose again on the third day.
mortem imminere; facte sibi thecam de thure
et mirra. et ceteris aromatibus. Impletoque vite
sue tempore; intrat et moritur. De cuius humore
carnis; vermis exurgit. paulatimque adolescit.
ac processu statuti temporis; induit alarum. re-
migia. atque in superioris avis speciem formamque
reparatur. Non ut diversa; sed quasi eadem; de
materia substancie sue avis resurgat. Quid
dicunt hic heretici. qui negant divine potestati
quod non negant phenici; Fenix vetustatem suam
novitate resurgendi reparavit. et christus resurgere non
potuit. qui potestatem habet ponendi animam
suam. et iterum resumendi eam; Doceat igitur nos avis vel
exemplo sui resurrectionem credere. que et sine exem-
plo et sine rationis perceptione iam sibi insignia re-
surrectionis instaurat. Et quia hoc ipsum nos docet
granum cadens in terram. quod nisi mortificatum
fuerit in semine; non resurgit in renovatione. Et
utique aves propter homines sunt non homines;
propter aves. Sit igitur exemplum nobis quia auctor
et creator omnium sanctos suos in eternum perire non pati-
Fenis also, according to Ambrosius, when he feels that death is imminent; make him a box of thyme and myrrh and other spices. And completed his life in his time; he enters and dies. Of the humor of the flesh; it arises as a worm, and grows up little by little, and by the process of a set time; put on wings, row and the appearance and form of the superior bird is restored. Not as different; but as if the same; He rises from the material substance of his ancestors. What do the heretics say here, who deny the divine power that the Phoenicians do not deny? Phoenix repaired his old age by rising again, and Christ could not rise again, who has the power to lay down his soul, and to raise it up again; Let him therefore teach us to believe in the resurrection by the example of the old man, who, without example and without the perception of reason, already establishes for himself the signs of the re-resurrection. And because the grain falling into the ground teaches us this very thing, that unless it has been mortified in the seed; it does not rise again in renewal. And of course the birds are not men because of men; because of the birds Therefore let it be an example to us that the author and creator of all things does not suffer his saints to perish
resurgentem eam sui semine voluit reparari. Quis
igitur huic annuntiat diem mortis ut faciat sibi the-
cam et impleat bonis odoribus atqe ingrediatur
in eam et moriatur illic. ubi odoribus gratis fetor
funeris possit aboleri; Fac et tu homo tibi thecam
et expolians te veterem hominem cum actibus suis;
novum indue. Techa tua et vagina tua christus est. qui te
protegat. et abscondat in die malo. Vis scire quia the-
ca protectio est. Pharetra inquit mea protexi eum.
Thecam ergo habes christum. thecam habes et fidem. thecam
habes et bonam consciam. Hanc imple bonis vir-
tutum odoribus. hoc est castitatis. misericordie. iusti-
cie. Et cognosce diem mortis tue. et ingredere in eam
cum fiducia resurrectionis. sicut cognovit paulus qui
ait. Bonum certamen certavi. cursum consummavi. fi-
dem servavi. Reposita est. michi corona iusticie. Intra-
vit igitur in thecam suam quasi bonus fenix. quam
bono replevit odore martirii.
Acknowledgements
With thanks for the researches of library volunteers Alan and Jean Minnerthey.
Cinnamolgus, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f66r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The medieval bestiary records that the cinnamolgus is a bird that lives in Arabia and builds its nest from the fruit of the cinnamon tree, which is valuable and highly prized. Men cannot climb the trees to reach it, because the branches are too delicate and break easily, and so they shoot lead weighted arrows, or throw lead balls into the trees to bring the cinnamon down. The Cinnamolgus is most commonly illustrated as a bird in a nest at the top of a tree, with a man below, shooting an arrow or throwing a lead ball from a sling.
Transcription
Translation
cata; quod in excelsis nemoribus texit nidos;
ex fructibus cinnami. Et quoniam non possunt homines
ibi conscendere. propter ramorum altitudinem et fra-
gilitatem; eosdem nidos plumbatis appetunt iaculis.
Et sic cinnama illa deponunt. pretiisque amplioribus
vendunt. eo quod hec cinnama magis quam alia mercato-
res probent.
Cinnamolgus is also a bird of Arabia. So called; that he covered his nests in the high woods; from the fruits of cinnamon. And since men cannot climb there, on account of the height and fragility of the branches; the same plumbed nests are sought after by the target. And so they lay down those cinnamons, and sell them at higher prices, because the merchants prefer this cinnamon more than others.
Hercinia, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff66r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Transcription
Translation
ubi nascuntur. quarum penne adeo per obscura
emicant; ut quamvis nox densis sit tecta tenebris;
ad presidium dirigendi itineris; iacte in terra luceant.
cursus que vie pateat inditio plumarum fulgentium;
Hercinia are birds said to be from the Ercinian forest in Germany; where they are born, whose feathers so shine through the darkness; so that, although the night is dense, it is covered with darkness; to direct the journey to the garrison; let them shine brightly upon the earth, the course of which the road is open to the appearance of shining feathers.
Hoopoe, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff66v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Transcription
Translation
tes suos senuisse et caligasse oculos eorum;
evellit plumas eorum. et oculos eorum lingit. et
calefacit eos. et renovantur parentes eius. Quasi
dicens parentibus sius. Sicut laborastis nutrien-
tes me; similiter ego facio vobis. Si autem hoc fa-
ciunt sibi invicem irrationabiles volucres. quanto
magis rationabiles homines parentum suorum nu-
trimenta mutua reddere debent; quia lex dicit. Qui
maledixerit patri vel matri morte morietur. et est quasi
patricida et matricida dampnabitur.
The Greeks call it Huppupa, because it longs for human dung and feeds on dung when it stinks. A very filthy bird, with long crests and helmets, always dwelling in graves and human dung. Whosoever shall anoint himself with the blood of his sleep shall see the demons suffocating him. This bird signifies a contemplative, or any believer whose conversation should be in the heavens, not in the earthly, which he considers a little dung. Hence in Leviticus this is an unclean bird, whose flesh it is unlawful to eat, because the action of such a man is not to be imitated. And especially because this bird is mournful and fond of mourning. For the sadness of the age works death. But he who loves God must rejoice, pray without ceasing, in everything, give thanks.
Pelican, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The medieval bestiary records that pelicans live along the Nile. They love their young but when the young grow up they will strike their parent in the face the parent will strike back and kill it, after three days the mother will open her breast and side and lie on her young to let her blood flow on their dead body and her love will bring them back to life (Barber 2008).
Transcription
Translation
nili fluminis. Unde et nomen sumpsit. Nam cana-
pos egiptus dicitur. Hec avis amatrix est. nimis filiorum.
Que cum genuerit natos; percutiunt parentes suos; in
faciem. sed parentes quasi ad iracundiam provoca-
lugent mortem filiorum; quasi penitentia ducti. Ter-
cia vero die mater eorum rostro percutiens costam suam;
aperit latus suum. et incumbit super pullos suos. et
effundit sanguinem super corpora mortuorum. et sic susci-
tat eos a mortuis. Pellicanus est predicator qui predi-
cat fidem christi. vel ipse dominus noster iesus christus. auctor et condi-
tor totius creature. qui genuit nos. Et cum non
essemus; fecit nos. Nos vero econtrario percussimus eum
in faciem. sicut per ysaiam dicit. Filios enutrivi et ex-
altavi; ipsi autem spreverunt me. Tunc percussimus eum
in faciem; cum servimus creature potius quam creatori.
Iccirco ascendit ipse in altitudinem crucis. percussoque
latere eius exivit sanguis et aqua. quo sanguine
vivificavit peccatores resuscitans eos a peccatis;
ad vitam eternam. Unde david. Similis factus sum
pellicano solitudinis. et cetera.
Onocrotalorum
duo sunt genera. Aliud aquatile. aliud solitudinis.
res christi; verba christi usque ad fines orbis terrarum dissemi-
nantes. tan in iudea; quam in solitudine gentium. Heritius
est ipse christus. tectus similitudine carnis peccati. vel pre-
dicator spinis sententiarum subtilium; peccata nostra;
delens.
Siren, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff68r-68v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The top half of the body down to the navel is human (usually female), and early sources say that from the waist down to their feet they are like birds, although later sources claim that they are like fish. Sirens charm seafarers by singing a beautiful song with the sweetest melody, which sailors hear far off, and are lured from their course and head towards the sirens. The sweetness of the song lulls the sailors to sleep, whereupon the sirens attack them and devour their flesh.
The moral of the story of the sirens is that people who delight in worldly pleasures will fall prey to the devil.
Transcription
Translation
lia sunt. que a capite usque ad umbilicum fi-
guras habent hominum. Extremas vero partes usque ad
pedes; volatilis habent. et figura musica quoddam
dulcissimum melodie carmen emittunt. Ita ut per
suavitatem vocis auditus hominum a longe navigan-
tium demulceant et ad se trahant. ac nimia suavi-
tatis modulatione perlectant aures. et eos et sensus
eorum in sompnum vertunt. Tunc demum cum vide-
Sirens, as the naturalists says, are deadly animals, which have the shape of men from head to navel. But the furthest parts down to the feet; they have feathers, and in the form of music they send forth a song of a sweet melody. So that by the sweetness of the sound of the voice they soften and draw to themselves those who are sailing from afar, and with an excessive sweetness of melody peruse their ears, and turn them and their senses into sleep. Then finally, when they
et dilaniant carnes eorum. et sic per suasionem vo-
cis; ignaros et incantos homines decipiunt; et
mortificant. space ic igitur decipiuntur qui in delitiis
et pompis et volutatibus huius seculi delectantur.
et comediis et tragediis et diversis musicis melo-
diis dissoluti; velut in sompno gravi mentis vigo-
rem amittunt. et subito efficiuntur adversariorum
avidissime prede.
saw them in a deep dream; they invade suddenly, and tear their flesh, and so by the persuasion of the voice; they deceive ignorant and enchanted men; and they kill, and therefore those who delight in the delights and pomps and frolics of this age, and are distracted by comedies and tragedies and different musical melodies, are deceived; as if in a heavy dream they lose their mental strength, and suddenly become the most eager prey of their adversaries.
Partridge, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff68v-69r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The medieval bestiary records that the partridge is a cunning and unclean bird, as the males will sometimes try to mate with other males. They will steal another's eggs but the young will know their mothers voice and will leave the mother that stole them and return to their true mother. They create defences around their nest with twigs and thorns to stop animals attacking it, and will cover the eggs with dust to hide them. They will also approach the nest from different directions so as not to give away where it is and the mother will move her chicks from place to place to hide them from the males who will sometimes attack them if the females pay them to much attention. If a man came near the nest the mother would pretend to be wounded and draw them away from the nest, also the young would fall onto their backs and hold dirt in their claws to hide themselves (Barber 2008).
Transcription
Translation
atque inmunda. Nam masculus in masculum
insurgit. et obliviscitur sexum libido preceps.
deo autem fraudulenta;
ut altera alterius ova
The partridge has a name from the voice. It is a deceitful and dirty bird. For the male rises upon the male, and forgets the sex, which is presumptuous and fraudulent to God, so that the other may rob the other's eggs.
Nam dum pulli audiunt vocem proprie genitricis;
naturali quodam instinctu hanc que eos fovit
relinquunt. et ad(added) eam que eos genuit revertuntur.
Dimicant propter connubii iura. et qui vincitur
sustinet venerem; vice femine. Ipsas libido sic agi-
tat. ut se ventus a masculis afflaverit; fiant preg-
nantes odore. Cuius exemplum imitatus est diabolus
qui generationem eterni conditoris rapere conten-
dit. et si quos insipientes et sensu proprii vigoris caren-
tes aliquo modo poterit carere(dots underneath) congregare; fovet
illos illecebris corporalibus. Sed ubi vox christi audita
fuerit ab eis; sumentes sibi alas spirituales; provide
evolant. et se christo commendant.
Nidos faciunt perdices munitione sollerti. Spi-
neis enim fruticibus nidos vestiunt ut animalia
infesta ab eis arceantur. Ovis; stragulum pulvis
est. atque clanculo revertuntur in indicium loci. Con-
versatio frequens fatigat. Plerumque femine transe-
unt pullos; ut mares fallant qui eos sepissime
affligunt; inpatientius adulantes. Si quis homi-
num ubi incubat mater appropinquat; egressa sese
venienti sponte offert. et similata debilitate
pedum vel alarum; quasi statim capi possit;
gressus fingit trardiores. Hoc mendatio illicit et
illudit hominis ut longius a nidis avocentur.
Et tunc demum; longe avolat. Pulli quos perdicis
cum se visos sentiunt; resupinati glebulas pedi-
bus attollunt. quarum optentu tam callide protegun-
tur; ut lateant deprehensi. Cum adhuc pervisi sunt.
a mribus dantur eis in escam; formice. Unde cum
a nidis se removere possunt; ad solem iuxta tumu-
tum formicarum matres illos exponunt. Perdix omnibus nota
avis est. dulcissimas et amantissimas et nutritivas;
Nevertheless, fraud has no fruit. For while the chicks hear the voice of their mother properly by a certain natural instinct they leave the one who fostered them, and return to the one who gave birth to them. Let them fight for the rights of marriage, and he who is vanquished bears the love; and women, on the other hand, are driven by lust in such a way that, having been fanned by the wind from men, they become pregnant with fragrance. Whose example was imitated by the devil, who strives to snatch away the generation of the eternal founder, and if by any means he can gather together those who are foolish and lack the sense of proper vigor; he encourages them with bodily allurements. But when the voice of Christ was heard by them; taking upon themselves spiritual wings; providentially fly away, and commend themselves to Christ.
Partridges build their nests with skillful fortifications. For they clothe their nests with thorn-bushes in order to ward off dangerous animals from them. Sheep; there is a blanket of dust, and they return with a clang to the place of the sign. Frequent conversation is tiring. Usually the female passes the chicks; that they may deceive the men who afflict them the most; flattering impatiently. If any man approaches where the mother is brooding; having gone out, she offers herself to the comer of her own accord, and pretends to be weak in her feet or wings; as if it could be taken at once; he imagines his steps to be slower. This falsehood is illegal and makes fun of man so that they are driven away from the nests. And then finally; flies far away The chickens that you kill feel when you see them; recumbent, they raise the lumps with their feet, by the desire of which they are so cleverly protected; that they may be caught in hiding. When they are still seen, they are given to them as food by the giants; ant Hence when they can remove themselves from the nests; the mothers expose them to the sun next to the mound of ants. The partridge is known to all birds, the sweetest and most loving and nutritious;
gatim sedent multe simul. quanto proprinquius possunt
capita simul vertentes toto anno. nisi a die pu-
rificationis. quo incipiunt ad amorem concitari; et
nidificare. Tunc enim bine et bine sedent; pares
cum paribus. Ad lumen lanterne et ad sonitum
tintinnabuli; nocte infatuantur. ut simul
multe subito iniectu retis capi possint. Nomi-
igitur perdicis; diabolus significatur. Unde ieremias.
Perdix fovet; quos non peperit. Hec avis et si inmun-
da sit in se in aliquo; tamen propter sui prudentiam
in lege non nominatur inter inmundas. et ideo car-
nes eius amantissimo palato commeduntur. hec
avis similiter prudentes significat; sicut in sa-
lomone dicitur libro. iio. ubi de perdice diximus.
having a fleshy body, beautiful in appearance; and mild They sit together much together, as closely as they can, turning their heads together throughout the year, except from the day of purification, when they begin to be excited to love; and to nest For then they sit two and two; equals with equals. To the light of the lantern and to the sound of the bell; they become enamored at night, so that many may be caught at the same time by a sudden injection of the net. The partridge is killed; the devil is signified. Hence Jeremiah. The partridge warms; whom he did not give birth to. Even if this bird is unclean in itself in some way; yet because of his prudence in the law he is not named among the unclean, and therefore his flesh is eaten by the most loving palate, this signifies similarly prudent birds. as it is said in the book of Solomon, where we spoke of the partridge.
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