Horse, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In the intricate tapestry of ancient times, horses were not merely creatures of utility but embodiments of power, grace, and enigma. Known by various names like ĕqui and căballi, they commanded awe as well as respect and their very essence intertwined with human history.

Their significance was not merely in their physical prowess but also in their emotional depth. From rejoicing in open fields to sensing the urgency of battle at the sound of a trumpet, horses displayed a range of emotions akin to their human counterparts. Their loyalty and connection with their masters were legendary, with tales of horses like Būcĕphălās and Caesar's mount forging unbreakable bonds with their riders.

Yet, their existence was not confined to servitude alone: horses possessed a vibrant spectrum of colours and characteristics, each denoting strength, beauty, and temperament. From the sturdy bay horse, symbolizing strength, to the elegant myrtle with its purple hue, each colour and trait held significance in the ancient lexicon.

Moreover, horses were not immune to the complexities of love and desire. Mares, with their manes shorn to create love charms, demonstrated a tender vulnerability, while their tears upon the loss of a master echoed a profound connection that transcended mere servitude.

Amidst the splendour of horses lay a realm of mystery and intrigue, epitomized by the notion of hybrids. From mules born of donkeys and horses to the tirus borne of sheep and goats, these creatures blurred the lines of nature, reflecting human ingenuity and curiosity.

The horse was often depicted as symbolic of strength, valour and courage. This symbolism is rooted in its physical attributes and its historical association with warfare. In Christian allegory, the horse represented the courageous soul ready to face spiritual battles against sin and temptation.

Its strength could also symbolize pride and arrogance if not tempered by humility. This interpretation draws from the idea of the horse as a powerful and majestic creature that might become haughty and self-centred if not guided by virtue.

In the Bible, horses are often associated with warfare and conquest. In the Book of Revelation 19:11¹, the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse include a rider on a white horse, symbolizing conquest or victory.

The horse also appears in biblical narratives as a symbol of divine intervention and salvation. In the Old Testament, horses are sometimes associated with deliverance and victory, particularly in the Psalm 20:7² and prophetic literature; it also represented the soul's journey through life, with various virtues and vices acting as riders guiding its path towards salvation or damnation.

Equi dicti; eoquod quando quadrigis(corrected from quadragis) iungebantur;
equabantur. paresque forma similes et cursu copu-
labantur. Caballus autem a cavo pede dictus. prop-
ter quod ungula pressa terra gradiens concavat. quod
reliqua animalia non habent. Inde et sonipes quod
pedibus sonat. Vivacitas equorum; multa. Exultant
enim in campis. odorantur bellum. excitantur sono tu-
be; ad prelium. voce accensi; ad cursum provocantur.
dolent cum victi fuerint; exultant; cum vicerint. In
norvvegia quidam equi custodiuntur tantum ad hoc.
ut proposita equa ante oculos eorum. pro ea provocen-
tur inter se ad bellum. Mirum spectaculum et crude-
lissimum bellum et mauditum tale inter aliquas besti-
as. Pertutiunt. mordent. stantes recte; inter se luctan-
tur. et alter alterum vel vi vel arte si potest proster-
nit. Quidam equi hostes in bello sentiunt. adeo; ut
adversarios petant morsibus. Aliqui etriam proprios
dominos recognoscunt. obliti mansuetudinis; si mutentur.
Aliqui preter dominos; nullum recipiunt. Alexandri enim
regis equs bucephala dictus; accepto regio stramento;
neminem unquam preter dominum portare dignatus est. Docu-
menta eius in preliis; erant multa. quibus alexandrum
crudelissimis certaminibus sospitem ope sua extulit.

Horses were called ĕqui, for when they were yoked to the quadrigae³, they were equal, aequi⁴, in number and the yoke consisted of horses similar in shape and in their way of running. The horse is also called căballus for its concave hoof: its feet slightly bend when the hooves are pressed upon the ground, which other animals do not have. Hence, the word for steed, sŏnĭpēs⁵, also means having resonant feet. The vitality of horses is enormous: they rejoice in the fields, scent battles and are urged to battle by the sound of the trumpet. When incited by voice, they start to run. They grieve when defeated, they rejoice when winning. In Norway, some horses are kept solely for this purpose: a mare is presented before the stallions and the latter are incited to battle for her. It is a wondrous and most savage spectacle and such a cursed battle among some animals. They kick, bite whilst standing upright, fight one another, and one tries to strike the other down either by strength or by skill if it can. Some horses sense the enemies in battle to the extent that they attack their adversaries with bites. Some even recognize their own masters. If they change masters, they forget their own tameness. Some accept no other master. For instance, the horse of King Alexander, named Būcĕphălās, after receiving the caparison⁶, never deigned to carry anyone but his master. There are many accounts of this horse even in the cruellest battles, wherefrom Alexander came out alive and unscathed through its own aid.

Equs quoque gaii cesariis; nullum preter cesarem; dorso
recepit. Regem citarum singulari certamine inter-
emptum cum adversarius eius victor spoliare vel-
let; ab equo eius calcibus morsuque laceratus est. Nico-
mede rege interfecto; equus eius adversario ;vitam
expulit. Cum prelio anthiocus. galathas subegisset;
cithareti nomine ducis; qui in aciem ceciderat. equm
insiluit pugnaturus. Isque adeo sprevit eum; ite de
industria cernuatus; ruina pariter et se et equitem
affligeret. Inter equos; mares plus vivunt. Legimus
equm usque ad annos septuaginta vixisse. Equarum libi-
do extinguitur; iubis tonsis. in quarum parte; amo-
ris nascitur veneficium. quod in frontibus preferunt
fulfo colore. carricis simile ypponenses nominatur
Quod sipreraptum statim fuerit; nequaquam mater pul-
lo mater(dots underneath) ubera prebet fellicando. Quo equis sanior fuerit. maiorisque spei; eoque profundius nares mergit bi-
bendo. Interfectis vel morientibus dominis; equi lacri-
mas fundunt. Solum enim equum dicunt propter
hominem lacrimasse et doloris affectum sentire. Unde
et in centauris(corrected from centanris); equorum et hominum natura est permix-
ta. Solent enim ex equorum mesticia vel alacritate even-
tum rei futurum; dimicaturi colligere. In generosis
equis ut aiunt veteres; iiiior. expectantur. forma. pulcri-
tudo. meritum. color. Forma; ut sit validum corpus.

Similarly, the horse of Gaius Caesar, accepted no one on its back except Caesar himself. When the king of the Scythians⁷ was defeated in single combat by his adversary, who wanted to plunder him, the king’s horse kicked and bit the enemy. After King Nicomedes was killed, his horse took the life of the adversary⁸. When Antiochus conquered the Galatians, he leapt upon the horse of a general named Centaretus, who had fallen in battle, in order to go on fighting. The horse disdained him to such an extent that it fell headfirst on purpose, injuring both itself and the horseman in the fall. Among horses, males live longer. We read of horses living up to seventy years. The libido of mares is quenched by having their manes shorn, and in that part, a magic love charm is produced, which they prefer displaying on their foreheads: it has a tawny colour similar to sedge and is called hipponenses. If it is removed prematurely, the mare immediately refuses to offer her udder to the foal to suckle it. The healthier the horse is, the more the chance it will dip its nostrils deeper when drinking. When their masters are killed or are dying, horses shed tears. Only horses are said to weep for a human and to feel the emotion of grief. Hence, in Centaurs, the nature of both horses and humans is mixed. In fact, they are accustomed to predicting that which will happen in the future from their sadness or from their alacrity, especially when they are about to fight. As the ancients said, four things are expected in thoroughbred horses: form, beauty, character, and colour. Form means it needs to have a strong and

et solidum. Robori conveniens altitudo. latus lon-
gum. substrictum. maximi et rotundi clunes. pectus
late patens. corpus omne masculorum; densitate no-
dosum. Pes siccus. et cornu concavo solidatus. Pulchri-
tudo; ut sit exiguum capud et siccum. pelle prope
ossibus adherente. Aures breves et argute. oculi mag-
ni. Nares patule; et erecta cervix. Coma densa et
cauda. Ungularum soliditate fixa rotunditas. Me-
ritum; ut sit animo audax. pedibus alacer. tremen-
tibus membris. quod est fortitudinis indicium. quique
ex summa quiete facile excitatur(changed to excitetur). et excitata festina-
tione; non difficile teneatur. Motus autem equi; in
auribus intelligitur. virtus; in membris trementibus
Color hic precipue spectandus est. Badius. aureus. ro-
seus. mirteus. cervinus. gilvus. glaucus. scutulatus.
Canus. candidus. albus. guttatus. niger. Sequenti autem
ordine; varius. ex nigro badioque distinctus. Reliqus
varius color. vel cinereus deterrimus. Badium autem an-
tiqui validum dicebant. quod inter cetera animalia
fortuis vadat. Ipse est et spadix quem fenicatum vo-
cant. et dictus a colore palme; quam siculi spadicem vo-
cant. Glaucus vero est. veluti pictos habens oculos.
et quodam splendore perfusos. Gilvus autem melinuset medius added colorem. sub-

solid body, its height in proportion to its strength, long and lean flanks, large and rounded haunches, a broad chest and a body knotted together by the density of its muscles. Dry hoof and horn strengthened by a concave shape.

Beauty means having a small and dry head, with its skin adhering closely to the bones. Short and alert ears, large eyes, wide nostrils and an upright neck. Thick mane and tail. The roundness fixed by the solidity of the hooves. Character means being bold in spirit, swift-footed, with trembling limbs, which is an indication of strength, and easily aroused from deep rest and it should not be difficult to control when it is agitated. However, you can understand the movement of the horse by its ears, its strength by its trembling limbs. Colour is particularly noteworthy here: bay, golden, rosy, myrtle, fawn, pale yellow, blue-green, dappled, dun, bright white, white, piebald and black and after these, there come variegated colours based on black or bay. Other variegated colours or ashen colours are not good. The ancients regarded the bay horse as strong, for its pace is stronger among the other animals. The same horse was called spadix or fenicatus named from the colour of the palm, which the Sicels⁹ called spadix. The blue-green is like the colour of painted eyes suffused with brightness. The fawn, however, is a mixture of the colour of honey and

subalbidus. Guttatus; albus. nigris intervenientibus punc-
tis. Candidus autem et albus; ab invicem differunt. Nam
albus; cumquodam pallore est. Candidus autem est
niveus. et pura luce perfusus. Canus dictus; quia ex
candido colore et nigro est. Scutulatus dictus; vel
vocatus; propter orbes quos habet candidos inter pur-
puras. Varius; quod vias habet imparium colorum
Qui autem tantum pedes habent; petili appellantur. Qui
frontem albam; calidi. Cervinus est. quem vulgo gau-
rantem dicunt. Mirteus est pressus in purpura. Dos-
mus autem dictus; quod sit color eius de asino. Idem
et cinereus. Sunt autem hii agresti genere orti. quos
equiferos dicimus. et proinde ad urbanam dignita-
tem transire non possunt. Mauron; niger est.
Nigrum enim greci; mauron vocant. Mannus vero equs
brevior est. quem vulgo brunium vocant. Veredos
antiqui dixerunt quod veherent. id est ducerent redas
vel quod vias publicas curant. per quas et redas ire
solitum erat. Equorum tria genera sunt. Unum gene-
rosum. preliis et hominibus aptum. Alterum vulgare.
atque gregarium. ad vehendum. non ad equitandum
aptum. Tertium; ex permixtione diversorum ge-
nerum ortum. quod etiam dicitur bigenerum.
quia ex diversis nascitur generibus. ut mulus ex equa

an off-white colour. A piebald horse is white mottled with black. The two whites candĭdus and albus differ from each other. The albus white has a sort of paleness, but the candĭdus one is niveous and suffused with pure light. The cānus one is called such, for it is a mixture of white and black. The dappled one takes its name from the white patches it has among the purple ones. The variegated one has stripes of different colours. However, those with white feet are called pĕtĭli, slenderfeet, and those with white foreheads are călĭdi, hotheads. The fawn (or tawny-red) one, cervīnus, has a yellowish colour and is commonly called gauranis. Myrtle is imprinted in purple. The dun one is so called, for its colour is like that of an ass, the colour of ash. However, these are found in the countryside and we call them ĕquĭfĕri, wild horses. Therefore, they are not to be tamed. The maurus horse is black, for the Greek word for black is μαύρος/mávros. The mannus is a foal, a small horse that is commonly called brunicus. The ancients called post horses vĕrēdi, for they pulled carriages or covered public roads, along which carriages usually went. There are three types of horses: the thoroughbred one suitable for battles and for men. The common and gregarious one suitable for carrying weights, not for riding.

et asino. et burdo ex(added) equo et asina. Ibrida; ex apris
et porcis. Tirus; ex ove et hirco. Musmo. ex capra
et ariete. Est autem dux gregis. Mulus a greco trac-
tum vocabulum habet. Grece enim sic vocatur. vel
quod iugo pistorum subactus. tardas in girum du-
cat moas. Iudei asserunt quod anna abnepos esau
equarum greges ab asinis in deserto ipe prius fecerit
ascendi. ut multorum inde contra naturam animalia
nascerentur. Onagros quoque ad hoc missos ad asi-
nas. et ipsum istiusmodi repperisse concubitum. ut ex
hiis velocissimi asini nascerentur. Industria quip-
pe humana diversum animal in coitu coegit;
Sicque adulterina commixtione genus aliud repperit.
sicut et iacob contra naturam colorum similitudines
procreavit. Nam tales fetus oves illius concipie-
bant. quales umbras arietum desuper ascenden-
tium in aquarum speculo contemplabantur. Denique
et hoc ipsum equarum gregibus fieri fertur. ut inge-
nerosos obiciant equos visibus concipientium. quo eorum
similes concipere et creare possint. Nam et columbarum
dilectores. depictas ponunt pulcherimas columbas
isdem locis quibus ille versantur. quo rapiente visu.

The third type originates from the mixing of different types also called bĭgĕnĕr, hybrid, for it arises from various types such as the mule from a mare and an ass, the burdo¹⁰ from a horse and a she-ass. A hybrid originates from wild sows and pigs, the tirus¹¹ from the sheep and the goat, the mūsĭmo, the mouflon, from the goat and the ram. The word for mule, mūlus, takes its name from the Greek word μῆκος/míkos for tract. It is called thus in Greek, either for it passes under the yoke of the millers or for it makes slow movements in the millstone. The Jews assert that Anah, the great-great grandson of Esau, was the first to create mules by mating his father’s donkeys with horses so that many animals against nature might be born from them. Onagers also were sent to mate with donkeys with the purpose of obtaining the same kind of crossbreeding, so that very swift-footed donkeys could be generated. Indeed, human ingenuity has brought together a variety of animals to mate and thus produced hybrids through adulterous crossbreeding, just as Jacob created hybrids contrary to the nature of colours¹². Such offspring conceived sheep of the same colour as the rams that mounted them, seeing them reflected in water. Indeed, it is said that this even happens in herds of mares: thoroughbred horses are presented to the sight of those that are about to conceive, so that the latter may conceive and create offspring in the image of the horses. Pigeon lovers also place the most beautiful painted pigeon images in the same places where they flock to catch the birds’ eye, hoping

similes generent. Inde est quod quidam dicunt gra-
vidas mulieres nullos intueri turpissimos vultus ani-
malium. Ut zenophalos et simias. ne visibus occurren-
tes. similes fetus pariant(spariant?). Hanc enim ut(dots underneath) aiunt femina-
rum esse naturam; ut quales perspexerint; sive men-
te conceperint; in extremo voluptatis estu; dum conci-
piunt; talem et subolem procreent. Etenim animalia
in usu venerio formas extrinsecus transmittunt intus.
eorumque tipis sacrata; rapit species eorum in propriam qua-
litatem;
In animantibus bigenera dicuntur qui ex diversis nascuntur ut mulus ex equa et asino burdo ex equo et asina hibride ex apris et porcis tyrius ex ove et hirco musino ex capra et ariete est autem dux gregis

they may generate offspring resembling them. Some say that pregnant women do not look at the ugliest faces of animals such as apes and monkeys, lest they conceive children resembling what they have seen. In fact, this is the nature of women: they conceive children just like that which they have observed or formed in their mind at the mercy of voluptuousness as they conceive. Indeed, animals transmit the images they see from without within themselves during sexual intercourse, and, contented with these images, they take on the features of those images as their own. In animals, hybrids are called bĭgĕnĕra, for they are born from the mating of two different species, such as the mule from a mare and an ass, burdo from a horse and a she-ass. A hybrid originates from wild sows and pigs, the tirus from the sheep and the goat, the mūsĭmo, the mouflon, from the goat and the ram is the leader of the herd.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Horse, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast212.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Revelation NKJV 19:11: “Now I saw heaven opened, and behold, a white horse. And He who sat on him was called Faithful and True, and in righteousness He judges and makes war.”

2 Psalm 20:7: “Some trust in chariots, and some in horses; But we will remember the name of the LORD our God.”

3 A chariot drawn by four horses abreast used for racing. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadriga

4 The word for horse is ĕquus whereas the word for equal is aequus. In the Classical Latin pronunciation, the difference in sound is between ĕ and ae. If one is using the Ecclesiastical pronunciation, the two words sound the same. In Medieval Latin, the classical ae was replaced by the letter e; therefore, ĕquus and aequus sounded as if it were the same word.

5 The word sŏnĭpēs meant both steed and “having resonant feet/to tap one's foot to the music”.

6 Saddle-cloth.

7 The text is likely to be referring to Darius III and the Battle of Issus 333 BC where Alexander the Great defeated the King of the Scythians. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Issus

8 The author of the bestiary has a different story about Nicomedes’s horse, that it took the adversary’s life. In his Naturalis Historia Book 8.64-65, Pliny the Elder tells us that the horse ended its own life by starving to death: “Interfecto Nicomede rege equus eius inedia vitam finivit/when King Nicomedes was killed, ended its own life by starving to death”.

The Latin text of the Aberdeen bestiary also shows “Nichomede rege interfecto equus eius inedia vi\tam expulit/when King Nicomedes was killed, his dog ended its own life by starving to death”.

9 The Sicels, Sicelī or Siculī, were an Indo-European tribe who inhabited eastern Sicily during the Iron Age. They spoke the Siculian language. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicels

10 A mule or ass

11 Hybrid between a sheep and a goat, usually called geep or shoat.

12 Genesis KJV 30:40: “And Jacob did separate the lambs, and set the faces of the flocks toward the ringstraked, and all the brown in the flock of Laban; and he put his own flocks by themselves, and put them not unto Laban's cattle.”

Cat, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In the enchanting realm of feline lore, the cat reigns supreme with its mystique and cunning nature. Known by various names, each hinting at its prowess and demeanour, the cat holds a special place in human imagination.

The Latin term musio hints at its ancient rivalry with mice, embodying its role as a relentless hunter in the rodent kingdom. Yet, it is the moniker căttus that truly captures the essence of this enigmatic creature. Derived from captūra, evoking images of stealth and precision, the cat is the epitome of a skilled predator, effortlessly ensnaring its prey.

By delving deeper into the etymology, you will uncover a subtler narrative. Some suggest that cătus derives from captat, highlighting the feline's acute senses and piercing gaze. With eyes that pierce through the darkness of night, the cat navigates its domain with an astuteness that borders on the supernatural.

Musio appellatur quod muribus infestus sit. Hunc
vulgus catum a captura vocant. Alii dicunt
quod cattat id est videt. Nam in tanto acumine cernit;
ut fulgore luminis; tenebras noctis superet. Unde
a greco venit catus. idest ingeniosus.

The cat is called musio, for it is hostile to mice. It is commonly called căttus from captūra, catching or prey. Others say that the word comes from captat that is, it senses, for its sight is so sharp that it is able to prevail over the darkness of the night owing to its glowing eyes. Hence, the word cătus comes from Greek and means meaning astute, cunning.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Cat, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast213.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Mouse, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The humble mouse scampers into the spotlight, bearing secrets and mysteries that defy its diminutive size. Born from the very moisture of the earth, it dances in harmony with the lunar cycle, its liver swelling under the full moon's radiant gaze, akin to the ebb and flow of the sea's denizens.

The mouse is more than a mere creature of the night: it embodies untamed timidity, scurrying on four legs with a grace that belies its fear. In the shadowy corners, it finds kinship with the shrew, a larger cousin whose name rings with the sharpness of a saw, a relentless gnawer that strikes fear even in the hearts of cats.

Amidst the rodents' domain, there exists a curious outlier—the dormouse. Despite its mouse-like appearance, it slumbers through the winter months, a motionless sentinel in the icy embrace of hibernation. Upon the arrival of summer, it stirs from its slumber, breathing life into the verdant world once more.

The symbolism of the mouse extends beyond its earthly realm, echoing in ancient texts and religious doctrines. Leviticus marks it among the unclean, alongside the weasel and the crocodile, while Isaiah's prophetic words cast it as an abomination, a symbol of impurity and spiritual decay: it embodies worldly desires and gluttony, evoking cautionary tales of excess and moral peril. Just as the pig revels in mud, the mouse dances on the edge of danger, its hunger driving it into the jaws of fate.

Despite its small stature, the mouse was also associated with negative qualities such as destructiveness and sin. Its tendency to gnaw on crops and belongings was seen as symbolic of the damage caused by sinful behaviour.

In Christian allegory, the mouse represented temporal and spiritual decay. Its presence in dark and hidden places evoked imagery of sin lurking in the shadows of human consciousness, reminding believers of the need for constant vigilance against moral corruption.

In Leviticus 11:29¹, the mouse is listed among the unclean animals, alongside other creatures considered impure or unfit for consumption. This classification reinforced the idea of the mouse as a symbol of impurity and spiritual contamination.

Weakness and Vulnerability: The mouse's perceived vulnerability and susceptibility to predation also served as a metaphor for human weakness and mortality. Its fleeting existence and constant struggle for survival reflected the transient nature of earthly life and the inevitability of death.

Mus est pusillum animal ex humore terre natum.
cui iecur in plenilunio crescit. sicut quedam mari-
tima augentur. que rursus iminente luna; deficiunt.
Et est mus; indomitum animal et timidum et quadrupes.
Sorex autem est mus maior. sic dictus; eoquod in modum
serre precidat. Utrique est musio infestus. Glires autem
licet videantur; mures non sunt. quia tota hieme dor-
miunt et inmobiles sunt quasi mortui. Tempore estivo
reviviscunt. Muris igitur nomine; significatur terre-
na amans. vel inguiiiiiem ventris. quia pro iiigliiiiie
ventris; mus nulla vitat pericula. Unde inlevitico. mus-
tela et mus et cocodrillus inter inmunda animalia re-
putantur. Hinc etiam ysaias ait. Qui commederint
carnem suillam et abhominationem et murem; simul
consumentur. Sus quia lutosa diligit luxuriosos sig-
nificat et inmundos;.

The mouse is a small animal produced by the moisture of the earth; its liver grows during the full moon: just as certain creatures of the sea increase and diminish with the waning of the moon. The mouse is an untamed, timid, and quadrupedal animal. However, the shrew is a larger mouse, so named, for it gnaws cutting like a saw. Both are enemies of cats. Although dormice may seem so, they are not mice, for they sleep the entire winter and are motionless as if they were dead. In summer, they revive. Therefore, the word mūs also signifies a worldly lover or the gluttony of the belly, for a mouse avoids no dangers out of gluttony. In Leviticus, the weasel, the mouse, and the crocodile are considered unclean animals. Isaiah says, “Those who sanctify themselves and purify themselves, To go to the gardens After an idol in the midst, Eating swine’s flesh and the abomination and the mouse, Shall be consumed together”. (Isaiah NKJV 66:17). The pig signifies excess and impurity, for it loves mud.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Mouse, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast214.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Leviticus NKJV 11:29: ‘These also shall be unclean to you among the creeping things that creep on the earth: the mole, the mouse, and the large lizard after its kind;

Weasel, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The weasel is a creature of mystery and intrigue, its slender form resembling a long-tailed mouse.

Echoing ancient texts like Leviticus, where it is listed among the unclean creatures, the weasel embodies a duality of symbolism. On one hand, it is a cunning hunter, relentless in its pursuit of its preys, whether it be snakes or mice. On the other hand, it is a creature of change and adaptation, forsaking old dens for new ones, a symbol of constant renewal and transformation.

Amidst the tales of its cunning and agility, there are myths of its alleged ability to conceive through the mouth and birth through the ear, a notion as fantastical as it is intriguing. In the hands of experienced physicians, the weasel's offspring are believed to hold the key to resurrection, a testament to the enduring mysteries of nature.

A deeper allegory lies in the weasel's enigmatic presence. Just as it conceals its cubs and changes its dens, so do many souls hide their true beliefs and desires, constrained by the love of earthly pleasures. In the weasel's silent dance through the shadows, we glimpse a reflection of our own struggles to heed the principles of the divine amidst the distractions of the material world.

Thus, in the weasel's cunning and adaptability, in its elusive nature and whispered secrets, we find a mirror to our own journey—a reminder to seek truth amidst the shadows and to embrace change as the harbinger of growth and renewal.

Mustela dicitur quasi mus longus. et in terra ma-
nens. Nam thelon greci longum dicunt. et ideo
furtum prohibet. De qua in levitico dicitur. Mus-
tela et mus et cocodrillis; inmunda erunt vobis.
Mustela est ingenio subdola. In domibus ubi nutrit
catulos suos; transfert mutataque sedem. Serpentes
muresque persequitur. Duo sunt genera mustelarum.
Alterum enim silvestre est. distans longitudine. alte-
rum in domibus oberrans. Falso qutem opinantur
quidam qui dicunt mustelam ore concipere. aure
partum effundere. Dicunt periti medici. si forte fue-
rint occisi eorum fetus. si invenire potuerint;
redivivos faciant. Significant aliquantos qui
libenter quidem audiunt divini verbi semen sed
amore terrenarum rerum detenti; pretermittunt et dissimu-
lant quod audierint;

The weasel is said to be like a long mouse and to remain on the ground. The weasel is called mustēla as if it were a mouse, mūs that has a long dart, tēlum for preventing theft. Leviticus says of it: “These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind (Leviticus KJV 11:29)”.The weasel is cunning in character. Once it has fed its cubs in one den, it changes the den and seeks a new one. It hunts snakes and mice. There are two kinds of weasels: one is wild and roves far away in the forests; the other one wanders in dens or houses. Some falsely believe that the weasel conceives through the mouth and gives birth through the ear. Experienced physicians say that if their offspring happen to be killed, and the parents find them, they can bring them back to life. The weasel signifies that a fair amount of people who willingly heed the principles of the Word of God but they are restrained by the love for earthly things, neglect and conceal what they have heard.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Domouse, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast101972.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Mole, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The humble mole emerges as a potent allegory, condemned to eternal darkness by its very nature. This small, sightless creature, perpetually engaged in its subterranean pursuits, embodies the insidious traits of greed and avarice. With its earthy domain as its kingdom, the mole ceaselessly burrows, devouring the roots of herbs and grains from beneath, its very existence a testament to its voracious appetite.

In the profound words of Isaiah, the mole finds its spiritual resonance. "In that day a man will cast away his idols of silver And his idols of gold, Which they made, each for himself to worship, To the moles and bats" (Isaiah NKJV 2:20).

In the prophetic vision, the idols of silver and gold, once revered as embodiments of eloquence and wisdom, are now discarded, relegated to the realm of darkness alongside the moles and bats. These creatures, both blind in their own ways, represent the twin vices of avarice and false doctrine, luring humanity into the shadows of ignorance and idolatry.

Thus, the mole serves as a warning against the pitfalls of earthly desires and spiritual blindness. In its ceaseless digging and insatiable hunger for earthly treasures, it reflects the darker impulses that lurk within the human heart. As we tread the path of enlightenment, we must heed the lessons of the mole, casting aside the idols of greed by embracing the truth.

Talpa dictitur eoquod dampnata sit tenebris ceci-
tate perpetua. Est enim animal parvum. quadru-
pes. absque oculis. semper terram fodiens. et eiciens;
subter fodiendo. et radices herbarum et frugum.
subter comedens. Super terram non diu vivere pt.
et habet pedes quasi manus cum digitis ut facilius
terram eruat. Significat cupidum. avarum. ter-
ram fodientem. Unde et ysaias dicit de primo adven-
tu christi. In die illa proiciet homo ydola argenti sui.
et simulacra auri fui. que fecerat sibi ut adhoraret
talpas. et vespertiliones. Simulacra auri et argenti sunt;
figmta eloquentie et sapiencie prophetorum. in quibus conside-
bant adhorantes talpas id est avariciam. que est. ydolorum
servitus. et vespertiliones id est ceca et falsa dogmata. que
veritatis luci non appropinquant. sed ignorantie te-
nebras amant;

It is called a mole, for it is condemned to darkness by perpetual blindness. It is a small animal, a quadruped without eyes, always digging and throwing out the earth; by digging below, it consumes the roots of herbs and grains from beneath. Above ground, it cannot live long and has feet resembling hands with fingers wherewith it digs the earth easily. The mole signifies greed, avarice, digging into the earth. Hence, Isaiah speaks of the first coming of Christ: “In that day mankind will cast away their idols of silver and their idols of gold, which they made for themselves to worship, to the moles and to the bats (Isaiah ESV 2:20)”. The idols of gold and silver are the images of eloquence and wisdom of the prophets, wherein there are engrossed those worshipping moles, that is, avarice, which is the submission to idols, and bats, that is, blind and false doctrines, which do not approach the light of truth but love the darkness of ignorance.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Mole, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast216.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Laurel, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Laurel is an aromatic evergreen tree or large shrub with smooth green leaves. It is in the flowering plant family Lauraceae, native to the Mediterranean region, and is used as bay leaf for seasoning in cooking.

Its common names include bay tree (especially in the United Kingdom),  bay laurel, sweet bay, true laurel, Grecian laurel, or simply laurel.

Bay laurel was used to fashion the laurel wreath of ancient Greece, a symbol of highest status. A wreath of bay laurels was given as the prize at the Pythian Games because the games were in honour of Apollo, and the laurel was one of his symbols. The symbolism carried over to Roman culture, which held the laurel as a symbol of victory. It was also associated with immortality with ritual purification, prosperity and health.

Bay leaf is also used in folk medicine. Chemicals in bay leaf might affect blood sugar and cholesterol levels. People have used bay leaf to treat diabetes, common cold, high cholesterol, asthma, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support these uses.

Laurus autem ab hoc verbo laudo dicta est. Hac enim
capita victorum apud antiquos coronabantur.
et apud eosdem laudea nominabatur; Postea
.D. littera sublata. et subrogata .R; dicta est laurus.
Ut auricule. que antiquitus audicule dicebantur.
dicte sunt et medidies qui nunc meridies dicitur
Et medidies que nunc meridies dicitur. Hanc ar-
borem dampnem vocant. eo quod numquam deponat vi-
riditatem. Sola quoque hec arbor vulgo fulminari creditur; vel fluminari

Now the laurel is called praise from this word. For with this the heads of the victors were crowned among the ancients, and among them it was called praise. Afterwards the letter D was removed, and replaced by R; it was called the laurel. As the auricle, which in ancient times was called the ear, was also called medius, which is now called meridius. And in the middle that is now called the south, they call this tree a waste tree, because it never sheds its greenness. This tree alone is also commonly believed to be struck by lightning; or the river.

Hedgehog, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The hedgehog embodies layers of meaning that delve into the depths of human nature and spirituality. This small creature, equipped with a protective armour of quills, serves as a potent metaphor for sinners ensnared by the thorns of their own transgressions.

When danger looms, the hedgehog instinctively curls into a ball, relying on its defences to ward off threats. This defensive posture mirrors the resilience of sinners who, confronted with the consequences of their actions, seek refuge behind the barriers of their wrongdoing.

Amidst this imagery of sin and vulnerability, a deeper symbolism emerges. The hedgehog, in its act of rolling over grapes to provide for its cubs, takes on the likeness of Christ in the flesh, bearing the burden of human sinfulness and offering redemption through sacrifice.

This duality of symbolism is echoed in the prophetic words of Zephaniah, where the hedgehog is mentioned alongside other creatures in a scene of desolation. Here, the hedgehog represents both the fallen state of humanity, dwelling in the ruins of worldly glory, and the transformative power of Christ's advent, which heralds the dawn of spiritual renewal.

The pelican, with its dual nature as both aquatic and wilderness-dwelling, symbolizes the spread of Christ's message to all corners of the earth, while the raven embodies the struggle between enlightenment and sin, preaching from the thresholds of our senses and the lintels of our reason.

A clear message transpires amidst the allegories: the constant battle of the human soul between vice and virtue, sin and redemption. As the hedgehog bristles with quills of protection, we must also arm ourselves against the temptations of the world, seeking refuge in the grace of divine forgiveness.

Hericius parvum animal est. quadrupes. et undique
contra insidians(changed to insidias) se spinis vallans. et cum primo
aliquid sentre; statim se subrigite. atque in globum con-
versus; in sua se arma recolligit. hoc animal cum u-
nam(changed to vam) de vite abscindit; supinus super eam volutat.
et sic eam spinis infixam; exhibet natis suis. Hericius
spinosum animal significat peccatorem. spinis pecato-
rum circundatum. Vel christum in similitudinem carnis pecca-
ti apparentem vel diabolum. Hinc per sophomam de nini-
ve dicitur. et eius desolatione futura. Omnes bestie gentium
et onocrotalus et heritius in lumbis eius morabuntur.
Vox cantantis in fenestra. Corvus in superliminari. qm atte-
nuabo robur eius. Hec est civitas gloriosa habitans in confi-
dentia. Ninive; significat mundi gloriam. que per adven-
tum christi et predicatorum eius desolata est. Onacrotalorum(changed to Onocrotalorum)
duo sunt genera. Aliud aquatile. aliud solitudinis.

The hedgehog is a small animal, a quadruped and is surrounded all around by quills to protect itself from attacks. As soon as it senses anything, it immediately bristles, rolls itself into a ball and regains courage by relying on its defences. When this animal tears off a bunch of grapes, it rolls about on its back over it, thus giving the grapes full of quills to its cubs. The hedgehog symbolises sinners surrounded by the quills of sin or represents Christ in the likeness of sinful flesh or the devil. Hence, Zephaniah says of Nineveh and its future desolation. All the beasts of the nations, and “both the pelican and the hedgehog will lodge in the tops of her pillars. A cry shall resound in the window: the raven shall be in the porch. For he shall uncover (Zephaniah 2:13-15)”. This is the glorious city dwelling in impudence, Nineveh, representing the glory of the world, which was forsaken upon the advent of Christ and his preachers. There are two kinds of pelicans: an aquatic one and the one of the wilderness:

et sunt aves cum longis rostris. et significant predicato-
res christi; verba christi usque ad fines orbis terrarum dissemi-
nantes. tan in iudea; quam in solitudine gentium. Heritius
est ipse christus. tectus similitudine carnis peccati. vel pre-
dicator spinis sententiarum subtilium; peccata nostra;
delens.Corvus est predicator gentilis. qui niger fuit
in pccatis. sed in adventu christi; cantate predicando; in
fenestra sensuum nostrorum. et in superliminari; videlicet
menti nostre sapientie verba infigens. Vel in ma-
lam partem totum legi potest. Per hec enim animalia
que omnia inmunda sunt; significantur vicia vel de-
monia que habitant in anima per ypocrisis similitudi-
nem; spinosa vel speciosam added. et mentis rationem. et sensus nostros se-
ducunt. Limen enim; corpus vel sensualitas est. Super
liminare autem anima vel ratio. que omnia seduc-
tione demonum viciantur.

they are birds with long bills, signifying the preachers of Christ, preaching the words of Christ to the ends of the earth, both in Judea and in the wilderness of the nations. The hedgehog is Christ himself in the likeness of sinful flesh, or the preacher with the quills of their direct opinions, erasing our sins. The raven is the pagan preacher befogged by sin who sings and preaches upon the coming of Christ, in the window of our senses and in the lintels, namely, impressing words of wisdom on our minds. It can also be understood in a bad sense entirely. The fact that these animals are all unclean means that vices or demons, which dwell in the soul in the likeness of hypocrisy, corrupt our minds and our senses. The threshold represents the body or sensuality but the lintel represents the soul or reason, which are corrupted by the temptation of the devil.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Hedgehog, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast216.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Ant, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The tiny ant emerges as symbolic of remarkable industry, foresight, and wisdom. With its diligent work ethic and ingenious survival strategies, the ant serves as a model for human behaviour and spiritual enlightenment.

Its industrious nature is evident in its meticulous preparation for the future, gathering grains of wheat during harvest season to sustain itself through the winter. Unlike other creatures, the ant relies on its own efforts, marching in line and carrying its own grain back to the nest.

Moreover, the ant demonstrates remarkable foresight, predicting rain by observing the behaviour of the grains it collects. Its ability to forecast weather patterns demonstrates its wisdom and practicality, ensuring the preservation of its precious food supply.

Not content with mere survival, the ant also shows a knack for resource management, dividing its grain stores to prevent spoilage and taking measures to protect its nest from floods.

The ant's actions have deeper spiritual significance. Just as the ant divides grains into two, so too must mankind divide their time and attention between spiritual and worldly matters, between the Old and New Testament.

The ant's aversion to barley, considered the food of brutes, serves as a cautionary tale against embracing false doctrines and spiritual laziness. Just as Job warns against the growth of barley instead of wheat, so too must believers discern between true spiritual nourishment and deceptive teachings.

Amidst the wisdom and industry of the ant, there lurks a threat in the form of the antlion, a symbol of temptation and spiritual danger. This small creature preys on the ants, reminding humans of the constant battle between virtue and vice, wisdom and folly.

Ultimately, the ant's story serves as a timeless parable, urging readers to emulate its virtues, heed its warnings, and "consider her ways and be wise" (Proverbs NKJV 6:6).

Formica dicitur ab eo quod ferat micas farris.
Cuius sollercia multa. Providet enim in futurum.
et preparet in estate quod in hieme comedat. In messe
enim colligit triticum ordeum non tangit. Ordina-
te ambulant. et granum in ore baiulant. et hee que
vacue sunt non dicunt. Date nobis de granis vestris
sed vadunt per vestigia priorum. ad locum ubi frumen-
tum inveniunt. et afferunt frumentum in cubile suum.
Dum pluit super frumentum totum propriis humeris eicit.
Novit enim formica explorare serenitatis tempora. ut
sub iuge(changed to iugi) solis calore; siccentur frumenta sua. Namque
enim imbres videbis; cum foris fuerint formicarum frumenta.
Cum autem ea reposuerint; imbres sperare poteris. La-
borem alterius non tollit. set itinere proprio vadens.
proprium granum portat. Cum domum venerit; di-
vidit granum in duo. ne forte pluvia perfundatur
in hieme. et germinent granum. et ipsa fame pereat.
Preterea canales facte formica circa tectum suum. ut
cum inundatio veterit; preterfluant aque; et salve-
tur ipsa et cibus eius. Dicuntur in ethiopia esse. for-
mice. ad formam canis. que arenas aureas eruunt;
pedibus. quas custodunt ne quis auferat. captan-

The ant is called so, for it carries grains of wheat. Its ingenuity is considerable. Since it provides itself for the future, it prepares in summer what it will eat in winter. During harvest, it collects wheat, but it does not touch barley. Ants march in line and carry grain in their mouths. Those who carry nothing do not say "Give us some of your grains" but follow the tracks of those who went before them to the place where they find grain and take it to their nest.

If it rains on the grain, they carry it all on their back. An ant knows how to forecast rays of sunshine, for it knows that grain dries up in the heat of the sun. Therefore, you will see rainclouds when the grain is outside but you can hope for rain when they carry it back in. An ant does not saddle itself with the labour of another ant but goes on its own way and carries its own grain. When the ant goes back to the nest, it divides the grain into two, lest it be soaked by rain in winter and the grain sprout, or else it would starve to death. Moreover, ants mould channels around their nest, so that the water may flow away in the event of a flood and therefore, they save themselves and their food.

Apparently, there exist ants in the form of dogs in Ethiopia, which extract golden sands with their feet and they guard them, lest they be taken:

tesque; ad necem prosequntur. Sed hii qui volunt ab eis
aurum accipere; accipiunt equas cum viventibus pullis. et
fame affligunt eas tribus diebus. Denique religant pullos
earum ad litus aque que currit inter eos et formicas.
Et eque transeunt aquam illam inpositis clitellis super dor-
sum earum. Que ubi vident trans fumen herbas viren-
tes; pascuntur per campos untra flumen. Formice autem vi-
dentes scrinia et clitellas super dorsum earum; conpor-
tant aureas arenas in eis. volentes eas ibi recondere. Ves-
perascente autem die postquam saciate sunt eque; audiunt
pullos suos hinnientes propter famen. et ita regrediun-
tur ad eos cum auro multo. Formicaleon autem est. qui
formicis est. leo; sed aliis est formica. Est enim animal par-
vum. formicis satis infestum. quod se inpulvere abscon-
dit. et formicas frumenta gestantes; interficit. Nomine
igitur formice dicitur prudens et sapiens. Unde in parabolis.
Vade ad formicam o piger. et considera vias eius et disce;
sapientiam. Formica dividit grana in duo. Sic et tu homo
divide inter vetus et novum testamentum. et inter spiritualia
et carnalia. Iudei granum littere a spiritu non dividen-
tes. fame necati sunt. Formica ordeum non curat. Orde-

if someone takes them, they will be pursued to their dying day. Those who wish to receive gold from them will receive mares with living foals and they will starve the mares for three days. Finally, they tie their foals near the bank of the stream that flows between them and the ants. The mares cross that stream with packsaddles placed on their backs; when they see green grass on the other side of the stream, they feed thereon amid the fields beyond the river. Upon seeing the boxes and packsaddles on the mares’ backs, the ants put golden sands therein in order to hide them. When it grows dark after they are replete, the mares hear their foals neighing out of hunger. Therefore, they return to them with plenty of gold.

There is also the antlion, which is a lion towards ants but it is an ant towards others. It is a small animal, rather harmful to ants, for it hides in dust and kills ants carrying grain. Therefore, ants are said to be skilled and wise by name. Hence, the parable says: “Go to the ant, you sluggard! Consider her ways and be wise,” (Proverbs NKJV 6:6). An ant divides grains into two. Similarly, you, o man, divide your time between the Old and New Testament, and between spiritual and carnal things. The Jews were starved to death, for they were not able to divide the grains of the letters from the grains of the spirit¹. Ants disregard barley, for

un enim brutorum animalium cibus est. Unde dicit iob de hereticorum doctrina. et catholica doctrina. Pro tritico produnt michi ordeum.

it is the food of brutes. Job says with regard to the doctrine of heretics and of the Catholic one: “Instead of wheat, barley grows."²

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ant, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast218.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

1 The author might be referring to the letter of the law, which the literal reading of the words of the law, and the spirit of the law, which is the understanding of the intention of why the law is enforced. The author might refer to the Pharisees, who were seen as corrupt, lawless and as placing the letter above the law. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_and_spirit_of_the_law

2 Job NKJV 31:40: “Then let thistles grow instead of wheat, And weeds instead of barley.” The words of Job are ended.”

Eagle, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The majestic eagle, revered for its keen eyesight and regal demeanour, serves as a powerful symbol in various contexts throughout history. Physicists attribute its name to the remarkable sharpness of its vision, capable of piercing through the depths of the sea from great heights, a feat beyond human capability. With unmatched precision, it swoops down like lightning to seize its prey, embodying strength and determination.

Yet, beyond its predatory prowess, the eagle exhibits nurturing qualities: it encourages its eaglets to soar to great heights, imparting wisdom and strength. As they grow, the eagle guides their gaze towards the sun, symbolizing enlightenment and aspiration towards the divine. Those who shy away from the light are deemed unworthy, a reflection of divine discernment.

In its aging years, the eagle confronts the weight of time, its once-proud wings becoming burdensome. Similarly, humans, burdened by sin and age, find solace in repentance and renewal, shedding their past selves in the fires of divine love.

The tale takes a poignant turn with the inclusion of the coot, a humble bird that embraces abandoned eaglets as its own, nurturing them with maternal care. In contrast, humans often forsake their own kin, displaying a lack of compassion and empathy.

The eagle's actions and symbolism parallel the human journey towards enlightenment, repentance and compassion. Through its allegorical significance, we are reminded of the importance of clarity of vision, nurturing the spirit and embracing the divine light even in the face of darkness.

Drawing from its ability to renew its strength by plunging into water, the eagle became a symbol of resurrection and spiritual rebirth. This theme resonates with Christian beliefs in redemption and the promise of eternal life. The motif of baptismal renewal, paralleled with the eagle's rejuvenation, is a recurring theme in medieval Christian allegory.

In Christian iconography, the eagle was traditionally linked with John, symbolizing the soaring heights of theological insight and divine revelation. This association is reflected in John NKJV 12:32[1], where Jesus speaks of drawing all people to Himself, akin to the eagle's soaring flight.

Aquila secundum phisicos ab acumine oculorum dicitur.
que tam acute videt. ut dum super maria imobili pen-
na feratur. nec humanis pateat obtutibus; detanta
sublimitate pisciculos natare videat. ac tormenti in-
star descendens raptam predam pennis ad litus trahit.
Pullos quoque plumescentes; alis verberat et ad volandum
provocat. Item cum pullos plumescere videt. piis un-
guibus adsolem suspendens; convertit. et illum quasi
proprium nutrit filium; qui irreverberata acie; solem
aspicit. Si lumina deflectit; quasi degenerem abicit.
Pullos quoque ad volandum provocat; et lassos alis sus-
tentat. Item cum senuerit; gravantur ale ipsius. et
oculi eius caligine obducuntur. Que in altum vo-
lans; radio solis exurit et alas et caliginem oculorum.
et denscendens trina mersione in fonte; se renovat
in multo vigore alarum et oculorum. Nomine aquile

In Christian iconography, the eagle was traditionally linked with John, symbolizing the soaring heights of theological insight and divine revelation. This association is reflected in John NKJV 12:32 , where Jesus speaks of drawing all people to Himself, akin to the eagle's soaring flight.

aliquando dicitur christus. aliquando diabolus. aliquando superbus
hereticus. aliquando contemplativi qui rapine et cupiditati
terrene vacant. aliquando contemplativi et sancti quo-
rum conversatio est. in celis. Pullos plumescentes alis
verberat et ad volandum provocat aquila; sic christus dic-
tis et exemplis et doctrina duorum testamentorum. sive ge-
mine caritatis exhortans ad alta provehit. ut sequa-
mur quo ipse precessit. Lassos alis sustentat; et christus in
humeris suos portavit; dum in cruce peccata eorum
sustinuit. Super etiam exaltatus et humanis subtrac-
tus aspectibus. in mari huius mundi natantes; oculis mi-
sericordie videt. et pennis amoris pertrahit ad litus eter-
ne securitatis. Unde si exaltatus fuero a terra; omnia
traham ad me ipsum. Aquila plumescens ad solem
suspendens convertit. et cetera. ut supra; sic deus adverum
solem nos invitat. Infirmitatibus nostris compatitur.
et alis gracie sustentat. Qui vero verum solem atten-
dere nouerit diligens tenebras mundi; a deo despi-
citur; sicut ab aquila negligitur. non acerbitate na-
ture; sed viditii integritate; qui ei degener inve-
nitur. Item aquila cum senuerit; gravantur ale ipsius. (et cetera added)

sometimes Christ, sometimes the devil, sometimes the proud heretic, sometimes speculators, who devote themselves to theft and earthly greed, sometimes the contemplative and the saints who seek a connection with Heaven. The eagle beats its fledged eaglets with its wings and spurs them to fly, so too did Christ try to elevate us upwards, by means of His words and examples and the doctrine of the two testaments or His dual love, so that we may follow where He preceded. By supporting the weary with His wings, Christ bore their sins on His shoulders whilst He sustained them on the cross. Although he has raised to heaven and withdrawn from human sight, he can see with the eyes of His mercy those floating on the sea of this world and drags them to the shore of eternal safety with the feathers of His love. “And I, if I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all peoples to Myself” (John NKJV 12:32). The fact that the eagle subjects its eaglets to the sunrays symbolises God inviting us towards the true light. He sympathizes with our weaknesses and sustains us with the wings of His grace. God despises those who have tried to turn to the true sun whilst cherishing the darkness of the world. The same does the eagle with the eaglets that avert their eyes from the sun. This is not owing to the harshness of nature, but to the keenness of sight; therefore, God regards them as unworthy. Similarly, when the eagle grows old, its wings become heavy.

Sic sancta cum in aliquo delicto preoccupati fuerint
et senuerint ab illa virtutum veste quam habue-
rant. et caligaverint oculi cordis eorum; per penitencie
alas volant ad vetum solem. et in caritatis eius ig-
ne; deponunut suam vetustatem. et in fonte baptis-
mi vel gracie. vel penitencie; renovatur ut aquile
iuventus eorum. Ferunt quod avis cui nomen fulica est.
que grece dicitur phene. susceptum illum abdica-
tum sive non agnitum aquile pullum; cum sua
prole connectit. et eodem quo proprios fetus ma-
terne sollicitudinis officio et pari nutrimentorum
sub ministratione; pascit et nutrit. ergo phene alie-
nos nutrit. Nos vero nostros inmiti crudelitate;
proicimus. Aquila enim si proicit; non quasi suum proicit.
sed quasi degenerem; non recognoscit. Nos vero quod peius
est; quos nostros recognoscimus abdicamus.

Thus, godly men, when they have been guilty of some sin, have languished under the guise of virtue and the eyes of their hearts have darkened. Through the wings of repentance, they fly towards the old sun and abandon their old age in the fire of God’s love; in the font of baptism, grace or repentance, they rejuvenate in the same way as the eagles. It is said that the bird named fūlĭca[2], coot, which is called φήνη/fíni in Greek, takes with her the abandoned or disowned eaglets and adds them to her own offspring. Besides, she feeds and nurtures them with the same maternal care and equal administration of food. Therefore, the coot nurtures others. On the contrary, we abandon our dear ones with harsh cruelty. In fact, when the eagle abandons her eaglets, she does not feel that she is abandoning her own offspring: she merely does not recognise them, for they are regarded as unworthy. On the contrary, what is worse is that we humans abandon what we recognise as our own.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Eagle, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast232.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

[1] John NKJV 12:32: And I, if I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all peoples to Myself.”

[2] Also fŭlix

On the naming of birds, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In the world of birds, there is a singular name, ăves, wherein there lies a remarkable diversity of species. These avian creatures vary not only in species but also in their nature and behaviours. Some are as unassuming as doves, whereas others exhibit cunning akin to partridges. Certain birds, like hawks, readily perch on a human's hand, whereas others, like the elusive garramantes, shun such contact. Swallows find joy in human company, whereas turtledoves prefer solitary lives in the desert. Geese contentedly feed on grains they find on the ground, whereas kites are adept hunters hurling themselves at their prey.

In the world of birds, there is a singular name, ăves, wherein there lies a remarkable diversity of species. These avian creatures vary not only in species but also in their nature and behaviours. Some are as unassuming as doves, whereas others exhibit cunning akin to partridges. Certain birds, like hawks, readily perch on a human's hand, whereas others, like the elusive garramantes, shun such contact. Swallows find joy in human company, whereas turtledoves prefer solitary lives in the desert. Geese contentedly feed on grains they find on the ground, whereas kites are adept hunters hurling themselves at their prey.

With countless species, each exhibiting unique behaviours and characteristics, it is impossible to quantify the sheer diversity of birds. Even explorers venturing into distant deserts like Scythia, India, and Ethiopia could not claim familiarity with all avian species or their distinctions.

The very essence of birds is captured in their name—ăves—a term reflecting their propensity for wandering hither and thither, never bound to straight paths. They are called ālĭtes, winged creatures, for their upward flight and the motion of their wings. The act of walking, ambŭlare, stems from vŏlo to fly, highlighting the connection between avian flight and terrestrial locomotion.

Feathers play a pivotal role in the avian world, enabling flight and nurturing young chicks with tender care. The names of birds often echo the sounds of their calls, from the majestic crane to the mysterious owl, demonstrating the deep connection between their vocalizations and their identities.

In summary, the world of birds is a fascinating tapestry of diversity, behaviours, and interconnectedness, where each species contributes to the intricate symphony of nature.

Unum autem nomen avium. sed genus diversum
Nam sicut specie sibi differunt; ita et nature di-
versitate. Nam alie simplices sunt sicut columbe.
Alie astute; ut perdix. erasure Alie ad manum se subiciunt.
ut accipitres. Alie reformidant; ut garramantes. Alie
converstionem hominum delectantur ut hyrundo. Alie
in deserto secretam vitam diligunt; ut turtur. Alie
solo semine reperto; pascuntur. ut anser. Alie carnes
edunt et rapinis intendunt; ut milvus. Alie grega-
tim volante; ut sturni et coturnices. Alie solivage;
id est solitarie propter insidias depredandi ut aquila et
accipiter. Alie voce strepunt ut hyrundo. Alie cantus
edunt dulcissimos ut cignus et merula. Alie verba
et voces hominum imitantur. ut psitacus. et pica. Sed
alia sicut genere; ita et moribus innumerabiles. Nam
et volucrum quot genera sunt; invenire quis non
potest. Neque omnia scithie et indie ac ethiopie deser-
ta quis penetrare potuit. qui earum genus vel diffe-
rentias nosset. Aves dicte; eoquod rectas vias non habent.

Birds have one name, ăves[1], but there is a variety of species. They differ in species as well as in nature. Some are as simple as doves, others as cunning as partridges. Some perch on man’s hand, like hawks. Others shun it as the garramantes[2] birds do. Others delight in the company of humans, like swallows. Some love their solitary life in the desert, like turtledoves. Others feed on grains they find on the ground, like geese. Some eat flesh and hurl themselves at their preys, like kites. Some fly in flocks, like starlings and quails. Others wander alone and are solitary due to their lying in ambush for preys, like eagles and hawks. Some make noise with their call, like swallows. Others sing the sweetest songs, like swans and blackbirds. Some mimic the words and voices of humans, like parrots and magpies. There are countless species of birds: they differ in behaviour and gender; therefore, it is impossible to quantify the number of different species of birds. Even all those who penetrated into the deserts of Scythia, India and Ethiopia were not familiar with all the species or their differences. Birds are called ăves, for they do not fly in a straight line

sed per avia et devia queque discurrunt. Alites; quod alis
ad alta tendunt. et ad sullimia remigio alarum con-
tendunt. Volucres a volando. Nam unde volare; inde
et ambulare dicimus. Vola enim; est. media pars pedis
vel manus. et in avibus; media pars alarum. quarum
motu; penne agitantur. inde volucres pulli dicuntur.
Et homo parvus; pullus. Recentes nati igitur pulli dicunt-
tur. eoquod polluti sunt. Unde et vestis nigra; pulla
est. dicta. Alie sunt in quibus penne per ordinem fixe vo-
landi exhibent usum. Vocate autem ale; quod hiis
aves complexus alant. ac fovent pullos. penna; a
pendendo id est a volando; dicta. Unde et pendere. Volucres
enim pennarum auxilio moventur; quando se aeri;
mandant. Pluma; quasi piluma. Nam sicut pili in
quadrupedum corpore; ita pluma in avibus. Avium;
multa nomina a sono vocis constat esse. composita.
Ut grus. corvus. cignus. bubo. milvus. ulula. cu-
culus. garrulus. graculus et cetera. Varietas enim vo-
cis earum; docuit quid homines eas vocarent.

but wander hither and thither to solitary and remote places, āvĭa et dēvĭa. They are called ālĭtes, winged creatures, for they tend upwards with their wings and fly off by flapping them. Birds are also called vŏlŭcres from vŏlo, to fly. The act of walking, ambŭlare, also comes from vŏlo, for vŏla is the hollow of the foot or hand and in birds, it is the middle part of the wings, by the movement whereof feathers are fluttered. Hence, young birds are called vŏlŭcres. A child is affectionately called a pullus. Therefore, the newborn babies are called pulli, for they are unclean. Even dark clothes are called pulla. Birds have wings, wherein the feathers, fixed in a particular order, cause the experience of flying. The wings of a bird are called ālae, for birds nourish, ălĕre, the chicks with hugs by folding their wings around them. Penna derives from pendēre that means hanging in the air. In fact, birds move with the aid of their feathers when they are in the air. Plūma sounds as if it were pilum-a, for pilus means hair and just as quadrupeds have hair on their bodies, birds have feathers. Plenty of names of birds are known to derive from the sound of their call, for instance from birds such as grūs, the crane; corvus, the raven; cycnus, the swan; būbo, the owl; milvus, the kite; ŭlŭla, the screech-owl; cŭcūlus, the cuckoo; [garrulus] grācŭlus, the jackdaw, and others. The variety of their calls has taught men how to call them.

Further Reading

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

[1] Plural form of ăvis, bird.

[2] The Garamantes were an ancient population that may have descended from the Berbers and lived in the Fezzan region in 1000 BC. Apparently, the Garamantes gave their own name to a local species of birds. According to Isidore’s Etymologies (12.7.1), written about 200 years later, these birds were afraid of approaching people. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garamantes

Crane, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Cranes are named after their distinct calls, which they use to communicate and navigate during their journeys, much like soldiers following a leader or a banner. To ensure their flight is not hampered by strong winds, they swallow sand and drop small stones to maintain the right weight. Flying in a V-formation, they can see their destination from great heights and follow a leader who changes as needed to prevent exhaustion.

At night, cranes take turns keeping watch while others rest, holding small stones in their toes to stay awake. This vigilant rotation ensures the safety and coordination of the flock.

Cranes exemplify communal labour and shared leadership, a model from which human society could learn. In ancient times, labour and honour were shared among all, preventing arrogance and oppression. Continuous effort and lasting power led to harmony and humility, much like the cranes' orderly and selfless behaviour.

In their old age, cranes turn black and look skyward when calling, with a red, featherless crest on their heads. Their natural traits symbolise the order of preachers who humbly serve Christ, spreading their message far and wide. Despite facing challenges, they remain diligent and unified, reflecting the noble qualities of these remarkable birds. In Christian art and literature, the crane often symbolises the vigilant soul that remains alert to avoid sin and temptation. The stone-holding crane became an iconographic representation of this virtue. Due to their migratory nature, cranes were also seen as symbolic of resurrection and hope, embodying the soul’s journey and return, analogous to Christ's resurrection and the believer's hope for eternal life.

While cranes are not extensively mentioned in the Bible, there are a few references that contributed to their allegorical interpretation:

Isaiah 38:14: "I chirp like a swallow, I moan like a dove. My eyes are weary with looking upward. O Lord, I am oppressed; be my pledge of safety!" Here, the behaviour of birds, including cranes, is used metaphorically to express vigilance and prayerfulness.

Jeremiah 8:7: "Even the stork in the heavens knows her times; and the turtledove, swallow, and crane keep the time of their coming; but my people know not the rules of the Lord." This verse emphasises the crane’s natural wisdom and understanding of the seasons, suggesting an innate awareness and vigilance that humans should emulate in their spiritual lives.

Grues de propria voce nomen sumpserunt.
Tali enim sono susurrant. Que ut expeditio-
nes suas dirigant; sub militie eunt signo. et ne
pergentes ad destinatam terram vi flatuum impedi-
antur; harenas devorant. sublatisque lapillulis ad
moderatam gravitatem; saburrantur id est saburra.
id est arena ponderantur. Tunc contendunt in altis-
sima. ut de facilius intueantur quas petant terras.
Hee autem; dum properant. unam omnes sequntur.

Cranes are named after their own call, for they utter their call with such a sound. They direct their own journey by following a leader or a signal just like soldiers following a leader or a banner. When going towards their destined land, they swallow sand lest their flight be hindered by strong winds. They lighten themselves by removing little stones to a moderate weight and then are weighed down by sand. Thereafter, they soar as high as possible to behold the lands they go towards. Moreover, whilst they hasten, all follow one leader and their flight takes the form of a letter

ordine litterato. De quibus dicit lucanus. Et tur-
bata perit dispersis littera penius. Fidens volatu;
preit cateruas. Volatus desidiam castigat voce; que
cogit agmen. Hunc enim volantes ordine in servant.
et hac moderatione omnem laborem allevant.
ut per vices fungantur ducatur munere. Precedit enim
una ceteras. et quasi antesignaria precurrit. Ea
postquam obraucata est ve. lassa. dat alii ducatus
principatum. Concors omnium cura; pro fatigatis.
Adeo; ut si qua defecerit; congruant universe. las-
satasque sustollunt; usque dum vires otio recuperent.
Grues quoque in nocte sollicitam exercent custodiam.
Dispositos vigiles cernas. et ceteris quiescentibus alie
circueunt. et explorant. ne qua ex parte insidie temp-
tentur. Vigiles cum stant aliquo loco custodientes
per ordines vices suas; vigilias noctis. tenent lapil-
los suspensis pedum digitis quibus sompnos suos
arguant. Quod cavendum erit; clamor vigilum
indicat. Post quam tempus vigiliarum expletum
fuerit. grus que vigilis offitio functa fuerat in
sompnum se premisso clamore componit. et exci-

of the alphabet[2]. Lucan[3] speaks thereof: et turbata perit dispersis littera pennis, and the letter-like shape of the flight changes as soon as they straggle off. Confident in their flight, they lead flocks. They chide idleness with their call, which gathers the flock together. They maintain the flock in order whilst flying. Following this way of leading, they relieve one another so that they take it in turns to lead the flock, for one precedes the others and like a standard-bearer, it runs ahead. After becoming exhausted or tired, it gives the leadership role to another. The care of all is harmonious, especially for the tired ones, so much so that if one falls, the whole group lifts it up until it regains strength through rest. Cranes also keep a careful watch at night. One can see the arranged sentinels, and whilst some rest, others circle around and watch out for any part wherefrom danger may arise. The sentinels take turns for their night watches and hold small stones with the tips of their toes to keep themselves awake. The sound of the stones dropping signals when vigilance and being alert are needed. After the time of the watch is completed, the crane that was performing the watch duty prepares for sleep and with its call,

tet dormientem hoc clamore. cui vicem muneris
traditura est. At illa volenti animmo statim sus-
cipit vigilis offitum. ne usu humano invita et
pigrior sompno; laborem refutat. sed inpigre suis
excutitur stratis. vicem reddit. et alias custodit. donec
et illa alio tempore vigiliarum decurso; munus hoc
alii iniungat. Ecce et inprincipatu ducatus et in custo-
die labore sibi parent. Quod hoc pulcrius et laborem
omnibus. et homorem esse communem; Talis deberet esse. rei
publice status. ut communus esset labor. communisque digni-
tas. et ut obsequia et imperia dividere discerent;
homines. Olim sic erat. Nullus enim expers fuit aut
laboris aut honoris. Nemo enim insolescebat per-
petua potestate. Nec diuturio servitio;
frangebantur. quia sine invidia erat tempo-
ris moderatione; delata promotio. et tole-
rabilior videbatur. que communi cadebat sorte sub-
iectio. Nemo audebat servitio premere. quia eum
sciebat sibi successorem fore. et sibi posse vicem reddere.
Nemini erat labor gravis; quem secutura dignitas

it awakens the sleeping one and hands over the duty of watch. The latter immediately takes on the duty of the watch willingly and does not refuse labour just as reluctant and lazy humans do, but actively leaves its bedding, takes over and keeps watch until it hands its duty over to another at a later time.

Cranes comply with both the leadership of command and the labour of watch. What is more beautiful than this is that labour is common to all and honour is shared. Such should be the State, where labour is common to all and dignity is shared. Men should learn to share duties and commands. Once it was so and no one was exempt from labour or honour. No one became arrogant owing to lasting power and no one was subdued by lasting servitude: promotion was granted without envy, for those were times of unselfishness and subjugation as well as servitude seemed more tolerable when it happened by chance for the common good. No one dared to oppress others with servitude and subjugation, knowing that the very successors could be subjugated themselves and could be the ones who had to take over. Nobody considered labour hard, the burden whereof will be lightened

relevaret. Sed postquam dominandi libido irrep-
sit; cepit servitus esse. non libera; sed invita et coac-
ta. Nichil enim tam facile; quin hanc cum invito;
difficultatem. Ergo et iugis labor avertit affectum.
et diuturna potentia gignit insolentiam. Quem
hominem modo invenias. qui ducatum principatumque
libenter alii concedat. fiatque volens de primo no-
vissimus; Ecce nos etiam primos in cena discubitus
desideramus. et si adepti fuerimus; non siiie invi-
dia alii concedimus. Olim inter bonos sicut nunc inter
qrues equanimitas fuit in laboribus; et humilitas
in potestatibus. Preterea natura gruis est; ut in senec-
tute nigrescat. et cum clamat; celum consideret. et
ut verticem capitis rubeum habeat. videlicet plumis
nudatum. Tibias et collum longa habe-
at. Avis inimica pueris. Quid igitur melius
per gruem significatur quam ordo predicatorum. qui
comam pro christo deposuerunt. celi domino gloriam in vo-
ce predicationis sue dantes. quorum sonora predicatio
in omnem terram cito delata est. qui stultus inimicantur.

by the dignity and merit that will follow. After the desire for domination crept in, servitude and subjugation began to exit and were not accepted freely but reluctantly: they were enforced. Nothing is so easy as to become difficult when imposed unwillingly. Thus, continuous labour turns away affection and lasting power breeds haughtiness. Now, whom can you find who willingly gives leadership to another and willingly becomes last from first? Lo, we even desire the first seats at the table and if we obtain them, we do not willingly concede them to someone else without feeling envy. Among good people once as now among the cranes, there was equanimity in labour and humility in authority. Moreover, the nature of the crane is that it turns black in old age and when it utters its call, it looks to the sky and has a red crest on its head, namely, devoid of feathers. It has long legs and neck. It is a bird hostile to boys. Therefore, the crane symbolises the order of preachers, who become crestfallen before Christ, giving glory to the Lord of Heaven by voicing their preaching that quickly spreads to the whole earth and who oppose the foolish.

In fine quoque senescentis predicationis sue; se nigros confitentur; et inutiles servos.

In the end, when their preaching also grows weak, just the blacks and useless servants acknowledge it.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Crane, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast234.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

[1] Respūblĭca or res pūblĭca (literal meaning: the public thing/affairs) means the Government or The State in English.

[2] Cranes are known for flying in a V formation, which provides practical benefits for energy conservation, coordination, and navigation. This behaviour also reinforced the symbolic interpretations in medieval bestiaries, where cranes were seen as models of vigilance, unity, and cooperative effort.

[3] Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus) was a Roman poet, born in Corduba, Hispania Baetica (present-day Córdoba, Spain). He is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Imperial Latin period, known in particular for his epic Pharsalia. His youth and speed of composition set him apart from other poets. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucan

Parrot, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The parrot, a vibrant green bird with a striking red collar, hails exclusively from India. It boasts a broad beak and a large tongue, enabling it to articulate words so clearly that one might mistake its voice for a human's voice. Naturally, it greets with cheerful calls of “Hail!” or “Rejoice!” and can learn new names through training. This talent is celebrated in the saying: "I, a parrot, will learn the names of others from you, but I learned to say 'Hail Caesar' on my own."

The parrot’s beak is extraordinarily hard, capable of saving itself from a fall onto rocks by gripping with its mouth. Its head is equally strong, allowing it to endure training to mimic human speech, even if it requires a firm hand. Young parrots, within their first year, are quick learners, absorbing and retaining what they see with ease. However, as they age, they become forgetful and harder to teach.

The parrot conveyed various allegorical meanings, often linked to its unique characteristics and abilities, such as its vivid coloration, ability to mimic human speech, and exotic origins.

The parrot's ability to mimic human speech made it symbolic of eloquence and wisdom. It represented the idea of learning and the transmission of knowledge. In some bestiaries, the parrot was seen as a model of the ideal Christian who learns and repeats the Word of God, embodying the virtue of obedience and the importance of spreading Christian teachings.

The parrot’s bright green colour was often associated with the lushness of paradise and the renewal of life. Its red collar symbolized martyrdom or the blood of Christ, linking the bird to themes of sacrifice and redemption.

Due to its vibrant plumage and long lifespan, the parrot was sometimes regarded as symbolic of incorruptibility and immortality. This aligned with Christian beliefs about eternal life and the soul's purity.

The parrot's mimicry was likened to the role of teachers and preachers in spreading the Christian doctrine. Just as the parrot repeats what it hears, Christians were encouraged to learn and disseminate the teachings of the Church.

Its exotic origin and beautiful plumage made it symbolic of the divine and the heavenly realm. It was seen as a creature that reminded Christians of the beauty and splendour of God's creation. Its colourful feathers were symbolic of purity and virtue, with different colours representing various aspects of Christian life, such as green for eternal life and red for sacrifice.

Sola india mittit avem psitacum. colore viri-
di. torque punicea. grandi lingua. et ceteris
avibus latiore. Unde et articulata verba exprimit.
ita ut(dots underneath) ut si eam non videris. hominem loqui putes.
Ex natura autem salutat dicens ave. vel kere. ce-
tera nomina institutione discit. Hinc est illud.
Psitacus avebis. aliorum nomina discam. Hoc didi-
ci per me dicere cesar ave. Cuius rostri tanta duri-
cia est; ut cum e sullimi precipitatur in saxum;
nisu oris se excipiat. Capud vero tantum valens ut

Only India[1] is the birthplace of the parrot, with its green colour, red collar, large tongue, and broader than other birds. It can express articulated words, so much so that if you do not see it, you would think a human is speaking. By nature, it greets by saying “Hail!” or “Rejoice!” It learns other names if you train it. Hence the saying: "I a parrot will learn to say the names of others from you, but I learned on my own to say 'Hail Caesar'." Its beak is so hard that when it is thrown from a height onto a rock, it catches itself with the force of its mouth to prevent injury. Its head is so strong that

quando ad discendum plagis sit admonendum. ut
sicut homines loquatur; ferrea sit ferula verberan-
dus. Nam cum pullis est et intra alterum etatis
sue annum; que monstrata sunt et citius discit;
et retinet tenatius. Paulo senior obliviosus est et
indocilis.

when it needs to be trained to learn human speech, it can be inflexibly struck with a rod. When it is young and within its first year, it learns more quickly by looking at what it is shown and retains it more tenaciously. When it gets older, it is forgetful and unteachable.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Parrot, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast235.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

[1] Parrots are not only natives to India. The medieval text emphasised India due to the exotic nature of parrots and the trade routes of that period, which brought many exotic animals to Europe from the East. India was a known source of many exotic birds and animals during medieval times, making it a focal point in descriptions of exotic wildlife.

[2] The interjection Kere! in the text comes from the Greek interjection χαῖρε/chaíre which means hail/rejoice.

Swan, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The Latin terms for swan, cygnus and ŏlŏr, both have roots in Greek language and mythology. The term ŏlŏr is specifically linked to the bird’s pure white plumage, as no black swan had been observed, aligning with the Greek word ὅλον (ólon), meaning entire or whole. Swans are celebrated for their melodious calls, which are said to fill the air with sweetness, inspiring the phrase "near the fords of the Meander, the white swan gathers."

Swans are famed for their beautiful singing, especially near their death, due to their long flexible necks allowing for a wide range of vocal modulations. In the Hyperborean mythos, swans are known to harmonize with citharists, enhancing the mystical ambiance with their harmonious songs.

The swan also holds symbolic significance for sailors, who regard it as a good omen, a belief supported by Emilianus who noted the bird's joyful nature in omens. Contrarily, in the biblical context of Leviticus, the swan is deemed unclean, symbolizing the duality of appearing pure while indulging in earthly vices. This dichotomy reflects a moral lesson on the contrast between outward purity and inner worldliness.

In medieval bestiaries, the swan was often depicted as a symbol of purity and beauty. Its white plumage was seen as a representation of innocence and soul's purity. However, there was also a recognition of the swan’s dual nature, where its beautiful exterior could mask inner flaws, aligning with the idea of false appearances.

The swan’s white feathers symbolized spiritual purity and chastity. This imagery was often used to contrast the pure, heavenly nature of the soul against the sinful, earthly body. Its life cycle, particularly the myth of the swan song—singing beautifully before death—was seen as an allegory for the Christian journey of life, culminating in a final act of divine beauty before entering eternal life.

Cignus latine; olor grece. Et dicitur olor quod sit
totus albus plumis. Nullus enim unquam vidit cig-
num nigrum. Olo enim grece; totum latine. Cignus;
a canendo est appellatus. eo quod carminis dulcedi-
nem modul vocibus fundit. Unde ad vada menan-
dri; concunt albus olor. Hec avis contra pericula in-
minentis sibi morits; dulcissimis vocibus sonat. Ideo
autem suavissime cignum canere dicunt; quod collum
longum et inflexum habet. et necesse est. eluctantem vo-
cem per longum et flexuosum iter; varias reddere mo-
dulationes. Ferunt autem in hiperboreis partibus precinentibus
citharedis; olores plurimos advocari. apteque ad-
modum concinere. Dicunt tamen quidem quod olor
latinum nomen est. Nam greci; cignus dicunt. Naute
vero sibi hunc; bonam prognosum facere dicunt.
Sicut emilianus ait. Cignus in auspitiis semper letis-
simus ales. Hunc optant naute; quia se non mer-
git in undis. Cignus in levitico inter inmundas
aves; reputatur. Quia nullus imitari debet con-
templativum cuius lectio est de celestibus et vita de ter-

The swan is called in Latin both cygnus[1] and ŏlŏr and such words have Greek origins. It is called ŏlŏr, for its plumage is entirely white. In fact, ὅλον/ólon means entire in Greek. No one has ever seen a black swan. The swan is named after its singing, for the melodious call it utters with melodious sounds effuses sweetness. Hence, the saying "near the fords of the Meander[2], the white swan gathers." This bird sings with the sweetest call against the dangers of its impending death. The swan is believed to be able to sing most sweetly, for it has a long and flexible neck and it is necessary for the struggling voice to produce various modulations through the long and winding path. In the Hyperborean regions, where citharists sing, many swans are summoned and sing along very harmoniously. However, the Latin name for the swan is said to be ŏlŏr. The Greeks call it cygnus or cycnus. Sailors, on the other hand, say this bird makes a good omen for them. As Emilianus[3] says, "The swan is always a very joyful bird in omens." Sailors desire it, for it does not sink in the waves. The swan is numbered among unclean birds in Leviticus, for no one should imitate a contemplator whose reading is about heavenly things and life about earthly things.

renis. In profundis terrenitatis et vitiorum sibi cibum queritantem. habentem spetiem mundicie et verba sane doctrine. seipsum tamen in inferioribus terre inmergentem.

In the depths of worldliness and vices, seeking food for himself, having the appearance of purity and words of sound doctrine, yet immersing himself in the lower parts of the earth.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Swan, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast237.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The swan was named cygnus or cycnus from the Greek word κύκνος/kýknos.

[2] The Maeander was a river of Caria in Asia Minor. It appears earliest in the Catalogue of Trojans of Homer's Iliad along with Miletus and Mycale. It is the present-day Büyük Menderes River in Southwestern Turkey. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Menderes_River

[3] Aemilianus of Cogolla was an Iberic saint, widely revered throughout Spain, who lived during the age of Visigothic rule. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aemilian_of_Cogolla

Hen, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The hen, gallīna, is a powerful symbol of God's wisdom made flesh, embodying Christ’s protective and sacrificial love for humanity. In the Gospels, Christ likens Himself to a hen who longs to gather Jerusalem's children under His wings, a symbol of His deep, nurturing care. Just as a hen becomes ill when her chicks are sick, Christ took on human weakness to shield us from evil. The hen’s fierce defence against predators reflects Christ’s battle against the devil, whereas her hoarse clucking mirrors His weary cries in His earthly suffering.

The hen’s selflessness parallels Christ’s rejection and humiliation for our sake. Leading her chicks, she reflects Christ’s call to discipleship: “Whoever wants to be my disciple must take up their cross and follow me.” The hen, digging out earth to find grain for her young, symbolises Christ’s work through preachers to cultivate virtue in our hearts. Like the hen feeding her chicks from her own mouth, Christ nourishes us spiritually: “Open your mouth and I will fill it.”

The hen’s wings, under which her chicks find refuge, represent the two Testaments—Mercy and Truth, Fear and Love—that protect believers. Christ, like the hen, becomes weak with His people, embodying Divine Wisdom as a nurturing mother. Even when weakened and humiliated, He remains the Creator and Saviour, whose strength formed the world and whose infirmity redeemed it. Just as the hen is to her chicks, Christ’s weakness is our strength, making Him both our gentle mother and our powerful protector.

Finally, Christ is also likened to an eagle, stirring and guarding His young, as described in Deuteronomy. In both the hen and the eagle, we see the fullness of Christ’s care: tender and fierce, humble and mighty, always seeking to gather and protect His people.

Galline nomine; dicitur sapientia dei. que carnem
assumpsit. Unde dominus dicit in evangelio. Ierusalem
ierusalem que occidis prophetas et lapidas eos qui ad
te missi sunt. quociens volui congregare filios tuos
quemadmodum gallina congregat pullos suos sub
ala. et nolvisti. Hoc animal maximum affectum
habet in filios. ita ut eorum infirmitate infecta; ipsa
infirmetur. Et quod in nullis aliis repperitur. eos
alis protegens contra mulvum pugnet. Sic dei sapientia
per carnem infirmata; protegit nos et defendit a
diabolo. Gallina clamando rauca est. Sic et dicit christus.
Laboravi clamans rauce facte sunt fauces mee. et
laboravi sustinens. Gallina pro amore pullorum
hyspidatur et turpis sit. sic et christus ab iectus ab omni-
bus re(added)putabatur. et leprosus dicebatur. Gallina;
precedit pullos. Et christus dicit. Qii vult meus esse. dis-
cipulus; tollat crucem suam et sequatur me. Gal-
lina unguibus pedum terram scarpendo strami-
na deicit; ut grana inveniat pullis. Sic christus per iiica-
nationis sue predicatores terram cordis nostris ape-

The name of the hen, gallīna, symbolises the wisdom of God, who became flesh. Hence, the Lord says in the Gospel: "Jerusalem, Jerusalem, who kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to you, how often I wanted to gather your children, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but you were not willing."[1] This animal shows great affection for her chicks, so much so that, infected by their illness, she becomes ill herself. This is something not found in any other animal: she fights against kites whilst protecting the chicks with her wings. Similarly, the wisdom of God, weakened by the flesh, protects and defends us from the devil. The hen, when she clucks, utters a hoarse call. Christ said: "I have laboured and cried out; my throat has become hoarse, and I have laboured and endured."[2] The hen, for the love of her chicks, becomes bristly and ugly. Similarly, Christ was rejected by all and regarded as a leper. The hen leads her chicks. Christ says thereof: "Whoever wants to be my disciple must take up their cross and follow me."[3] The hen, with her claws digging out the earth, throws away the straw to find grains for her chicks. Similarly, Christ, through the preachers of His incarnation,

rit. et superflua deicit. ut paleis vitiorum nostrorum
abiectis; granis virtutum nostrarum et bonorum
operum alios filios suos pascat. Gallina granum
ex ore proprio retrahit. et pullis proicit. Sic et christus
dicit. Aperi os tuum et implebo illud. Ale huius gal-
line sub quibus proteguntur pulli eius; sunt duo testamen-
ta. Vel misericordia et veritas. vel timor et amor. quibus
deus incipientes protegit. Dens voluit congregare fili-
os sinagoge sub alis suis; sed ipsa noluit. quia vo-
luntas dei filios eius congregavit et martires fecit;
et dominos mundi; etiam ipsa nolente; Gallina igitur
infirmitata est christus. et mater nostra est sapientia di-
vina. Nulla enim alia avis mater agnoscitur; nisi
in nido fuerit cum pullis. Gallina autem sic infirmatur
cum pullis suis. et ita fit alis demissis. et plumis his-
pida et voce rauca; et omnibus membris demissa et
abiecta; ut se si filios eius non videas nec nidum;
matrem tamen intelligas. Ecce habes infirmum ihesum. Unde
fatigatus ex itinere. sedit sexta hora ad puteum

digs out the earth of our hearts and throws away the superfluous to feed others with the grains of virtue and good deeds. The hen retrieves grain from her own mouth and feeds it to the chicks. Christ says thereof: "Open your mouth and I will fill it."[4] The wings of this hen, whereunder the chicks are protected, are the two Testaments, Mercy and Truth or Fear and Love, whereby God protects the new believers. God wished to gather the children of the synagogue under His wings but they did not want to, for the will of God gathered His children, made them martyrs and lords of the world, even though the hen herself did not want to. Thus, the weakened hen is Christ and our mother is divine wisdom, for no other bird is recognized as a mother unless she has been in the nest with her chicks. Thus, the hen becomes weak along with her chicks, she lowers her wings, her feathers become bristly and her call hoarse; and although all her limbs are lowered and shabby so that you might not see the chicks or the nest, you understand the mother. Behold, now you have the weak Jesus. Hence, exhausted from His journey, He sat at the sixth hour by the well of

samarie. Sed et est. fortis iesus. Quia per ipsum facta sunt
omnia. et sine ipso factum est. nichil. Et dominus virtu-
tum ipse est rex glorie. Fortitudo christi re creavit. in-
firmitas christi; te recreavit. Condidit nos fortitudine
et quesivit infirmitate. Infirmus infirmos nutrit.
omnibus omnia factus; tanquam gallina pullos suos. In-
firmitas illius nos fortes facit. Quia quod infirmum
est dei; fortius est. hominibus. Gallina igitur christi est; pul-
los fidelium nutriens. Ipse est et aquila; pullos suos
protegens. Unde in deuteronomio. Sicut aquila
provocans ad volandum pullos suos et super eos vo-
litans.

Samaria. Jesus is strong, for He made all things and nothing was made without Him. The Lord of Hosts[5] is the King of Glory. Christ’s strength created you and His infirmity restored you. He strengthened us and sought weakness for Himself. He is the weak who nourishes the weak, becoming all things to all people, like a hen to her chicks. His weakness makes us strong, for that which is weak in God is stronger than that which is in man. Thus, the hen is Christ, nourishing the chicks of the faithful. He is also the eagle, protecting his young. Hence, in Deuteronomy: "As an eagle stirs up its nest, hovers over its young and spreads its wings to catch them."

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Hen, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast102166.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Matthew 23:37: "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the one who kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to her! How often I wanted to gather your children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but you were not willing!"

[2] This is not a direct Bible quote bit it resembles the following from Psalm NKJV 69:3: "I am weary with my crying; My throat is dry; My eyes fail while I wait for my God."

[3] Matthew NKJV 16:24: "Then Jesus said to His disciples, 'If anyone desires to come after Me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow Me.'"

[4] Psalm NKJV 81:10: "I am the Lord your God, Who brought you out of the land of Egypt; Open your mouth wide, and I will fill it."

[5] The phrase "Dominus virtutum", "Lord of Hosts", refers to God’s role as the leader of heavenly armies. The term virtutum can mean "powers" or "forces" and in a biblical context, it frequently refers to the celestial armies or hosts of angels under God's command.

[6] Deuteronomy NKJV 32:11: "As an eagle stirs up its nest, Hovers over its young, Spreading out its wings, taking them up, Carrying them on its wings,"

Coot, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The coot is a highly intelligent and prudent bird that avoids carrion and remains in one place until the end, where it finds its food and rest. Its name comes from its flesh, which tastes like hare. Dwelling in ponds or by the sea, coots build their nests in the middle of the water or on surrounding rocks, delighting in the maritime depths. When a storm approaches, they flee to the shallows to play.

This behaviour serves as a metaphor for believers, who should remain steadfast in their faith and not wander like heretics. Instead of seeking worldly pleasures, they should rest in the Catholic Church, where the Lord provides spiritual nourishment through the bread of immortality and the precious blood of Christ, along with His sweet words, "sweeter than honey and the honeycomb" (Psalms 19:10).

Mystically, the coot symbolises believers who take pride in the sacrament of baptism, with their faith firmly rooted in Christ, the rock that withstands the waves of the world. David references this in saying, "Where we have the heron's house as their leader and the coot's house as their leader, that is, of the sparrows, meaning the saints of whom he had spoken before." The coot's house, representing Christ, is the foundation for the nest, indicating that Christ is the leader of all the saints.

Est volatile fulica satis intelligibile et prudentissi-
mum animal. Cadavere non vescitur. Nec aliun-
de pervolat sive oberrat. sed in uno loco commoratur.
et permanet usque in finem. et ibi escam suam habet
et requiescit. Et dicitur fulica eo quod caro eius car-
nem leporinam sapiat. Lagos enim lepus. Unde et apud
grecos lagos vocatur. Est autem stagnensis avis. vel
marina. habens nidos in medio aque. vel in petris
quas circundant aque. Maritimoque semper delectatur
profundo. Que dum tempestatem persenserit; fugi-
ens; in vado ludit. Sic ergo omnis fide-
lis se conservet. non huc atque illuc per diversa
oberrans circumvolet sicut faciunt heretici.
non desiderus secularibus et voluptatibus de-
lectetur. sed semper in uno loco se contineat. et
quiescat; in ecclesia catholica. ubi dominus habitare
facit unanimes in domo. Ibique habeat cotidianum
victum suum id est panem inmortalitatis. potum
vero; pretiosum sanguinem christi. reficiens se super mel et
favum; suavissimis eloquiis dei. Item hec avis

The coot is a quite intelligent and very prudent animal and does not feed on carrion. It does not fly elsewhere nor wander around but stays in one place and remains there until the end, where it has its food and rests. It is called coot, for its flesh tastes like hare. In Greek, λαγως/lagos means hare. It is a bird of the ponds or the sea and has nests in the middle of the water or on the rock surrounded by water. It always takes delight in the maritime depths. When it perceives a storm, it flees and plays in the shallows. Thus, believers should safeguard themselves, not wandering hither and thither about different places as heretics do. They should not desire secular and worldly pleasures but should always remain in one place and rest in the Catholic Church, where the Lord makes his dwelling harmonious for the believers. There, they can have their daily nourishment, which is the bread of immortality and their drink, which is the precious blood of Christ, refreshing themselves on the sweetest words of the Lord, 'sweeter than honey and the honeycomb' (Psalms, 19:10)[1]. This bird also mystically symbolises the believers who pride themselves in the sacrament of baptism, who have the dwelling of their faith in baptism upon the rock, which is Christ and which breaks the waves of the world that beat against it.

mistice significat fidelem queque sacramento bap-
tismi gloriantem. qui habet nidum fidei sue in bap-
tismo supra petram que est christus. que fluctus seculi
quibus tunditur; frangit. Unde david ubi nos
habemus. herodii domus dux est. eorum; fulice
domus dux est eorum. idest passerum id est sanctorum
de quibus prius locutus fuerat. Fulice enim domus;
est petra christus. super quem fundatus est nidus fulice. qui
xpistus; est dux omnium sanctorum;

David says thereof: 'Where we have the heron's house as their leader and the coot's house as their leader, that is, of the sparrows, meaning the saints of whom he had spoken before.' In fact, the coot's house is the rock, Christ, upon which the nest of the coot is built. Therefore, Christ is the leader of all the saints.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Coot, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast239.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Psalm NKJV 19:10: More to be desired are they than gold, Yea, than much fine gold; Sweeter also than honey and the honeycomb.

Ringed plover, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In medieval lore, the Caladrius, also known as Charadrius, emerges as a fascinating figure. According to the Physiologus, this mystical bird, akin to a ringed plover, is as white as a swan and possesses a long, graceful neck. Found in the courts of kings, the Caladrius is believed to have the extraordinary ability to diagnose the fate of the ill. If a person is destined to die, the bird turns its face away, signalling impending death. Conversely, if the person is to survive, the Caladrius gazes directly into their face, absorbing their illness. It then flies toward the sun, burning away the sickness and dispersing it, thus healing the afflicted.

Symbolically, the Caladrius represents our saviour. Its pure white colour symbolises a life free from sin and deceit. Christ, descending from high heaven, turned away from the unbelieving Jews and embraced the non-Jews, taking their illnesses upon Himself. He died on the cross, ascended to heaven, led captivity captive and bestowed gifts upon humanity. Despite being listed among unclean birds in Leviticus as well as forbidden to be eaten or imitated, the Caladrius still symbolizes Christ. This bird, with its long neck and habit of seeking food from the earth's depths, also signifies a contemplative person. Such a person is outwardly religious but overly concerned with earthly matters—a trait not to be emulated.

Ultimately, the Caladrius, by turning from the dying and looking to the living, as well as soaring towards the sun, mirrors the essence of Christ. Like the lion, king of beasts, and the eagle, king of birds, the Caladrius is unclean by law yet deeply emblematic of Christ's attributes: the supreme ruler of all the faithful.

Caladrius sive caradrius sicut dicit phisiologus;
totus est albus sicut cignus. et longum collum
habet. cuius interior fimus; curat caliginem oculorum.
Hic in atriis regum invenitur. Si quis est in egritudi-
ne; ex hoc caladrio cognoscitur; si vivat an moriatur.
Si enim homo mori debet; avertit faciem suam ab eo;
Et quo signo cognoscunt homines; quia moriturus est.
Si vivere debet; intendit in faciem illius. Et qui as-
sumeret omnem egritudinem illius intra se; volat in
aera contra contra solem quasi comburendo infir-
mitatem ipsius et eam dispergendo. et sic sanatur in-
firmus. Caladrius habet personam nostri salvatoris.
Totus enim est candidus. quia non fecit peccatum. nec
inventus est dolus in ore eius. Veniens autem christus de
excelsis; avertit faciem suam a iudeis propter incre-
dulitatem eorum. et convertit se ad nos gentes. tollens
infirmitates nostras exaltatus in ligno crucis. et as-
cendens in altum; captivam duxit captivitatem.
dedit dona hominibus. Caladrius tamen in levitico inter
inmundas aves numeratur; que commedi id est imitari;

As the Physiologus says, Caladrius or charadrius, a kind of ringed plover, is entirely as white as a swan and has a long neck[2]. Its internal dung cures blurring of sight. It is found in the courts of kings. If someone is ill, the plover knows whether the person will live or die. If a person is going to die, the plover turns its face away from them and the person will realise they are going to die. If the person is going to live, the plover will look into their face. This bird is said to take all the illness into itself, fly into the air towards the sun as if it were burning away the illness and dispersing it and thus, the sick person is healed. The plover symbolises our saviour: it is entirely white, for it did not commit sin nor was deceit found in its mouth. However, Christ, coming from high heaven, turned his face away from the Jews because of their unbelief and turned to us, non-Jews, taking our illnesses, breathed his last on the wood of the cross. He ascended to Heaven, led captivity captive and gave gifts to men. Nevertheless, the plover is listed among unclean birds in Leviticus, which are prohibited to eat, that is, to imitate

prohibentur. Et tamen christum significat. Inmundus enim
est secundum proprietatem illam qui longum collum ha-
bens cibum querit sibi de profundis visceribus terre.
Et ideo secundum illam proprietatem significat contemplati-
vum. habentem specium religionis. cuius lectio est de celestibus;
et vita de terrenis. qui in hoc imitandus non est. Se-
cundum autem illam proprietatem qua se avertit a morturis
et se convertit victuris volans in altum contra solem;
significat christum. Sicut leo et aquila licet inmunda sunt
secundum legem; tamen christum significant secundum aliquam sui
proprietatem. Quia leo est rex ferarum. et aquila vola-
tilium. et christus omnium fidelium;

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Caladrius, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast143.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] If we try to match this description more closely with a real bird, a species that is entirely white and has a relatively long neck is the Great Egret (Ardea alba). While not a plover, the Great Egret fits the physical description better: it is entirely white and has a long neck.

[2] This description seems more mythical or symbolic than the real description of this bird. In medieval bestiaries, animals often had exaggerated or idealized features that carried symbolic meaning rather than being accurate depictions of real animals. The white colour typically symbolises purity or holiness and the long neck could be a symbolic feature rather than a literal one.

[3] Ephesians NKJV 4:8: Therefore He says: “When He ascended on high, He led captivity captive, And gave gifts to men.” This phrase means that Christ triumphed over the powers of sin and death (captivity).

Stork, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Storks, named after the unique sound they make by clattering their bills, are fascinating birds embodying various symbolic and cultural significances. They herald the arrival of spring and are known to form large, organized flocks that migrate across seas, resembling an army led by crows. They engage in fierce battles against hostile birds or deserters, returning with visible wounds as evidence of their bravery and refusal to retreat from conflicts fought for the common good.

Remarkably, storks are thought to have no tongues, yet their parental devotion is profound. They maintain their nests with such dedication that they often lose feathers while brooding. This extraordinary care extends to their fledglings, who reciprocate by nourishing and supporting their parents in old age. This familial bond surpasses that of humans, who often neglect their elderly despite societal and legal exhortations to care for them. The Romans revered such birds, using their devotion as a moral exemplar for humans.

The stork also symbolizes the holy preacher, diligent in educating its offspring and fighting snakes, which represent evil. Biblical references, like in the Book of Jeremiah, highlight their timely return and enduring vigilance. Intriguingly, stork societies have a strict moral code; if a female stork commits adultery and fails to cleanse herself before her mate returns, she faces severe punishment from the flock. This mirrors the human need for repentance and moral accountability within the community.

Ciconie vocantur a sono quo crepitant. quasi cicanie.
Quem sonum oris potius scimus esse. quam vocis. quia
eum quaciente rostro; faciunt. Hec; veris; nuncie.
societatis comites. serpentium hostes. maria transvo-
lant. In asiam collecto agmine pergunt. Cornices du-
ces; precedunt eas. et ipse quasi exercitus ordinatus ad
bellum; sequntur. Unde creduntur in alieno solo. eas
bella contra inimicas aves. vel desertrices nature vel
consuetudinis proprie; inferre. Simul enim quotquot
fuerint in aliqua regione pergunt ordinate ad bellum.

Storks are named after the sound they make[1], almost like the sound crickets make. Storks produce this sound by clattering their bills. They are heralds of spring, companions of society, enemies of snakes and fly across the seas. Resembling an army prepared for battle and led by crows, they gather in flocks and head to Asia. It is believed that they engage in battles against hostile birds or deserters of nature or of their own customs in foreign lands. Whenever they gather in any region, they go into battle arrayed.

Cuius rei indicium est; que nulla per interval-
lum aliquod temporis; residere tunc in illis lo-
cis reperitur. et quia cum vulneribus reverten-
tes manifesta quadam sanguinis sui voce; cer-
tis que loquitur inditiis; gravium certaminum
se subisse conflictum. Ecce quid natura dedit. vi-
delicet quod nulla se subtrahere audeat bellis;
pro communi utilitate susceptis. Aves istas ferunt
linguas non habere. Eximia illis circa filios pie-
tas est. Nam adeo nidos inpensius fovent; ut assi-
duo incubitu; plumas exuant. Quantum autem tem-
pus inpenderint fetibus educandis et in curis;
tantum et ipse invicem a pullis suis aluntur. me-
lius servantes federa inter parentes et filios; quam
homines. homines enim qui etiam inperatorum precep-tis et liegibus arcantur ad dilectionem patrum
suorum; patres suos vetulos abiciunt. et ciconiis
inferiores inveniuntur. Nam antiqui patris ar-
tus per longeue senectutis tempus plumarum
tegmine et alarum remigio nudatos; circum-
stans soboles penius propriis fovet. et collato cibo

It is observed that they are not found staying in those places for any interval of time and return with wounds, clearly showing signs of severe conflicts. Their nature is that they dare not withdraw from battles fought for the common good. These birds are believed not to have tongues. They feel exceptional parental love[2] towards their offspring, to such an extent that they lose their feathers when they keep their nests warm, owing to the constant brooding. They spend their time raising and caring for their fledglings, which in turn nourish and take care of their parents; therefore, they are better than humans are at keeping the bond between parents and children. Humans, even when instructed by the laws and precepts of emperors to love their parents, abandon their elderly parents and regard them as inferior to storks. In fact, the chick closely surrounds its old father’s limbs, stripped of feathers and of the flapping of the wings due to the old age and nourishes him with its own or obtained food until she restores the parent to its former state. Hence, among the Romans, the stork is regarded as a pious bird. Following the example of the stork’s devotion and justice, the laws of emperors instruct men to learn to imitate storks.

pascit; donec in pristinum statum reducat. Unde
apud romanos; pia avis dicitur cyconia. ad eius
pietatis exemplum; leges imperatorum homi-
nes informant. ut discant coconias imitari.
Nomine igitur ciconie; significatur predicator sanc-
tus. qui inimicus est serpentibus. et sollicitus circa fi-
liorum educationem. pugnans pro nobis contra
inimicas potestates. Unde ieremias. Milvus in celo
cognovit tempus suum. turtur et hirundo et
ciconia custodierunt tempus adventus sui. Dicunt
quoque quidam quod ciconia uxor si cum altero quam
cum proprio viro adulterata fuerit. statim ne a viro
revertente deprehendatur; lavat se et baptizat
in aqau. et sic res domino latebit. Si autem antequam bap-
tizetur redeat dominus; statim per odorem; adulte-
rium deprehendit. et convocans multitudinem
coconiarum; rem illis insinuat. que omnes contra adulte-
ram quasi sancto iuditio; insurgunt. et occidunt. Sic
si aliquis fidelis cum diabolo vel ydolis vel hereticis.
vel cum muliere adulteratur; statim se baptizat in
aqua lacrimarum et penitencie. alioquin a multitudi-

Thus, the stork symbolises the holy preacher who is an enemy of serpents and is diligent in the education of his offspring, fighting for us against hostile powers. Hence, Jeremiah says: "The hawk in the sky knows its time, the turtle dove, the swallow, and the stork have kept the time of their coming."[3] Some also say that if a female stork commits adultery with another male, she immediately washes and asperses herself in water so as not to be discovered by her returning husband; therefore, the matter will remain hidden from him. If the male returns before she asperses herself, he immediately detects the adultery by smelling her, gathers together a multitude of storks, informs them of the matter and they all rise against the adulteress, acting as holy judges and kill her. Likewise, if believers commit adultery with the devil, idols, heretics, or a woman, they immediately asperse themselves in the water of tears and repentance;

ne predicatorum condempnatur et ab ecclesia proi-
citur.

otherwise, the multitude of preachers will condemn and cast them out of the church.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Stork, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast236.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Bill-clattering of the stork

[2] Pĭĕtās has various meanings in Latin from pity, piety, devotion and in this case, it means parental love and affection.

[3] Jeremiah NKJV 8:7: “Even the stork in the heavens Knows her appointed times; And the turtledove, the swift, and the swallow Observe the time of their coming. But My people do not know the judgment of the LORD.

Ibis, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The ibis, a bird of the Nile River, engages in unique cleansing rituals by purging its bowels and purifying itself with its beak. It feeds on snake eggs and carrion, providing rich nourishment for its young. Despite its fear of water, it patrols the shoreline in search of food. With a long neck akin to a stork's, it efficiently cleanses itself and retrieves food from deep places. The ibis is known to be the enemy of snakes, which is why Josephus notes that Moses used these birds when confronting the snake-infested regions of Ethiopia.

Symbolically, the ibis represents mortal humans who consume deadly deeds, nourishing their souls with wretched sustenance. In contrast, Christians, reborn through water and the Holy Spirit, should seek the purest spiritual nourishment, as outlined by the Apostle: "The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, long-suffering," and more. Just as the sun and moon must shine and birds must extend their wings to fly, humans need the sign of the cross and twin love to navigate worldly calamities toward heavenly peace. Similarly, Moses’ raised hands brought victory to Israel, whereas his lowered hands favoured Amalek.

The ibis' name symbolises those who love earthly things, the devil, the luxurious, or the inquisitive. It strives for heavenly goals but remains tied to earthly thoughts. In Leviticus, it is listed among unclean birds, meaning that contemplators focused on earthly matters should not be emulated. Isaiah also associates the ibis with reprobation, stating, "The pelican and the hedgehog will possess it; the ibis and the raven will dwell in it."

Ibis est avis nili fluminis rostro suo purgans
alvum suum. et semetipsam purgat rostro
in anum aquam fundens. hec serpentum
ovis vescitur. et morticinis. et ex eis gravissimum
cibum pullis suis reportat. Nam in aquam ingre-
di timet; quia natandi naturam nescit. sed iuxta
litus die nocte obambulat. querens aut mor-
tuos pisciculos aut aliqua cadavera. que ab aqua
foras eiecta fuerint. Habet et longum collum
sicut ciconia. ut et aluum purget et cibum sibi
de profundo eliciat. Hec avis inimica est serpen-

The ibis is a bird of the Nile River that cleanses itself by purging its bowels with its beak and purifies itself by spurting water into its anus with its beak. It feeds on snake eggs and carrion, bringing the richest food that it takes from them to its nestlings. It fears going into the water, for it does not know how to swim but it walks along the shore day and night, seeking either dead fish or some other carrion that have been thrown out of the water. It has a long neck like a stork, enabling it to cleanse its bowels and extract food from deep places. This bird is an enemy

tibus. Unde iosephus dicit quod huiusmodi aves de-
tulit moyses secum cum iret contra ethiopes. quoniam in
illis regionibus serpentes habundant. Ibis sig-
nificat mortales homines. qui mortiferis operibus
quasi escis utuntur quibus misere anime nutri-
untur ad penam. Tu vero christiane qui aqua et
spiritu sancto renatus es. ingredere ad spiritua-
les aquas misteriorum dei; et inde tibi sume mun-
dissimos cibos quos enumerat apostolus dicens.
Fructus autem spiritus est; caritas. gaudium. pax.
pacientia. longanimitas. et cetera. Nisi sol et lu-
na extenderint radios suos; non lucent. Volu-
cres nisi extenderint alas suas; volare non po-
terunt. Sic et tu homo si signo crucis non munieris;
gemineque dilectionis alas non extenderis ad quietis-
simum portum celestis patrie per medias huius
mundi procellas; transmeare non poteris. Denique
cum moyses elevaret manus suas; superabat israhel
Cum vero remitteret manus; superabat Amalech;
Nomine igitur ibicis aliquando significatur contemplativus
terrena diligens. aliquando diabolus vel luxuriosus. vel

of snakes. Hence, Josephus[1] says that Moses brought such birds along when he went against the Ethiopians, for snakes abound in those regions.

The ibis symbolises mortal humans, who use deadly deeds as food that nourishes their wretched souls as punishment. But you, Christian, who are reborn by means of water and the Holy Spirit, enter the spiritual waters of God's mysteries and take from them the purest foods, which the Apostle enumerates, saying, "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, long-suffering,"[2] and so on. Unless the sun and the moon extend their rays, they do not shine. Birds cannot fly unless they extend their wings. Likewise, man cannot cross through the calamities of this world to the most peaceful harbour of the heavenly homeland without the sign of the cross and the wings of twin love extended. Thus, when Moses raised his hands, Israel prevailed but when he lowered his hands, Amalek[3] prevailed.

Thus, the name of the ibis sometimes symbolises contemplators who love earthly things, sometimes the devil or the luxurious or

vel curiositas. Ibis enim dicitur contemplativis;
cuius lectio est de celestibus. et cordis cogitatio de
terrenis. querens sibi cibum de profundis terre-
norum. Unde in levitico. ibis inter inmundas aves
que commedi non debent reputatur. Quia contemplati-
vus ille non est imitandus; qui non in celestibus. set
in terrenis conversationem habet. Ibis item dicitur dia-
bolus vel luxuriosus. vel curiosus. Unde ysaias de re-
probatione iudee vel perverse mentis dicit. Posside-
bunt eam onocrotalus et hericius et ibis. et corvus
habitabunt in ea. et cetera. Item ibices dicuntur pre-
predicatores sancti. Unde dominus ad iob ait. Nunquid
nostis tempus patrus ibicum; Quasi diceret. Ego so-
lus novi; quando predicator in predicatione profi-
ciet. quido auditoribus cum volo compunctionem
veram;

the inquisitive. The ibis is also described as contemplative, for it strives for heavenly things but its heart's thoughts are of earthly things, seeking food from the depths of the earthly things. In Leviticus, the ibis is enumerated among the unclean birds that should not be eaten, for contemplators are not to be imitated owing to their dedication to earthly things instead of heavenly ones. The ibis is also associated with the devil, the luxurious, or the inquisitive. Hence Isaiah, concerning the reprobation of Judea or a perverse mind, says, "The pelican and the hedgehog will possess it; the ibis and the raven will dwell in it,"[4] and so on.

Ibises are also defined as holy preachers. Hence, the Lord says to Job, "Do you know the time when the ibises give birth?"[5] as if to say, only I know when a preacher will be successful in his preaching and when I want true compunction to come upon the listeners.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ibis, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast342.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Josephus, a first-century Jewish historian, writes about Moses and the ibis bird in his work "Antiquities of the Jews." Specifically, he mentions Moses and the ibis in Book 2, Chapter 10, Section 2. In this passage, Josephus describes Moses as a general of the Egyptian army and his campaign against the Ethiopians. The ibis bird is mentioned as part of a strategy that Moses uses to protect the Egyptians from a plague of serpents.

This passage in most translations of "Antiquities of the Jews" but here is a relevant excerpt for reference:

"Moses, therefore, when he was in great straits, called upon God, and God heard him, and gave him that counsel which he followed. So taking the army he came to Pelusium, the place where the Egyptian and Ethiopian bounds touch one another. And there, finding a great many serpents, he made baskets, like unto arks, of sedge, and filled them with ibes, which are the greatest enemies to serpents imaginable, for they fly from them when they come near them; and then, when Moses had them all, he let them go among the serpents. By which means he was able to destroy the serpents and obtain victory."

[2] Galatians NKJV 5:22: But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness,

[3] Amalek is a figure in the Bible known as the progenitor of the Amalekites, a group often depicted as enemies of the Israelites. Amalek and the Amalekites symbolize perpetual opposition to Israel and divine judgment for their actions, serving as a significant theme in the narrative of the Israelites' journey and their relationship with God. The battle against the Amalekites at Rephidim occurred shortly after the Israelites' exodus from Egypt. Attacked by the Amalekites, the Israelites, under Joshua's command, fought while Moses, on a nearby hill, raised his hands with the staff of God. As long as Moses' hands were raised, the Israelites prevailed; when lowered, the Amalekites gained the upper hand. Supported by Aaron and Hur, Moses kept his hands steady until sunset, leading to Israel's victory. God commanded Moses to memorialize the event, declaring perpetual enmity with Amalek. This battle highlighted the Israelites' dependence on divine support for victory (Exodus 17:8-16).

[4] Isaiah NKJV 34:11: But the pelican and the porcupine shall possess it, Also the owl and the raven shall dwell in it. And He shall stretch out over it The line of confusion and the stones of emptiness.

[5] In truth, this sentence does not appear in the Bible. Actually, the Lord says to Job in Job NKJV 39:1: “Do you know the time when the wild mountain goats bear young? Or can you mark when the deer gives birth?

Ostrich, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The ostrich was called assida, was known to the Greeks as strouthokámilos and to the Latins as struthio. It is a fascinating creature with a unique behaviour. Despite having wings, it cannot fly and has feet similar to the feet of a camel. When the time comes to lay its eggs, the ostrich gazes at the sky, waiting for the appearance of the star Virgilia. It only lays its eggs when this star rises, typically around June. The ostrich buries its eggs in the ground and covers them with sand, then leaves, never returns to them. The summer heat incubates the eggs and the warmth of the dust helps them hatch.

This behaviour serves as a metaphor for humans. If the ostrich can recognize its time and forsake its offspring, focusing instead on celestial matters, how much should humans strive for their heavenly calling? God became men to save humanity from darkness and elevate them to His glorious kingdom.

Ostriches are also seen as symbolic of hypocrisy. Souls that claim to serve God but are involved in worldly affairs are considered hypocrites. Isaiah criticizes such hypocrites, saying they will dwell in a land inhabited by dragons and ostriches, symbolising deceit and rage. Job mentions the ostrich's wings, comparing them to those of storks and hawks and states that he is a companion to both dragons and ostriches, indicating that saints must coexist with both overtly wicked and deceitful individuals. According to Leviticus, the ostrich is deemed unclean and should not be eaten, symbolising that those serving God should avoid secular entanglement. Such individuals, though appearing religious, are corrupted by their earthly desires.

This allegory emphasises the importance of prioritizing spirituality over worldly pursuits, staying true to one's faith and avoiding the pitfalls of hypocrisy.

Est animal quo dicitur assida quod greci stra-
tecamelon vocant. latini vero strucion. ha-
bet quidem pennas sed non volat. Pedes autem
cameli similes. Cum vero venerit tempus ut ova
sua pariat; elevat oculos suos ad celum. et in-
tendit si stella que dicitur virgilia appareat.
Non enim ponit ova sua nisi quando oritur stella illa.
Quando autem viderit circa mensem iunium ipsam
stellam; fodit in terram ova sua. et cooperit
sabulo. Cum ascenderit de loco illo; statim ob-
liviscitur eorum. et numquam redit ad ova sua.
Tranquillitas ad quidem aeris et temperies hoc pres-
tare videtur. ut estate calefacta arena; ex-
coquat ova sua. et fotu pulveris animentur.
et producat pullos. Si ergo assida cognoscit
tempus suum et obliviscitur posteritatis sue.
ac terrena postponens sequitur celestia; quanto
magis o homo tibi ad bravium superne vocatio-
nis tendendum est; Propter quem deus homo
factus est. ut eriperet de potestate tenebrarum
et collocaret cum principibus populi sui in
regno glorie sue. Strutiones etiam dicuntur ypocrite.

This animal is called assida, which the Greeks call στρουθοκάμηλος/strouthokámilos and the Latins call struthio. It has wings but does not fly. Its feet are similar to those of a camel. When the time comes for it to lay its eggs, it raises its eyes to the sky and waits to see if the star called Virgilia[2] appears. It does not lay its eggs unless that star rises. When it sees that star around the month of June, it buries its eggs in the ground and covers them with sand. As soon as it leaves that place, it immediately forgets about them and never returns to its eggs. The stillness and warmth of the air seem to make it so that, during summer, the heated sand incubates the eggs and the warmth of the dust gives them life and hatches them. If the ostrich knows its time, forgets about its offspring and strives for earthly things instead of heavenly ones, then how much more, O man, should you strive for the prize of the heavenly calling?[3] For your sake, God became man to rescue you from the power of darkness and place you with the leaders of His people in His kingdom of glory. Ostriches are also believed to be hypocrites.

sice anime deo militantes. et seculi negotiis se in-
plicantes. Unde de ypocritis qui alas et speciem sci -
tatis habent set non rem; dicit ysaias contra perversam
mentem; sub spetie iudee. Erit cubile draconum. et
pascua strutionum. Et iterum per prophetam. Glo-
rificabit me bestia agri. dracones et strutiones
hinc dominus ad iob. Penna strutionis; similis est. penne
horodii et accipitris. Item iob. Frater sui draconum.
et sotius strutionum. Sancti enim quandiii sunt in hoc
seculo; habitare noverunt et pacem habere cum
draconibus id est aperte sevientibus. et cum strutionibus
id est fictis et ypocritis et occulte malis. Hec avis;
in levitico inter inmundas reputatur. nec comme-
di debet; quia nemo militans deo inplicans se
negotiis secularibus; imitandus est. Inmundus enim
est; qui religionis habitum habet et lectionibus
in celestibus fertur. et tamen per vite cupiditatem; cira
terram sempter habitat.

Thus, the souls who serve God and are involved in worldly matters are hypocrites. Hence, concerning hypocrites who have the appearance and semblance of knowledge but not the reality, Isaiah speaks against the perverse mind, under the guise of Judea: "It will be a dwelling place for dragons and a pasture for ostriches."[4] Isaiah again: "The wild beasts of the field will honour me, the dragons and the ostriches."[5] Hence, the Lord says to Job: "The wing of the ostrich is similar to the wing of the stork and the hawk." Also in Job: "He is a brother to dragons and a companion to ostriches."[7] In fact, saints, as long as they are in this world, know how to live and be at peace with dragons, that is, with openly raging ones, and with ostriches, that is, with false, hypocritical and secretly evil ones. This bird is enumerated among the unclean animals in Leviticus and should not be eaten, for no one who serves God should involve themselves in secular matters: they are unclean, wear the garment of religion and are engaged in celestial matters; due to the desire for life, they always dwell on earthly matters.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ostrich, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast238.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The ostrich had various names in Latin: struthiocamēleus, assida or aspida or struthio.

[2] There is no star known as Virgilia in current astronomical catalogues or literature. The term Virgilia seems to appear in other contexts, such as a genus of plants or within specific cultural references, but not as an astronomical body. It is possible that Virgilia could be a historical or mythological reference rather than a recognized celestial body. The description in your text might refer to a star associated with a particular myth or ancient tradition, rather than an actual star known by astronomers today.

[3] The phrase "prize of the heavenly calling" alludes to the idea of striving for spiritual goals, reminiscent of Biblical exhortations to pursue faith and righteousness (e.g., Philippians 3:14: "I press on toward the goal for the prize of the upward call of God in Christ Jesus").

[4] Isaiah NKJV 34:13: And thorns shall come up in its palaces, Nettles and brambles in its fortresses; It shall be a habitation of jackals, A courtyard for ostriches.

[5] Isaiah NKJV 43:20: The beast of the field will honor Me, The jackals and the ostriches, Because I give waters in the wilderness And rivers in the desert, To give drink to My people, My chosen.

[6] Job NKJV 39:13: “The wings of the ostrich wave proudly, But are her wings and pinions like the kindly stork’s?

Halcyon, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The halcyon[1] is found in Greek mythology. Initially, it was a woman, Alcyone, the wife of Ceryx, who embarked on a voyage to consult the oracle of Apollo. Zeus had been offended by Alcyone, so he sent a storm to drown her husband Ceryx. However, Alcyone’s mourning was so sorrowful that she drowned herself when she saw her husband’s dead body. The gods turned her into a bird and, as she continued her mourning, Ceryx’s body was also changed into a halcyon.

The halcyon is known for laying its eggs on the shores around midwinter when the sea is most turbulent. During this critical time, the tumultuous sea mysteriously calms down and the winds subside, providing a serene environment for the halcyon to hatch its eggs. Sailors celebrate this period of tranquillity, lasting fourteen days, as the halcyon days.

This phenomenon invites us to reflect on our faith and trust in the goodness of God. Just as the halcyon, an irrational creature, trusts in divine protection amidst storms and tempests, we, who are created in the image of God, should have even greater faith. The halcyon's confidence in the face of adversity expounds a profound lesson: if we have faith, even as small as a mustard seed, we too can overcome great challenges. The halcyon days remind us that trust in divine providence can bring peace and calm to the most tumultuous times in our lives.

Altionis quoque nomen licet non repperiatur
in canone; vel in sacra scriptura. quia eius
natura moraliter nos instruit; de ea dicemus
aliqua. Altion igitur que romane dicitur mawe;
avis est maritima. que in littoribus fetus suos
edere solet. ita ut arenis ova sua deponat medio
fere hiemis. Nam id temporis fovendis habet depu-
tatum partibus; quando maxime insurgit mare.
et vehementior fluctus; litoribus illuditur. quo
magis repentine placiditatis solempnitate; avis

Although the name of this bird is not found in the canonical scriptures, for its nature instructs us morally, we will say something about it. The halcyon is a sea bird that usually begets its nestlings on the shores, depositing the eggs in the sand around midwinter. It chooses as the time to hatch its eggs the moment when the sea is at its highest and the waves break more fiercely than usual on the shore. During this time, the gracefulness of this bird radiates in the calmness that suddenly follows[2]. When the bird lays its eggs, the stormy sea suddenly calms down and all the gales and blasts of wind subside. The sea remains calm until this bird hatches its eggs. The halcyon incubates its eggs for seven days and generates its chicks after the seven days. It then spends another seven days nurturing and caring for them until they begin to grow. These fourteen days are called halcyon days[3] by sailors, during which they are assured of the sea's tranquillity and the weather’s calmness.

huius eluceat gratia. Nam undosum mare po-
sitis ovis; subito mitescit. et omnes cadunt
ventorum procelle. flatusque aurarum mitescunt.
ac placidum ventis; stat mare; donec ova fo-
veat hec avis. Diebus septem fovet ova sua.
quibus decursis; producit pullos. Adiungit ali-
os septem dies quibus nutrit eos et fovet donec
incipiant adolescere. Hos .xiiii. dies naute vo-
cant altionitas. quibus securi sunt de tranquil-
litate maris et temporis. Ecce qualiter hec
avis nos invitat. un non simus modice fidei sed
securi presumamus de bonitate dei. qui in se spe-
rantes liberat ab omni periculo. Qui si ha-
beamus fidem tanquam granum sinapis;
dicemus monti huic ut transferat se in mare
et transferet se. Quid igitur dubitatis modice fi-
dei; Multis passeribus et altionibus omnibus;
meliores estis vos. qui non irrationales estis
ut altiones; sed ad ymaginem dei creati. Alti-
on enim que irrationalis est; tempestates
videns insurgere. sevire ventos. fluctus contra
se mugire. secura de dei bonitate; timore non

See how this bird invites us not to be of little faith but to confidently trust in the goodness of God, who delivers those who hope in Him from all danger. If we have faith as a mustard seed, we could say to this mountain to move into the sea and it would move[4]. O men of little faith, why do you doubt then? You are more valuable than many sparrows[5] and all the halcyons: you are more rational than the halcyon and created in the image of God. The irrational halcyon, seeing the storms rise, the winds rage and the waves roar, feels confident in the goodness of God

reflectitur; sed inpellitur. et statim quiescunt
maria. et venti; quasi ad meritum fidei altio-
nis. Quanta igitur faciet homo ad dei ymanginem
creatus si fidem altionis habeat.

and is not paralysed by fear but is urged. The seas immediately calm down and the winds subside, as if it were thanks to the halcyon's faith. How much more, then, will a man, created in the image of God, achieve if he has the faith of a halcyon?

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Kingfisher, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast240.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The Latin name for the halcyon or kingfisher was alcўōn or halcўōn or altion.

[2] The bird's grace is emphasized during this period of sudden peace. It suggests that the bird has a calming effect on the environment, aligning with the mythological belief in "halcyon days"—a period of calm seas during the bird’s nesting time. The term "halcyon days" originates from Greek mythology, where it was believed that the halcyon (kingfisher) calmed the sea during its nesting period. This passage reflects that belief, showing the bird's association with both turbulent and calm seas.

[3] The term "halcyon days" refers to a period of calm. According to the myth, the halcyon bird was said to nest on the sea and calm the waves during the winter solstice. The gods granted a period of calm weather, known as the halcyon days, during which the bird could lay its eggs.

[4] Matthew NKJV 17:20: So Jesus said to them, “Because of your unbelief; for assuredly, I say to you, if you have faith as a mustard seed, you will say to this mountain, ‘Move from here to there,’ and it will move; and nothing will be impossible for you.

[5] Matthew NKJV 10:31: Do not fear therefore; you are of more value than many sparrows.