Crocodile, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The crocodile, named after its distinctive saffron-yellow colour, reigns supreme in the Nile River. This formidable creature, which can grow by up to twenty cubits long, is a fearsome predator on both land and in water, equipped with powerful teeth and claws. Its incredibly tough skin is so resistant that it remains unaffected even when struck by the hardest stones. The crocodile rests in the water by night and on land by day. It lays its eggs on the ground, with both parents taking turns to protect them.

Interestingly, some accounts claim that certain snakes enter the crocodile’s body through its right side and exit through its left—a peculiar detail that highlights the mystical and enigmatic nature of this ancient predator.

According to Bartholomaeus Anglicus¹, crocodiles would shed tears to lure their preys before swallowing them and the expression crocodile tears seems to derive from this.

This symbolised deceit and the behaviour of individuals who concealed their true, often malicious, intentions. In this context, the crocodile served as a cautionary symbol against the dangers of deception and the importance of discerning true intentions.

The crocodile’s tears symbolised the call for Christians to cry for their own sins and to repent in order to be saved.

The text below associates crocodiles to hypocrites, who are greedy, proud, corrupted, lascivious, praise luxury and are obsessed with evil and pretend to submit to the law and pose as righteous.

Crocodrillus dictus est a croceo colore. gignitur
in nilo flumine. Animal quadrupes. in ter-
ra et aqua valens. longitudine plerumque .xx. cubi-
torum. dentium et unguium imanitate armatum.
Hominibus infestum. Tantaque est. duricia cutis. ut etiam
imanissimis lapidibus in tergore percussum; non
sentiat. Nocte in aquis. die; in humo quiescit. Ova
in terra fovet. Masculus et femina vices servant.
Hunc pisces quidam serratam habentes cristam; te-
nera ventrium desecantes; interimunt. Est et in nilo
delphinum genus dorso serrato. qui hoc idem faciunt. Co-
codrillos quidam putant esse pisces eoque in aquis nove-
rint manere. Alii dicunt alias beluas; eoque in terris no-

the name crocodile is ascribed to its saffron colour². It is born in the Nile River. This animal is a quadruped, powerful both on land and in water and is mostly about twenty cubits in length. It is equipped with huge teeth and claws and is hostile to humans. Its skin is so hard that, even when hit with huge stones on its back, it does not feel it. It rests in the water by night and on land by day. It broods the eggs on land. The male and female take turns. There is a type of fish, such as the hydrus, that can cut open a crocodile’s tender belly and kill it. In the Nile, a type of dolphin with a dorsal fin as sharp as a saw can also kill a crocodile. Some believe crocodiles are fish and thus remain in the water. Others say they are different beasts and therefore, they remain

verint esse. Solus cocodrillus pre omnibus animalibus
superiora oris movet. inferiora autem imota tenet. Ster-
cus eius sit unquentum unde vetule et rugose mere-
trices facies suas perungunt. fiuntque pulre(corrected to pulcre); donec sudor
defluens lavet. Cocodrillus qui est animal dure cu-
tis. et malitiosum et luto pascitur; luxuriam invetera-
tam significat. Un in levitico inter imunda animalia
que comedi non debent; numerantur. Cuius etiam figu-
ram portant ypocrite sive luxuriosi atque avari.
qui quamvis visco superbie inflentur; tabo luxurie ma-
culentur. avaricie morbo obsidentur. tamen rigidi
et velut sanctissimi in iustificationibus suis(dots underneath) legis coram
hominibus sese ostendunt incedere. Nocte in aquis. die in
humo quiescit. Quia ypocrite quamvis luxurie vivant;
tamen sancte et iuste vivere dici delectantur. Cons-
cii sue malicie corda plangunt. licet usu semper retra-
hat consuetudo ad perpetrata. Superiora oris movet;
quia hii sanctorum patrum exempla. verborumque copiam
aliis in verbo ostendunt. cum minime ea que dicunt
in se ostendunt. De stercore eius unguentum fit; quia
plerumque mali ab imperitis laudantur; de perpetrato
malo. ac velud huius mundi favoribus excelluntur. Sed cum

on land. In comparison with all the other animals, only the crocodile can move the upper part of its mouth; the lower part of the mouth remains motionless. Its dung seems to be a kind of ointment, whereon old and wrinkled harlots rub their faces. They become beautiful until the sweat drains the ointment off. The crocodile, which is an animal with tough skin, malicious, and feeds on mud, signifies inveterate luxury. In Leviticus, they are regarded as unclean animals and therefore, they should not be eaten. The hypocrites, the lascivious and the greedy carry its image. These people are beguiled by pride, are corrupted by luxury and plagued by the scourge of greed. They appear unbending and honest and pose as righteous men before other men. The crocodile rests in the water by night and on land by day. Hypocrites delight in being called holy and righteous, although they live in luxury. Their hearts bleed, for they are aware of their malicious conscience, but they are accustomed to drawing back from their deeds. The crocodile moving the upper part of its mouth means that the hypocrites follow the examples of the holy fathers and their mouths are filled with someone else’s words when they speak: their words and actions do not match in the least. The ointment being made from the crocodile’s dung means that evil deeds are generally praised by the ignorant, who are besotted with their mundane ambitions and do wrong. But when

iudex districtus pro perpetratis malis iram suam ad fe-
riendum promovet; tunc omnis decor ille laudis;
velut fumus evanescit.

a judge, compelled to punish the culprits on account of their perpetrated evil deeds, vents his anger towards them, then all the beauty of praise vanishes like smoke.

Cocodrillus dictus est a croceo colore. Gignitur
in nilo flumine. Animal est. quadrupes in
terra et in aqua valens. longitudine plerumque
viginti cubitorum. dentium et unguium immanita-
te armatum. Hominibus infestum. Tantaque est
ei duricia cutis ut etiam inmanissimis lapidibus
in tergore percussum; non senciat. Nocte in aquis. die in
humo quiescit(changed from quisscit). Ova in terra fovet. Masculus et
femina vices servant. Timum dicuntur serpentes
qui intrant dextro latere in cocodrillum. sinistro exe-
unt. ut superius patet. cetere ne eius superius describuntur;

The crocodile, named after its saffron-yellow colour, is a creature found in the Nile River. It is a powerful animal both on land and in water, often growing by up to twenty cubits in length and armed with formidable teeth and claws. The crocodile is a dangerous enemy to humans. Its skin is so tough that it feels nothing, even when struck by the hardest stones. By night, the crocodile rests in the water, whereas it rests on land by day. It lays its eggs on the ground and the male and female take turns to guard them. Certain snakes³ are said to enter the crocodile’s body through its right side and exit through its left, a strange detail often repeated in descriptions of the creature.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Crocodile, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast146.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 A Franciscan monk born in Suffolk in the thirteenth century. He studied natural sciences and theology at Oxford.

2 In reality, crocodiles are not saffron-coloured. The writer of the bestiary might be referring to the fact that κρόκος/ krókos means saffron in Greek.

3 The author of the bestiary is referring to the hydrus/hydros or enhydrus. This animal is the enemy of crocodiles, as mentioned by Isidore of Seville (Etymologies, Book 12, 6:19-20). Please read folio ff93r.

Fox, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

r

The fox is a clever and deceitful animal representing the heretics and the Devil: just as the Devil pretends to be dead and then devours the souls of sinners, the fox pretends to be dead and waits for birds to plane close to its body in order to devour them.

In Christian symbolism, the fox was often associated with the deceitfulness and slyness of Satan but it also symbolised heretics and false prophets who led believers astray with deceptive teachings with regard to their faith.

Those who imitated the fox’s behaviour were the sinners of flesh, liars and the lecherous as well as thieves, murderers and the idolaters. Therefore, this animal was often compared with King Herod called that fox in the Bible, as we see in Luke 12:32-33: And He said to them, “Go, tell that fox, ‘Behold, I cast out demons and perform cures today and tomorrow, and the third day I shall be perfected.’”. Just as the fox digs the earths, Herod digs the earths of sin by embodying inebriation and lechery, pride, cruelty, arrogance, greed, betrayal and disloyalty.

Thomas of Cantimpré describes the fox as having healing properties: its liver is able to heal iliac infections whereas its brain frees from epilepsy, especially if it is given to children.

Vulpis dicitur; quasi volipes. Est enim volubilis pedi-
bus. odore fetens. et numquam recto itinere. sed tortuo-
sis anfractibus currit ex mutabilitate animi. Fraudu-
lentum animal et ingeniosum et insidiis decipiens
Namque cum esurit; finit se mortuam involutans se;
rubra terra et extrahens linguam. Sicque descendentes quasi
ad cadaver aves; capit et devorat. Multi homines
putantes illam mortuam; in vehiculo ciborum eam
proiecerunt ut dicitur. et sic saturata; se ad terram
fugiendo deiecit. Aves de nocte et gallinas super arbo-
res sedentes. ad scintinas oculorum suorum quasi lumen

The fox is called vulpēs¹, sounding as the syncopation of volipēs². It is fleet-footed and it smells fetidly. It never runs in a straight line but twists and turns owing to the changeable nature of its mind. A deceitful, clever, and cunning animal that deceives by laying traps. When it craves food, it feigns death by wrapping itself up in red soil and sticking out its tongue. Thus, when birds plane close to its body, the fox seizes and devours them. Many a man, thinking it dead, has thrown it away on the food cart, as they say, and when the fox is satiated, it throws itself down onto the ground whilst fleeing. Fire draws to itself birds by night and hens sitting on trees as they descend towards it.

ignis allicit; ut descendant. Infatuantur enim scintillan-
tibus lumenibus. Vel quia lumen in tenebris aves petunt;
ad id descendunt. Istius(small gold capital) eiusdemque figuram diabolus habet.
Omnibus enim viventibus secundum carnem; fingit se esse mortuum quo-
adusque intra guttur suum habeat et puniat. Spiritua-
libus tamen viris in fide vere mortuus est. et ad nichilum re-
dactus. Qui autem volunt exercere opera eius; moriuntur
dicente apostolo. Scientes quasi secundum carnem vixeritis;
moriemini. Si autem spiritu facta carnis mortificaveri-
tis; vivetis. Et david. Intrabunt in inferiora terre. tra-
dentur in manus gladii partes vulpium erunt. Item signi-
ficat hereticum subdolum. cuius typum tenuit herodes.
qui christum id est humilitatem christiane fidei in credentibus conabatur
extinguere. Un in evvangelio dicit dominus illis qui dixe-
runt ei quod herodes querebat eum occidere. Ite et di-
cite vulpi illi. Ecce eicio demonia et sanitates perfitio.
hodie et cras. et tertia die consumor. Umtn opportet me
et hodie et cras et sequenti ambulare. quia non capt pro-
phetam perire extra ierusalem. Q.d.Non poterit me herodes
occidere hic. q2 non convenit me alibi occidi qui sum summus
propheta; nisi in ierusalem. et alli prophete mei occisi sunt. et hoc
a pilato fiet in ierusalem; ubi herodes non habet potestatem.
H’ ambulatio ad litteram intelligitur. q2 disposuit ire in

Indeed, they have themselves deceived by the sparkling lights. Birds seek light in darkness; therefore, they descend towards it. The devil has a similar image. For all living beings who live by the flesh, he pretends to be dead until he has them in his gullet and devours them. However, for spiritual men who live by faith, he is truly dead and reduced to nothingness. Those who wish to practice the Devil’s deeds die, as the Apostle⁴ says: “or if ye live after the flesh, ye shall die; but if ye through the Spirit do mortify the deeds of the body, ye shall live.” (Romans, 8:13). David says: “They shall go into the lower parts of the earth: they shall fall by the sword: they shall be a portion for foxes.” (Psalms, 63:9-10)

ierusalem. Herodes igitur nec heretici poterunt perturbare quod
iiitendo facere. Intendo enim eicere demonia de cordi-
bus hominum. ut relictis vanitatibus in me credant.
et perficere sanitates animarum ut secundum precepta meam vi-
vant. postea consummationem accipiam in corpore meo.
quod est. ecclesia. quando in die resurrectionis eam glo-
rificatem et consumatam ad consortium angelorum
perducam. Hodie igitur et cras; significant duos dies quibus
christus erat in cruce et in sepulcro. quibus redemit eccle-
siam. Tercia dies erat resurrectionis; qn omnia consumma-
vit. Vel prima dies est per dei gratiam abrenuntiare¹ va-
nitatibus. Sccl’a concordare veritati; vita et moribus.
Tercia; est ultima glorificatio. De dolositate quoque here-
ticorum legitur in libro iudicum. qualiter sampson
cepit .ccc. vulpes caudasque earum iunxit ad caudas.
et faces ligavit in medio. quas igne succendens; suc-
cendit per eas segetes philistinorum Vulpes etiam dicun-
tur demones. Unde in evvangelio. Wlpes foveas habent
et volucres celi iudum;

Similarly, this symbolises the sly heretic, the type whereof Herod regarded as role model. Herod attempted to extinguish Christ, that is, the humility of the Christian faith, among the believers. In the Gospel, the Lord says to those who told Him that Herod attempted to kill Him: “And he said unto them, Go ye, and tell that fox, Behold, I cast out devils, and I do cures to day and to morrow, and the third day I shall be perfected. Nevertheless I must walk to day, and to morrow, and the day following: for it cannot be that a prophet perish out of Jerusalem.”(Luke KJV 13:32-33). That is to say, Herod will not be able to kill me here nor is it appropriate for me to be killed elsewhere, since I am the Highest Prophet, except in Jerusalem, where other prophets have also been killed. This will happen in Jerusalem, where Herod has no power. The walking is interpreted literally as His plan to go to Jerusalem. Therefore, neither Herod nor heretics shall be able to disrupt what He intends to do by going there, for I intend to cast out demons from the hearts of men so that they may believe in me once they have left vanity behind and restore the health of their souls and live according to my commandments. Later, I will receive consummation in my body, which is the Church, and on the day of resurrection, I will lead Her⁵ glorified and consummate to the Communion of Angels. Therefore, today and tomorrow symbolise the two days when Christ was on the cross and in the tomb, redeeming the Church. The third day was the day of resurrection when He completed all things. The first day is by God's grace to renounce vanities, the second day is to agree with the truth and to live in life and morals. The third day is the Highest Glorification. We can read of the deceitfulness of heretics in the Book of Judges that tells the story of Samson, who caught 300 foxes and tied them tail to tail in pairs and fastened torches in the middle. He lit the torches and then set fire to the Philistines’ crops⁶. Foxes are also called demons. Hence, in the Gospel, foxes have holes, and the birds of the air have nests.⁷

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Fox, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast179.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

1 Ecclesiastical Latin strengthened form of rĕnuntĭo to mean to renounce.

2 The Latin dictionary shows the word fox as vulpēs or volpēs or vulpis.

3 The adjective volipēs means swift-footed/nimble. It comes from volo (to fly) + pes (foot).

4 The Apostle Paul in Romans 8:13.

5 It is referring to the Church.

6 Judges KJV 15:4: “And Samson went and caught three hundred foxes, and took firebrands, and turned tail to tail, and put a firebrand in the midst between two tails.”

7 Matthew KJV 8:20: “And Jesus saith unto him, The foxes have holes, and the birds of the air have nests; but the Son of man hath not where to lay his head.”

Yale, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The name yale, also called centicore, is believed to derive from the Hebrew word יָעֵל (yael), which means ibex.

In Medieval Christian symbolism, this beast may have represented strength and courage: it was often portrayed as a formidable creature with great strength and courage. Its ability to defend itself against attackers, often depicted by its use of its rotating horns, symbolized bravery and resilience in the face of adversity.

Christians often associated the yale with the idea of protection and defence against evil forces. Its ferocious appearance and reputed ability to turn its horns to face any threat were interpreted as symbolic guardianship, representing the protective power of faith against spiritual adversaries.

Some interpretations of the yale in Medieval Christian symbolism draw parallels with Christological themes. For instance, the yale's ability to rotate its horns may have been seen as a metaphor for Christ's omniscience and omnipotence, his ability to confront and overcome all challenges.

Est bestia que dicitur eale. magna ut equus. cauda;
elephantis. nigro colore. maxillis caprinis. cornua
preferens ultra modum longa. ad obsequium cuius velit
motus accomodata. Neque enim rigent; sed moventur
ut usus exigit preliandi. Quorum alterum cum pug-
nat; pretendit; alterum replicat. Ut si ictu aliquo
alterius acumen offenderit; acies succedat alterius;

The beast called yale is as large as a horse, has a tail like that of an elephant, is of black colour, has caprine jaws, and exceedingly long horns that adjust to any movements it wishes to make, for they do not stiffen, but they move as the need for fighting requires. When the yale has to fight, one horn moves forward whereas the other one folds back. If the tip of the first horn is damaged by a blow, it is replaced by the tip of the second one.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Yale, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast142.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Manticore, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The manticore was the cruellest and most bloodthirsty animal of all beasts, owing to its longing for human flesh.

This beast has a leonine body, a human face and a tail resembling a scorpion’s sting and its origin is to be traced back to India or Persia. Its name comes from the Persian mardkhora, which means man-eater.

In Gustave Flaubert’s The Temptation of St Anthony, the manticore says of itself:

“The gleam of my scarlet hair mingles with the reflection of the great sands. I breathe through my nostrils the terror of solitudes. I spit forth plague. I devour armies when they venture into the desert. My claws are twisted like screws, my teeth shaped like saws, and my curving tail bristles with darts, that I broadcast right and left, before and behind.”

In Christian symbolism, this animal was associated with the prophet Jeremiah because he was buried beneath the ground whilst there were rumours that a manticore was living in a cave, but this association short-lived.

The manticore represented envy, tyranny and the embodiment of evil but also sinful desires: its insatiable appetite for human flesh could be interpreted as a symbol of sinful desires and the dangers of giving in to hedonistic or immoral behaviour. This allegory emphasized the importance of resisting such temptations.

The manticore's hybrid nature, combining features of different creatures, was sometimes seen as a symbol of moral confusion or lack of a clear moral foundation. It served as a cautionary tale about the consequences of straying from virtuous paths.

plici dentium ordine. coeunte vicibus alternis. facie
hominis. glaucis oculis. sanguineo colore. corpore-
leonino. cauda velut scorpionis aculeo. spiculata
voce tanquam sibila ut imitetur modulos fistularum.
humanas carnes avidissime affectat. pedibus sic viget;
saltibus sic potest. ut mori eam nec extensissima¹ spa-
cia possint cogere; nec obstacula latissima;

The manticore² is a beast born in India. It has three rows of teeth that intertwine like the teeth of a comb. It has the face of a human, greyish-blue eyes and a blood-red colour. It has a leonine body, and its tail resembles a scorpion's sting. It has a sharp, hissing voice similar to the sound of flutes and bagpipes. It eagerly longs for human flesh. It is so swift and jumps so high that neither the vastest areas nor the most insuperable obstacles can force it to die.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Crocodile, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast146.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Extentus/extensus

2 The Latin spelling is mantĭchōrās and comes from the Greek μαρτιχόρας/martikhórās.

Tarandrus, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The tarand was first mentioned as tarandos/tάρανδος by Aristotle in his Corpus Aristotelicum, then by Pliny in his History of The Animals as tarandus and also Solinus called it parandrus.

In Medieval bestiaries and Christian symbolism, the tarand was often associated with strength and endurance due to its ability to navigate harsh winter environments and pull heavy loads. This symbolism was sometimes used to represent the perseverance and resilience of Christians in facing the challenges of life.

The tarand's antlers, which shed and regrow annually, were seen as a symbol of renewal and rebirth, paralleling themes of spiritual renewal and the resurrection of Christ.

The image of the tarand pulling a sleigh or carrying burdens was sometimes interpreted allegorically as an emblem of humility and service, reflecting Christ's role as a servant leader and the Christian call to serve others.

Ethiopia emittit bestiam parandrum nomine. Boum
magnitudine. ybico vestigio. ramosis cornibus.
capite cervino. ursi colore. et parriter villo profundo;
Hunc parandrum affirmant habitum metu vertere.
et cum delitescat fieri ad similitudinem cuicumque rei proxi-
maverit. sive illa saxo alba sit; seu frutecto virens.
sive quem alium modum perferat.

In Ethiopia, there appears an animal by the name of tarandrus. It has the size of an ox, cloven hooves and branching horns, a deer-like head, the colour and the shaggy fur of a bear. This beast is said to be able to change its appearance when it is scared and when it hides, it becomes chameleonic, blending with any nearby thing, whether it be white like a rock or green like a shrub, or in whatever manner it prefers.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Yale, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast142.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Wolf, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The most common interpretation of the wolf in medieval Christian symbolism is as the enemy of man and a representation of evil, sin, and temptation. This association stems from the predatory nature of wolves, which were seen as symbols of spiritual danger and moral corruption. The wolf's voracious appetite and cunning, hunting tactics were often used to illustrate the dangers of succumbing to sinful desires.

In addition to representing general sinfulness, the wolf was sometimes used metaphorically to symbolize false teachers or heretics who sought to lead Christians astray from true faith. This interpretation draws on biblical passages warning of "wolves in sheep's clothing" (Matthew 7:15) who deceive others with their false teachings.

Despite its negative connotations, the wolf could also symbolize redemption and transformation in some Christian allegories. The story of St. Francis of Assisi¹ taming the wolf of Gubbio², for instance, was interpreted as a metaphor for the power of faith and compassion to overcome hostility and bring about reconciliation.

In rare cases, the wolf was associated with positive qualities such as guardianship and protection. This interpretation drew on the medieval belief in the noble and loyal nature of certain wolves, particularly those that were tamed.

References to wolves in the Bible are numerous, with various passages using wolves as a symbol of danger, destruction, or moral corruption. For instance, in the Old Testament, wolves are often mentioned in the context of desolation and destruction as in Jeremiah NKJV 5:6:

“Therefore a lion from the forest shall slay them, A wolf of the deserts shall destroy them; A leopard will watch over their cities. Everyone who goes out from there shall be torn in pieces, Because their transgressions are many; Their backslidings have increased.” or in Ezekiel NKJV 22:27: “Her princes in her midst are like wolves tearing the prey, to shed blood, to destroy people, and to get dishonest gain.”

In the New Testament, as mentioned earlier, Jesus warns his disciples to beware of false prophets who come in sheep's clothing but are inwardly ravenous wolves as we see in Matthew 7:15:

“Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravenous wolves.”.

Lupus greca dirivatione in linguam nostram transfer-
tur. Lupos enim dicunt illi; licos. sic a morsibus ap-
pellati. quod rabie rapacitatis quecumque. invenerint;
trucidant. Alii lupos vocatos aiunt quasi leo pus.
eoquod virtus leonis sit illis in pedibus. Unde et quic-
quid presserint; non vivit. Lupus a rapacitate di-
citur. Unde et meretrices lupas vocamus. eo quod aman-
tium bona vastant. Rapax autem bestia et cruores
appetens. In pectore vel ore; vires habet. In renibus
vero minime. Collum numquam retro flectere potest.
Aliquando fertur vivere preda; aliquando terra. nonnumquam;
vento. Lupa namque mense alio nisi in maio quando
fit tonitruum; catulos non gignit. Cuius astutia est.
tanta. ut in viscinia sua predam non capiat ca-
tulis suis. sed in longinquo. Quod si opus fuerit et noc-
tu predam querat. tanquam canis mansuetus passim ad
ovile pergit. et ne fortuitu sui flatus odorem sentiant ca-
nes. et evigilent pastores; contra ventum vadit. Et si ramus
aut aliquid sub eius pede tangendo sonaverit; ipsum pe-
dem castigat morsu aperto. Oculi eius in nocte lucent; ve-
lut lucerne. Cuius natura talis est. ut si prior hominem vi-
derit; vocem eripet. et despicit eum tanquam victor vocis
ablate. Unde subito tacenti; dicitur. Lupus est. in fabu-
la. Idem si se previsum se senserit; deponit ferocitatis auda-
ciam. et non potest currere. Famen diu portat et post mul-
ta ieiunia; multum devorat. Lupi toto anno non am-
plius quam dies .xii. coeunt. Lupos ethiopia mittit iiibatos
cervice. et tantum varios; ut nullum eis colorem dicant
abesse. Bruma autem comati sunt. estate nudi. Dicitur a’
quod homo cui vox ablata est quem lupus prior vidit. si de
ponit vestimentum suum pedibus conculcandum sumens in ma-
nibus duos lapides quos feriat alterutrum; recipiet vocem
suam. et lupus perdet audatiam suam. Solinus qui plura
de naturis rerum refert; dicit quod caude animalis huius;
amatorium est vel amatorium inest. added above vellus; perexiguum. quod dentibus ipse evellit
et proicit. si capi timuerit. Nec habet potentiam(corrected from potentiantiam) nisi illo

The word lupus, wolf, derives from Greek and has been transferred into our language. The Greeks called wolves λύκος/lýkos from the bites they inflict, and due to the rage of their rapacity, they slaughter whatever they encounter. Others say that wolves are called lŭpi sounding like leo (lion)+ pes, for the strength of a lion is in their legs (pēs). Hence, whatever they trample will not survive. Wolves are said to take their name from their rapacity. Hence, we also call harlots lŭpae, for they ravage the possessions of their lovers. This rapacious animal seeks blood and has strength in its chest or mouth, but not in the loins. Its neck cannot bend backward. Sometimes, the wolf is said to live on its preys, sometimes on earth, sometimes on the wind. A she-wolf, however, gives birth only in May, when thunder occurs. Its cunning is so great that it does not catch the prey for its own cubs in the vicinity but far away. When it needs to hunt at night, it goes everywhere like a tame dog goes here and there to the sheepfold, lest the dogs accidentally smell its odour and the shepherds awake, it goes against the wind. If a twig or anything under its foot makes a sound, it punishes its own foot by biting it. Its eyes shine at night like lamps. It has such a characteristic that if it sees a person first, it takes away their voice, watches them with disdain and feels victorious over them after their voice has been taken away. Hence, silence is associated with the presence of wolves in fables. If a wolf senses that it is noticed first from afar, it loses its ferocity and is not able to run. It remains starved for a long time and after many fasts, it devours aplenty. Wolves mate no more than twelve days throughout the year. In Ethiopia, there are wolves with manes on their necks that are so variegated that people say that they are definitely not lacking in colour. However, they have long hair in winter and are naked in summer. A man, whom a wolf has seen first and whose voice has been taken away, should take off his garment, put it under his feet to be trampled upon, take two stones in his hands, strike one against the other and he will recover his voice, and the wolf will lose its temerity. Solinus, who tells of the nature of things, states that if a wolf fears that it may be captured, there is a tiny tuft of hair serving as a love philtre within the tail of this beast, which the wolf tears off with its teeth and whereof it rids. The wolf has power as long as it is alive, or else its power is taken away.

vivente; detrahatur. Lupi figuram diabolus portat.
qui semper humano generi invidet. ac iugiter circuit cau-
las ecclesie fidelium. ut mactet et perdat animas eorum. Quod vero
generat tonitruo primo mensis(corrected from mansis) maii. significat diabolum
prius in celo angelum fuisse. nunc deorsum apostatum factum
esse. Oculi eius in nocte lucent velut lucerne. quia quedam
diaboli opera. cecis et fatuis viris videntur esse pulcra et salubria.
Cum catulos gignit non nisi in longinquo predam capit; quia
eos diabolus bonis temporalibus fovet de quibus certus est in ge-
hennalibus claustris secum penas perpeti. Illos autem omnino inse-
quitur; qui bonis operibus ab eo elongant. Sicut de beato iob;
legitur. cui omnem substantiam. nec non et filios et filias abstulit;
ut a domino recederet cor eius. Quod numquam collum retro sine
toto corpore valet flectere; significat diabolum ad penitu-
dinis correctionem nuquam flecti. Quid agendum est. homini
cui lupus abstulit vires clamandi. qui vero non habet potestatem
vociferandi; perdit ausilium longe stantis. Sed quid agendum
est; deponat homo vestimentum suum pedibus suis concul-
candum. sumens in manibus duos lapides. quos feriat al-
terutrum. Qui deinde lupus audaciam sue virtutis per-
dens; fugiet. Homo vero tutus suo ingenio liber;
erit; sicut in principio. Spiritualiter hoc intelligen-

The Devil has the same nature as the wolf. He envies the human race and continually circles the cells³ of the faithful Church in search of souls to slaughter and corrupt. The fact that the she-wolf gives birth as soon as the first thunder of May is heard, it signifies that the devil was once an angel in heaven, and now he has become an apostate below, in the nether world. Its eyes shine at night like lamps, for certain works of the devil seem beautiful and beneficial to blind and foolish men. When the she-wolf gives birth to her cubs, she catches her prey only from afar, for the devil rewards with temporary goods those of whom he is certain that they will endure eternal torments in hell with him. He pursues altogether those who distance themselves from him by doing good deeds. As we read about the blessed Job, we learn that the Devil stripped him of his wealth and killed his sons and daughters, so that his heart might distance itself from the Lord. Those who cannot bend their neck backward without turning their whole body symbolise that the devil can never be subdued into repentance. What should a man whose power of shouting has been taken away by a wolf do? Those who do not have the power of shouting lose the help of those standing from afar. What is to be done? A man should take off his garment and trample upon it, taking in his hands two stones to strike one against the other. When the wolf loses its temerity coming from its power, it will flee. In truth, a man confident in his intelligence will be free, as he was in the beginning. This is to be understood

dum est. atque ad superiorem sensum allegorice est dicendum. Quid
enim per lupum nisi diabolum. quid per hominem nisi peccatum. quid
per lapides nisi apostolos seu ceteros sanctos vel dominum nostrum
significare poterimus; Omnes enim per prophetam adamantini lapides dicti
sunt. Ipse enim dominus noster iesus christus in lege vocatur lapis offensionis
et petra scandali. De quo dicit propheta. Vidi virum stantem supra mon-
tem adamantinum. Antequam denique redempti essemus; sub potestate
inimici eramus. Vocemque clamandi perdideramus. Qm peccatis
nostris exigentibus; a deo non audiebamur. neque aliquem sanctorum
in auxilium nobis interpellabamus. Postquam vero clementissimus
deus gratificavit nos in filio suo; deposuimus in baptismo vete-
rem hominem cum actibus suis. ac induimus novum qui secundum deum
creatus est. Deinde sumpsimus lapides in manibus de quibus alteru-
trum ferimus. Quia sanctos dei qui iam in celis regnant cum
christo; nostri oris ferimus alloquio. ut ipsi aures pulsent iudicis. ac
veniam nobis impetrent criminis. ne nos quem nescimus absor-
beat baratrus. nostro gaudens interitu. Ethiopicis lupis proprium
est quod in saliendo ita nisus habent alitis. ut non magis pro-
ficiant cursu; quam meatu. Homines tamen numquam impetunt.

in spiritual terms and can be taken to a higher level as an allegory. What do we mean by the wolf if not the devil, by man if not sin, and by stones if not the apostles or other saints or our Lord? All are called adamantine stones⁴ through the words of the prophets. Our Lord Jesus Christ himself is called the stone of stumbling and the rock of offence in the law⁵. The prophet says of him, “I saw a man standing above an adamant mountain.” Finally, before we were redeemed, we were under the authority of the enemy, and we had lost the ability to shout and much as our sins required it, we were not heard by God, nor could we call any of the saints to our aid. After our most merciful God bestowed us his grace through His Son, in the act of baptism we rid ourselves of the old person we were before with all our deeds and we become the new person created in the image of God. Then, we took stones in our hands wherewith we strike one another. With our mouths, we exhort the saints of God, who now reign in heaven with Christ, in order that they may ring in the ears of our Judge and obtain forgiveness for our sins, lest the abyss that we do not know swallow us, rejoicing at our death. It is characteristic of Ethiopian wolves that they leap so high that they seem to have wings, going further than they would by running. However, they never attack humans.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Wolf, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast180.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Legend has it that when St. Francis was living in Gubbio, he tamed a wolf that was terrorising livestock and humans by making the sign of the cross and commanding the wolf to cease its attacks. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_of_Gubbio

2 Medieval town in the province of Perugia, in the Region of Umbria, central Italy.

3 Cells refer to the rooms of monks and friars or priests in monasteries, churches and convents.

4 Zechariah KJV 7:12: “Yea, they made their hearts as an adamant stone, lest they should hear the law, and the words which the LORD of hosts hath sent in his spirit by the former prophets: therefore came a great wrath from the LORD of hosts.” Ezekiel KJV 3:9: “As an adamant harder than flint have I made thy forehead: fear them not, neither be dismayed at their looks, though they be a rebellious house.”

5 1 Peter KJV 2:8: “And a stone of stumbling, and a rock of offence, even to them which stumble at the word, being disobedient: whereunto also they were appointed.”
Romans KJV 9:33: “As it is written, Behold, I lay in Sion a stumbling stone and rock of offence: and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed.”

Dog, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Nowadays, dogs are extolled for their loyalty, faithfulness and unconditional love for their masters. In Medieval Christianity, they were also depicted as symbols of loyalty and faithfulness due to their reputation as faithful companions to humans. This loyalty was often seen as an allegory for the faithful devotion that Christians should have towards God and His teachings.

Dogs' instinct to protect their owners and territories made them symbols of guardianship and protection. This aspect of their nature was often used to represent the role of Christians in guarding against spiritual dangers and defending the faith.

Dogs are known for their keen sense of smell and hearing, as well as their vigilance in watching over their surroundings. As such, they were also seen as symbols of vigilance and alertness, reminding Christians to be watchful for temptation and spiritual threats.

Their ability to distinguish between friend and foe, as well as their obedience to commands, made them symbols of discernment and discipleship. Christians were encouraged to discern between good and evil and to follow the teachings of Christ obediently, much like a well-trained dog follows its master's commands.

References to dogs in the Bible include both positive and negative connotations:

Positive References: Dogs are occasionally portrayed positively in the Bible, such as in the story of the faithful dog accompanying Tobit on his journey as we see in Tobit 6:2-8: “The young man went out and the angel went with him; and the dog came out with him and went along with them. So they both journeyed along, and when the first night overtook them they camped by the Tigris river. Then the young man went down to wash his feet in the Tigris river.”

In some contexts, dogs are associated with impurity, scavenging, and contempt as we see in Exodus NKJV 22:31:

“And you shall be holy men to Me: you shall not eat meat torn by beasts in the field; you shall throw it to the dogs.”

and in Philippians NKJV 3:2:

“Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers, beware of the mutilation!”

.

Canis nomen latinum grecam ethimologiam habere
videtur. Grece enim cenos dicitur. licet quidem a canore
latratu appellatum existiment. eoquod insonat. Unde et
canere dicitur. Nichil autem sagatius canibus. Plus enim sensus
ceteris animalibus habent. Nam soli sua nomina recognoscunt.

The Latin word cănis, dog, seems to be of Greek etymology. The Greek word for dog is κύων/κυνός (kyon/kynos). Some may think dogs take their name after their melodious barking. Its barking is similar to singing, which is cănĕre in Latin. However, nothing is more intelligent than dogs; they have more understanding than other animals, for they are the only ones that recognize their own names, when heard,

Dominos suos diligunt. Canum sunt plurima genera. Alii ad
capiendum investigant feras silvarum. alii ab infestationibus
luporum vigilando greges ovium custodiunt. Alii custodes domorum
substantiam dominorum suorum custodiunt. ne forte rapiatur in noc-
te a latronibus. Etiam pro dominis suis se morti subiciunt. Volunta-
rie ad predam cum domino currunt. Corpus domini sui; etiam mortuum;
custodiunt. et non relinqunt. Quorum postremo nature est; extra
homines esse non posse.

and love their masters. There are many kinds of dogs. Some scent the trails of animals in forests in order to catch them. Others shepherd flocks to protect them from wolf attacks. Others guard the houses and the possessions of their masters, lest they be stolen by thieves at night. They even sacrifice their lives for their masters. They willingly run along with their masters after a prey. They even guard the body of their masters when they are dead and do not abandon it. Their nature is such that they cannot exist without man.

Legitur canes in tantum dominos diligere; ut garramantem regem
ab inimicis captum ac in custodia mancipatum; ducenti canes
agmine facto per medias acies inimicorum reduxerunt. preliantes
adversus resistentes. Iasone licio interfecto; canis eius eius asper-
natus cibum; inedia obiit. Lismachi regis canis; se in flammis
iniecit. et accenso rogo domini sui inflamma pariter et igne com-
sumptus est. Apio. Iunio. Pictimo consulibus. dampnatum dominum;
canis cum abigi non posset; comitatus in carcerem mox percussum;
ululatu prosecutus est. Cumque ex miseratione populi romani potes-
tas ei fieret cibi; ad os defuncti escam tulit. Ultimo idem deiectum
in tyberum; cadaver adnatans sustentare conatur. Cani vero
ubi vestigium leporis cervi ve repperit; atque ad diverticulum
semite semite venerit; et quoddam variumvel viarum added compitum quod
partes in plurimas scinditur. obiciens singularum semitarum exor-
dia tacitus ipse secum pertractat. velut sillogisticam vocem
sagacitate colligendi odoris emittens. aut in hanc partem inquit
deflexit; aut in illam. aut certe in hunc anfractum se contu-
lit; Sed nec in istam nec in illam; ingressus est. Superest igitur ut
in istam se partem contulerit. Et sic falsitate repudiata; inve-
nit veritatem;

We read that dogs love their masters so much that when King Gărămās¹ was captured by the enemies and taken as hostage, two hundred dogs formed a troop and brought him back through the midst of the enemy's ranks, fighting against those who resisted. When Jason was killed, his dog refused food and died of starvation. The dog of King Lysimachus² threw itself into the flames when its master’s funeral pyre was lit and was consumed by fire along with him. During the consulships of Appius, Iunius, and Pictimus, there was a dog that could not be taken away from its convicted master and when the latter was being taken to prison, the dog accompanied him and howled during the execution. When the people of Rome fed the dog out of pity, it carried the food to the mouth of its deceased master. Lastly, when the master was thrown into the Tiber, the dog tried to keep it from sinking. In truth, when the dog scents the trail of a hare or a deer and comes to a crossroad or junction branching off into many directions, it places itself at the beginning of every single path and silently examines them thoroughly as if it were uttering a syllogistic bark. Then, it infers to itself, relying on the sharpness of its sense of smell: “the animal turned into this or that path, or certainly took this bend. Neither into this nor into that did it turn. Therefore, the fact remains that it turned into this path”. Thus, having rejected the wrong assumptions, it finds the truth

Sepe etiam necis illate evidentia canes ad redarguendos
reos; indicia prodiderunt. ut muto eorum testimonio;
plerumque sit credendum. Antiochie ferunt in remotiore parte ur-
bis quendam virum crepusculo necatum. qui canem sibi ad-
iunctum haberet. Miles quidam occisus est astabat canis. questu
lacrimabili; domini deflebat erumpnam. Mane occurrunt turbe
multe ad spectaculum. Inter quas occurit et occisor; ut fidem
innocentie faceret. et velut miserans; appropinquavit ad
funus. Tunc canis sequestrato paulisper questu doloris;
apprehendit eum et tenuit. et velud in eum insultans mi-
serabile carmen inmurmurans; universos convertit in lacri-

When a murder has been committed, dogs have often provided evidence and helped to convict wrongdoers. Their silent testimony is mostly believed. In Antioch, a man was reported to be about to be killed at dusk in a remote part of the city and had a dog accompanying him. When a certain soldier was killed, his dog stood near with tearful wails, lamenting the death of its master. Early in the morning, the crowd gathered for the spectacle, among whom the killer appeared to prove his innocence. Feigning grief, he approached the funeral. The dog, having ceased wailing briefly, seized and held him. After jumping on him, it started to wail plaintively and moved everyone to

mas. et tamdui tenuit; quousque ille cum non haberet
quid responderet; crimen professus est. et sic ultionem per(dots underneath)
perpessus est. Canis quo3 ubi vestigium leporis cervi ve rep-
perit; atque ad diverticulum venerit. ubi fuerint capita
plurimarum viarium; ad singula odorat nare sagaci. et sic
falsitate repudiata; viam veritatis ingreditur; donec
predam inveniat. Preterea lingua canis dum lingit vulnus
sanat illud. Catuli lingua; vulneratorum intestinorum solet esse
saluti. Item natura eius est; ut ad vomitum revertatur;
et iterum commedat. Item modicus victus cani sifficit. Item cum
canis flumen transnatat. carnem vel aliquid tale in ore te-
nens. cum viderit umbram os suum aperit. atque dum properat
carnem aliam sumere; ipsum quam tenet perdit. Preterea
linces dicuntur canes qui ex lupis et canibus nascuntur. cum inter
se forte miscentur. Solent et inde femine canes noctu in sil-
vis alligate admisci ad tygres bestias. a quibus insiliri et
nasci ex eodem fetu canes acerrimi. et adeo fortes; ut com-
plexu leones prosternant. Cuius figuram in quibusdam
rebus predicatores habent. qui admonendo semper ac exercendo
que recta sunt; insidias diaboli pellunt. ne thesaurum
dei. idest animas christianorum rapiendo ipse auferat. Lingua
canis dum lingit curat; quia peccatorum vulnera predica-
tione sanctorum curantur. et secreta cordis sepe mundantur
opere et sermone doctoris. Item quod ad vomitum reverti-

tears. It held him for so long until the man confessed the crime, having nothing to say, and had to endure the dog’s vengeance. As for the dog, when it finds the trails of a hare or a deer and comes to a crossroad branching off in many directions, it sniffs the air at the beginning of each path, rejects the wrong assumptions and walks the path of truth until it finds the prey. Furthermore, the tongue of a dog heals wounds when it licks them. The tongue of a puppy is said to be a remedy for the health of an aching and wounded intestine. It is characteristic of a dog to return to its own vomit in order to eat it again. A moderate diet is sufficient for a dog. When a dog swims across a river holding meat or something of the kind in its mouth, it opens the mouth upon seeing its own shadow, and whilst rushing to take another piece of meat, it loses what it was already holding. Furthermore, cubs born from the crossbreeding of wolves and dogs are called lynces, lynxes; female dogs are said to mate with tigers at night in the woods. From the crossbreeding, savage dogs are born that are so strong that they can overpower lions in a fight. Preachers have this characteristic in certain things, always admonishing and exercising what is right, driving away the devil’s snares, lest he steal and seize God’s treasure, i.e. the souls of Christians. The tongue of a dog has healing properties, for the the preaching of holy men heals the wounds of sin, and the secrets of the heart are often purified by the work and speech of teachers. Just as a dog returns to its vomit,

tur. quia multi post peractam pmam; iterum ad pecca-
tum redeunt. Item modicus victus ei sufficit. Quia pre-
dicator crapulam detestatur. Nam in saturitate panis
sodoma periit. Item cum canis flumen transit et cetera; signifi-
cat stultos. qui propter cupiditatem rei ignote; quod pro-
prii viris est amittunt. Canis dicitur a canendo. cuius
consuetudo est illa loca descendere in quibus se norit ali-
moniam invenire. Cuius figuram gerunt figuram(dots underneath) fideles
doctores. qui persecuntur infideles. fures abigunt. ovilia sancta
custodiunt. lupos occidunt. De quibus in libro regum legitur. Qui
mortuus fuerit de baasa; in civitate; comedent eum ca-
nes. Et qui mortuis fuerit ex eo in agro; comedent eum vo-
lucres. agri(dots underneath) celi. De baasa; idest de corpore diaboli confusio-
ne penissimo. Ille in civitate est mortuus; qui in ecclesia fide-
tenus perseverans; criminaliter vivit. Hic ore canum la-
ceratur; idest sententiis patrum et sanctorum doctorum
increpatur. arguitur. dampnatur. Unde. Ut canes circui-
bunt civitatem; ecclesie. Illi ex baasa in agro moriuntur; qui
extra ecclesiam ydolatrie vel heresi; ore et opere nephano deser-/ viunt. Hos volucres celi comedunt id est demones qui secus via’
sparsum semen comedunt. qui honustos peccatis secum ad eter-
num interitum rapiunt. Vel totum in malum accipi potest.
Quia canes malos comedunt; dum demones sibi peccatores incor-
porant. blanditiis sibi eos allicientes. Hii bene in civitate mo-

many return to sin, after eating their meals. A moderate diet is sufficient for a dog, for a preacher detests carousal. Sodom perished in a surfeit of bread. The fact that a dog crosses a river symbolises foolish people who, owing to their desire for unknown things, lose what belongs to them. The word for dog, cănis, comes from cănendo (singing), the custom whereof is to go to places where it knows it can find food. This characteristic is peculiar to the faithful followers, who persecute infidels, drive away thieves, guard the holy sheepfolds, and kill wolves. The book of Kings says of it: “The dogs shall eat whoever belongs to Baasha and dies in the city, and the birds of the air shall eat whoever dies in the fields.”(1 Kings NKJV 16:4). Baasha represents the confusion of the body of the devil. Those who have died in the city, persevering in the Church in accordance with the precepts of faith, live criminally. Those who are mauled by the mouth of dogs, that is, rebuked by the invectives of the fathers and the followers of the faith, are accused and condemned. Therefore, just as dogs circle the community of the Church, those from Baasha die in the field and devote themselves to idolatry or heresy as well as heinous language and deeds outside the community of the Church. The birds of the sky will eat them, i.e. the demons who devour scattered seed along the way and drag the honest to eternal death along with them. The whole thing can be interpreted negatively, for dogs eat evil ones, whereas demons become incarnated in sinners, enticing them with flattery. These people die well in the city,

riuntur; dum in ecclesia vel in anima decipiuntur; Item
canis cum aquam lambit; genua non flectit. Item super om-
nia cetera animalia; amorem domini sui servat. ita utaffectus
ipsius nec amore alterius. nec terrore nec iniuriis flecti pot.
Tales sunt electi qui postquam ad aquas baptismi venerunt. quasi
canis discretionem boni et mali tenent. mala reprobando;
et bona diligendo. et sermone et opere fidem quam acceperunt;
tenent. qui gressus rectorum operum ad necessitates corporeas q2
terrenas flectere nesciunt. qui vitiis non indulgent. nec pro
peccati sitim sternuntur proni. Item pro contemptu canis habetur
Sic fideles contemptibiles videntur mundo; sed deo probati
sunt. et humilitate se custodiunt. Quia contemptibilia et igno-
bilia elegit deus. David quoque tanquam contemptibilem se canem ap-
pellat. Similiter prop contemptu habetur canis; Ut ibi. Non est. bo-
num sumere panem filiorum et mittere canibus. et cetera. Item canis ma-
gis sequitur consuetudinem; quam rationem. ita seudo predicato-
res consuetudinem legis tenent. et contra veritatem irrationabili-
ter latrant. et mordent. Ipsiquoque sunt mali operarii zizania
seminantes et frumentum calcantes. Idem sunt conscisi. quia
a christo cesi sunt. et seperati et alios scindunt et separant. Et sic per
canes. et boni et mali predicatores designantur; De malis
predicatoribus; scribit apostolus ad philippenses. Videte
canes. videte malos operarios. videte conscisionem;.

but they are misled in the Church, or deceived in the soul. When a dog licks water, it does not bend its knees. Above all other animals, it preserves the love of its master so that the affection for its master cannot be changed by the love of another master, nor by fear, nor by injuries. Such are the chosen ones who, after bathing in the waters of baptism, were able to know right from wrong like a dog, rejecting evil and loving good, and received the faith through the Word and through deeds. Such are also those who do not know how to divert their path from rectitude to earthly and corporeal needs, who do not indulge in vices, nor do they abase themselves for the thirst of sin. Just as a dog may appear contemptible, so may the faithful appear contemptible to the world, but they are proven by God and keep themselves in humility, for God chose the contemptible and the despicable. David also calls himself a contemptible dog . Similarly, a dog is considered contemptible, as we see in Matthew NKJV 15:26: ‘But He answered and said, “It is not good to take the children’s bread and throw it to the little dogs.”’. A dog is an animal more of habit than of reason. Thus, false preachers have the habit of following the law and irrationally bark against the truth and bite. The same are evil workers who sow tare and trample the wheat. The same are also the circumcised whose bond with Christ is severed and they are separated, dividing and separating others. Dogs represent both good and bad preachers. The apostle writes of bad preachers to the Philippians: “Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers, beware of the mutilation!” (Philippians NKJV 3:2).

Quotienscumque peccator vult factorem suum
placere; necessarium est. ei et utile ut tres spirituales
conductores querat. qui tres spirituales legatos cum tribus
donis spiritualibus ad reconciliationem sui coram factore con-
ducant. Qui conductores et legati cum suis donis spi-
ritualibus ita disponuntur. Primus legatus est; cordis
ploratus. Secundus; vera confessio. Tertius; vera pe-
nitentia. Conductores eorum sunt amor dei. bona vo-
luntas. rectum opus. Bona spiritualia sunt; munditia
corporis et anime oratio pura. boni operis perseverantia.
Qui legati et conductores cum spiritualibus donis sic coram
trinitate procedunt. Coram deo procedit ploratus cum
amore dei deferens mundiciam corporis et anime. Coram
filio; vera confessio cum voluntate bona puram oratio-
nem deferens co(erased) Coram spiritu sancto; penitentia vera cum
recto opere perseverantiam boni operis portans. Sicut corpori debilitato necessarie sunt potiones ad sanandas illius
infirmitates. ita anime peccatrici necessaria est. potio per
quam spiritualis oris corruptio exit. Fit autem potio
anime ex quatuor speciebus id est cordis ploratu. vera confes-
sione. penitentia vera. operatione recta. Que ita compe-
tens est ad sanandas illius infirmitates. quod dum ab ea
anima inungitur; statim a suis infirmitatibus sanatur.
Sed sanata si sine honesto indumento relinqueretur; quomodo in
celesti curia ubi debet presentari. coram factore suo presenta-

Whenever a sinner wishes to please his creator, it is necessary for him to seek out three spiritual masters, who will send three spiritual messengers with three spiritual gifts in order to lead him to reconciliation before his creator. These guides and messengers with their spiritual gifts are arranged as follows: The first is the bewailing of the heart, the second true confession, the third true penance. Their masters are the love of God, good will, and righteous deeds. Good spiritual things are purity of body and soul, pure prayer, and perseverance with good deeds. The messengers and the guides appear before the Trinity as follows: before God, there appears the bewailing of the heart with the love of God, bearing the cleanliness of body and soul. Before the Son, the true confession with good will, bearing pure prayer. Before the Holy Spirit, the true penance with righteous deeds, bearing the perseverance with good deeds.

retur; Opportet ergo ut homo qui ad regendum et indu-
endum eam suscepit; ita honeste et competenter induat;
ut laudabiliter coram angelis in celo eam presentare va-
leat. Primum vero indumentum unde anima vestiri debet; est. mun-
dicia. Nulla enim in celesti curia presentatur; que vel hic vel
in futuro non mundetur. Alia vero indumenta sunt;
pietas. misericordia. cetereque virtutes quibus vestiri debet
Vestita vero talibus indumentis; cum tribus conductoribus. idest
cogitatione pura. verbo bono. opere perfecto. in celesti glo-
ria honeste poterit presentari. Ubi remunerabitur illa
beatudine; quam optinent angeli. Ad quam obtinen-
dam; deus hominem creavit. et tres consiliatores ei tribuit
Scilicet spiritualem intellectum. potestatem bene agendi.
et sapientiam. Quibus si adquiesceret; regnum celeste non
amitteret. Sed quia illis non adquievit; hereditatem
suam amisit;

Just as potions are necessary to heal the infirmities of a weakened body, so is a potion necessary for a sinful soul to heal spiritual corruption. Such potion is of four types: the bewailing of the heart, true confession, true penance, and righteous deeds. This potion is able to heal the infirmities of the soul to such an extent that the soul is immediately healed when anointed therewith. If the soul were left unclad once healed, how could it be presented in the celestial court where it must be presented before its creator? Therefore, the man who has undertaken the task to guide it and clothe it also needs to dress it decently and competently so that he can present it commendably before the angels in heaven. In truth, the first garment wherein the soul should be clad is cleanliness, for nothing is presented in the heavenly court that is not cleansed neither in this moment nor in the future. Other garments are piety, mercy, and other virtues wherein one should be clad. Clad in such garments, with three guides, i.e. with pure thought, good word, perfect deeds, the soul can be presented decently in the heavenly glory, where it will be rewarded with that happiness which angels enjoy. For this beatitude, God created man and gave him three counselors, namely, spiritual understanding, wisdom and the ability to do good. If he acquiesced in this, he would not lose the Kingdom of Heaven; however, he lost his inheritance, for he did not acquiesce in them.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Dog, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast181.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Garamas, also called Amphithemis, son of Apollo and Acalle, daughter of Minos. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphithemis

2 He was an officer and a successor of Alexander the Great. In 306 BC, he became king of Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedon. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysimachus

3 In reality, David calls himself a worm in Psalms 22:6: “But I am a worm, and not human; scorned by others, and despised by the people.”

4 It is referring to sowing discord.

Onager, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The onager is symbolic of the devil: the bestiary of Cambridge states that the onager has demoniac characteristics because it is able to predict the vernal equinox and brays at each hour, by night and by day, claiming its prey. Similarly, the devil brays at each hour claiming its prey as soon as he finds out that the Wandering People had turned to God and to faith.

According to the Physiologus, the onager makes, just as the equinox does, night, that is Paganism, equal to day, that is, Christianity.

The onager was also associated with chastity due to its reputation for being untameable and uncontrollable, particularly in its sexual desires. This trait was seen as virtuous and reflective of the need for humans to control their own desires.

It was also known for its solitary nature, often roaming alone in desolate areas. This characteristic made it symbolic of asceticism and the solitary pursuit of spiritual enlightenment.

This animal’s stubbornness and resistance to being tamed could also be interpreted negatively, representing the stubbornness of sinners who resist the teachings of Christianity or the temptations of the devil.

Onager(changed from Anager, so has two gold capitals) interpretatur asinus ferus. Onos quippe
grece; asinus latine. Agrios; ferum. Hos affrica habet
magnos et indomitos. et in deserto vagantes. Singuli autem;
feminarum gregibus presunt. Nascentibus parvulis zelant.
et testiculos eorum morsu detruncant. Quod caventes ma-

The onager is regarded as a wild donkey. In Greek, it was called ὄνος/ónos¹, ăsĭnus in Latin. Αγριος/agrios means wild. Africa has these large and untamed beasts wandering in the desert. They roam individually, leading the herds of females. They zealously protect their newborn cubs and bite off their testicles.

tres; eos in secretis locis abscondunt. Philosogus dicit de ona-
gro quia vicessimo quinto die mansis martii duodecies
in nocte rugit. et similiter in die. Et ex hoc cognoscitur;
quia equinoctium est. et numerum horarum diei vel noctis;
ainde norunt. Figuram huius; diabolus habet. qui cum
scierit noctem et diem coequare; idest populum qui am-
bulabat in tenebris converti ad deum; et coequari fidei
iustorum. sicut coequatur nox cum die; iccirco rugit noc-
te. per singulas horas querens escam suam. Nam non rugit
onager; nisi pabulum desiderans; sicut dicit iob. Numquid
clamabit onager nisi pabulum desiderans; Unde etiam
apostolus. Adversarius noster tamquam leo rugiens cir-
cuit querens quem devorat;

Besides, they hide three of them in secret places. The Physiologus² says of the onager that on the twenty-fifth day of March, it brays twelve times by night, and does the same by day. Therefore, when there is the equinox, they also know the number of hours of day or night therefrom. The devil is in the image of this beast, for it knows night and day to be equal, that is, the people who walked in darkness were turned to God and the faith of the righteous were made equal, just as night is made equal to day; therefore, it brays by night, claiming its prey at each hour. The onager does not bray unless it craves food, as Job says, 'Will the wild donkey bray when it has grass?'³ The Apostle⁴ says: “Our adversary, the devil, roams around like a roaring lion seeking whom he may devour”⁵.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Onager, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast211.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

1 The Greek word for wild ass was ὄναγρος/ ónagros.

2 The Physiologus is a didactic Christian text written or compiled in Greek by an unknown author in Alexandria and consists of descriptions of animals, birds, and fantastic creatures, sometimes stones and plants, provided with moral content. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologus

3 Job NKJV 6:5: Does the wild donkey bray when it has grass, Or does the ox low over its fodder?

4 The Apostle Peter in this case.

5 1 Peter NKJV 5:8: “Be sober, be vigilant; because your adversary the devil walks about like a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour.”

He-Goat, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The he-goat was connected to the worship of Artemis, the Goddess of wild animals and of Pan, the God of shepherds and flocks: the animal was given as a reward to actors who thrived on the stages of Greek theatres.

The he-goat was also associated with sin and temptation, particularly due to its reputed lascivious behaviour. This association draws from biblical imagery, such as the scapegoat in Leviticus 16:21-22¹, which symbolically carried away the sins of the people. In Christian interpretation, the he-goat could symbolize the temptations of the flesh that lead humans astray from God's path.

The reputation of this beast for promiscuity and excessive sexual behaviour made it a symbol of lust and carnal desires. This association is found in various medieval texts and artworks, where the he-goat often represents the indulgence in worldly pleasures that distract from spiritual pursuits.

The stubborn and sometimes aggressive nature of the he-goat could symbolize rebellion against authority or resistance to divine will. This interpretation is less common but is found in some allegorical writings where animals are used to represent human characteristics and behaviours.

In the Bible, there are several references to goats, though not specifically to he-goats, that carry symbolic significance:

In the Old Testament, goats were sometimes used as sacrificial animals, such as in Leviticus 16 where one goat was chosen for the Lord and another as a scapegoat.

In the New Testament, particularly in Matthew 25:31-35², Jesus uses the imagery of separating the sheep from the goats as a metaphor for the final judgment, where the righteous are likened to sheep and the unrighteous to goats.

Hircus lascivum animal est et petulcum. et fer-
vens semper ad coitum. cuius oculi ob libidinem
in transversum aspiciunt. Unde et nomen traxit;
Nam hirci sunt oculorum anguli secundum suetonium. cuius na-
tura adeo calidissima est; ut adamantem lapidem quem
nec ignis nec ferri materia domare valet; solus huius
cruor dissoluat. Hedi ab edendo vocati. Parvi enim
pinguissimi sunt. et saporis iucundi. Unde edere et edu-
lium inde vocatur.

The he-goat is a wanton animal, it gores with its horns and is always longing for copulation. Its eyes look sideways owing to lust, wherefrom its name derives. According to Suetonius³, hirci are the angles of the eyes. Its nature is so passionate and the blood alone of this beast can dissolve a diamond stone, which neither fire nor iron can dissolve. Young goats are called haedi from eating, edendum, for the small ones are fat and taste delicious. Hence, the act of eating, ĕdēre, and the food, ĕdūlĭum, are named after them.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, He-goat, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast196.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Felice Moretti, Mondi Medievali, Immaginario medievale, Il sabba: il demonio è rappresentato come caprine, 2003, https://www.mondimedievali.net/Immaginario/caprone.htm

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

1 Leviticus 16:21-22 NKJV: “Aaron shall lay both his hands on the head of the live goat, confess over it all the iniquities of the children of Israel, and all their transgressions, concerning all their sins, putting them on the head of the goat, and shall send it away into the wilderness by the hand of a suitable man.”

2 Matthew 25:31-35: 31 “When the Son of Man comes in His glory, and all the [a]holy angels with Him, then He will sit on the throne of His glory. 32 All the nations will be gathered before Him, and He will separate them one from another, as a shepherd divides his sheep from the goats. 33 And He will set the sheep on His right hand, but the goats on the left. 34 Then the King will say to those on His right hand, ‘Come, you blessed of My Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world: 35 for I was hungry and you gave Me food; I was thirsty and you gave Me drink; I was a stranger and you took Me in;”

1 Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of 12 successive Roman rulers from Julius Caesar to Domitian, properly titled De Vita Caesarum. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suetonius

Lamb, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The lamb is prominently featured throughout the Bible, particularly in the context of sacrificial imagery and messianic prophecy.

In the Old Testament, lambs were used as sacrificial animals in the religious rituals of Judaism, symbolizing atonement for sin and submission to God's will (Exodus 29:38-42)¹.

In the New Testament, Jesus Christ is often referred to as the Lamb of God in John NKJV 1:29: “The next day John saw Jesus coming toward him, and said, “Behold! The Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world!” This emphasizes his role as the ultimate sacrificial offering for the redemption of humanity's sins. This imagery is central to Christian theology and is particularly emphasized in the book of Revelation, where the Lamb is depicted as victorious over evil and worthy of worship (Revelation 5:6-14)².

In Latin literature, particularly in poetic and allegorical works, the lamb was often used to symbolize innocence, purity, and gentleness. This usage draws upon the pastoral tradition, where lambs are portrayed as gentle creatures in idyllic rural settings.

In medieval Christian symbolism, the lamb is closely associated with Jesus Christ, symbolizing his sacrificial death for the redemption of humanity's sins. This imagery underscores the central Christian belief in Christ as the Paschal Lamb³ whose sacrifice brings salvation.

The lamb also represents the Christian faithful, who are seen as followers of Christ and beneficiaries of his sacrificial atonement. The lamb's innocence and purity serve as models for believers to emulate in their spiritual lives.

In eschatological imagery, the lamb is often depicted as a symbol of the final victory of Christ over evil and the establishment of a new, redeemed creation. This imagery is particularly prominent in the book of Revelation, where the Lamb is portrayed as the triumphant ruler of the heavenly kingdom.

Agnus dicitur quasi pius. latini autem hoc nomen
habere putant. eoquod pre ceteris animantibus
is matrem agnoscat. Adeo etiam ut si in magno grege
erret; statim balatu recognoscat vocem parentis. fes-
tinatque ad matrem. lactis quoque materni notos
sibi fontes requirit. Mater vero inter multa ag-
niculorum milia; solum filium novit. Unus est
plurimorum balatus. eadem species. sed illa tamen fetum
suum discernit a ceteris. et solum filium tanto pie-
tatis testimonio recognoscit.

Lamb is regarded as a pious animal. However, the Latins believed that it has this name, for it recognizes its mother, among other animals, so much so that, if it wanders in a large flock, it immediately recognizes the voice of its parents by their bleat, and rushes to its mother. It also seeks out sources of maternal milk familiar to it. Indeed, among the thousands of little lambs, the mother knows only her own cub. There is one bleating among many others of the same species and yet the mother distinguishes her offspring from the others and recognizes only her own cub by showing it great affection.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Lamb, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast195.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

1 Exodus 29:38-42 New King James Version (NKJV): “One lamb you shall offer in the morning, and the other lamb you shall offer at twilight. With the one lamb shall be one-tenth of an ephah of flour mixed with one-fourth of a hin of pressed oil, and one-fourth of a hin of wine as a drink offering.”

2 Revelation NKJV 5:6-14: “And I looked, [a]and behold, in the midst of the throne and of the four living creatures, and in the midst of the elders, stood a Lamb as though it had been slain, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven Spirits of God sent out into all the earth. 7 Then He came and took the scroll out of the right hand of Him who sat on the throne.”

3 In Judaism, the lamb sacrificed at the first Passover, on the eve of the Exodus from Egypt, the most momentous event in Jewish history. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Paschal-lamb

Wild goat, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The wild goat symbolises resilience, discernment and spiritual healing. As it grazes amidst the rugged terrain, this creature ascends from high pastures to even loftier peaks, embodying the journey of the soul towards greater virtue and enlightenment.

Guided by the keenness of its eyes, the wild goat distinguishes between nourishing grass and harmful foliage, a testament to its discerning nature. Similarly, virtuous preachers, engrossed in the Law of the Lord, traverse the landscape of moral principles, selecting and ruminating upon the wisdom that sustains and uplifts.

Yet, even the mighty goat is not immune to wounds, and when affliction strikes, it seeks solace in the healing properties of the dittany plant. This miraculous herb, akin to Christ himself, offers swift restoration to the wounded soul, expelling the weapons of the adversary and granting forgiveness through the sacrament of confession.

The wild goat's journey mirrors the spiritual odyssey of humankind. Just as the goat ascends from virtue to virtue, so too do believers strive for spiritual growth and enlightenment. In times of tribulation, they turn to Christ, the ultimate healer, whose grace and mercy bring swift redemption and renewal.

Through the lens of nature's wisdom and spiritual insight, the wild goat is symbolic of hope, resilience, and divine compassion. Its story serves as a beacon of inspiration, guiding souls on their quest for inner peace and ultimate redemption.

Caprea has habet naturas quod pascendo de al-
tis ad altiora tendit. bonas herbas a noxiis ocu-
lorum acumine eligit. herbas ruminat. vulne-
rata ad dittanum¹ currit. qua tacta sanatur;
Sic boni predicatores pascentes in lege domini. et in bo-
nis pastoribus quasi in pastu delectantes; de virtu-
te in virtutem conscendunt. bonas sentencias a ma-
lis eligunt. et electas ruminant. idest bonas perscru-
tantur. et ruminatas tradunt memorie. Hii a-
peccato(changed from peccata) vulnerati; ad christum fontem recurrunt. qui
telum diaboli expellit de corde. confitentes pecca-
ta et cito sanantur. Ideoque christus bene ditanus dicitur.

The wild goat has these characteristics: when grazing, it moves from high to even higher pastures. It discerns good grass from harmful grass owing to the sharpness of its eyes. It chews the cud. When wounded, it hastens to search for the dittany plant and it heals by touching it. Thus, good preachers, who graze on the Law of the Lord and take delight in good pastures and in being good shepherds, ascend from virtue to virtue. They discern good maxims and principles from evil ones and ruminate the chosen ones. That is, they thoroughly examine the good ones and commit the ruminated ones to memory. Those wounded by sin seek the help of Christ, the Source, who expels the devil's weapons from their heart. Once they have confessed their sins, they are healed quickly. Therefore, Christ is compared to the plant dittany.

Sicut enim ditanus ferrum a vulnere depellit; et vul-
nus sanat; ita christus per confessionem diabolum eicit;
et peccatum ignoscit.

In fact, just as the dittany expels iron from a wound and heals it, so Christ, through confession, casts out the Devil and forgives sin.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Goat, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast163.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

1 Dictamnus or dictamnum

Bullock, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The noble bullock is a creature of both practical utility and profound spiritual significance. Known as iŭvencus, this beast earned its title by helping mankind with tilling the land, serving as a loyal companion in agricultural endeavours. Additionally, the bullock held a sacred role in pagan rituals, often offered as a sacrifice to Jupiter, reflecting its esteemed status in ancient cultures.

Delving into etymology, we uncover the origins of the words for bull and ox, shedding light on linguistic connections that span civilizations. From the Greek ταῦρος/tavros comes the Latin taūrūs for bull and bōs for ox, illustrating the interplay between language and cultural exchange.

Venturing into the exotic realms of India, we encounter bulls of remarkable stature and strength. These tawny-hued creatures possess a swiftness that borders on the miraculous, their very movements seeming to defy gravity. With a mane adorning their nape and a mouth capable of engulfing their entire head, these bulls command a formidable presence. Their flexible and manipulable horns add to their aura of power and dominance, whereas their impenetrable hide renders them impervious to weaponry.

Yet, beneath their formidable exterior lies a fierce spirit, one that refuses to yield even in the face of capture. In a final act of defiance, these indomitable creatures meet their demise with a madness born of their untamed nature.

Through the lens of ancient lore and natural wonder, the bullock emerges as symbolic of strength, resilience, and sacrificial nobility. Its legacy, woven into the fabric of human history, serves as a testament to the enduring bond between men and the animal kingdom.

Iuvencus dicitur eoquod iuvare incipiat hominum
usus in terra colenda. vel quia apud gentiles
iovi semper ubique iuvencus immolabatur. et numquam
taurus. Nam in victimis etiam etas consideratur.
Taurus grecum nomen est sicut et bos. Indicis tauris;
color fulvus est. volucris; pernicitas. pilus; in contra-
rium; versus. hvaiatus omne quod capcitut. Hii quoque
circumferunt cornua flexibilitate qua volunt. Tergi
duricia(corrected from duricie); omne telum respuunt. tam inmiti ferita-
te; ut capti animas furore proiciant

The bullock is called iŭvencus¹, for it helps man to till the land, or for it was this beast that was always sacrificed to Jupiter everywhere among the pagans but never a bull. Age was always taken into consideration with regard to sacrificial victims. The word for bull, taūrūs, comes from the Greek ταῦρος/tavros, so does the word for ox, bōs, βοῦς/voús. The bulls of India are tawny in colour and are so swift-footed that they seem to fly. Hair grows on the nape and their mouth opens to the size of their head. Their horns are flexible and they move them as they wish. Its back and hide are so hard that they repel any weapon. They are so fierce that when they are captured, they give up the ghost in madness.

Further Reading

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

1 In Latin, the verb iŭvāre means to help.

On Adam naming animals, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

This passage explores the nuanced categorization of animals based on their traits, functions, and relationships with humans, reflecting both practical considerations and philosophical insights.

Adam, in a symbolic act of understanding and respect for the essence of all living beings, assigned names to them according to their inherent qualities. He chose Hebrew, the language common to humanity before the flood, as the medium for this task. Unlike later nations who named animals in their own languages, Adam's naming process transcended linguistic barriers.

In Latin, animals are categorized based on their characteristics and utility. Animalĭa denotes creatures animated by life and spirit, whereas the word quadrupeds describes those moving on four legs. However, distinctions arise between livestock and beasts of burden such as lions or animals used for labour.

Pĕcŭs encompasses non-humanoid creatures, with pecora referring to animals suitable for consumption or human activities, such as sheep, pigs, horses, and oxen. Pecudes specifically denotes grazers led to pasture, while iumenta emphasizes animals aiding human labour, such as oxen, horses, and donkeys, due to their strength and utility.

Similarly, armenta denotes animals used in battle or those embraced as friends, including oxen and horses. The term contrasts with greges, which specifically refers to flocks of goats and sheep.

Omnibus animantibus adam primus vocabula indidit.
Appellans unicuique nomen ex presenti institutione.
iuxta conditionem nature. Gentes autem unicuique anima-
lium ex propria lingua dederunt vocabula. Non autem secundum
latinam linguam aut grecam aut quarumlibet gentium
barbararum nomina illa inposuit adam. set illa lingua
que una ante diluvium fuit omnium. que hebrea nuncupatur.
Latine autem animalia sive animantia dicta; quod ani-
mentur vita; et moventur spiritu. Quadrupedia vocata;
quia quatuor gradiuntur pedibus. que dum similia
sunt pecoribus; tamen sub cura humana non sunt. Ut cervi.
damme. Onagri et cetera. Sed neque bestie sunt. ut leones.
neque iumenta. ut usus hominum iuvare possint. Pe-
cus dicimus omne quod humana et effigie caret. Proprie(corrected from Propriie) autem
nomen hiis animalibus accommodari solet que sunt ad ves-
cendum apta. ut oves et sues. au in usu hominum commo-
da. ut equi et boves. Differt autem inter peccora et pecu-
des. Nam veteres communiter in significatione omnium
animalia pecora dixerunt. Pecudes autem tantum illa
animalia que edunt quasi pedes. Generaliter autem omne
pecus a pascendo vocatum. Iumenta inde nomina traxe-
runt quod nostrum laborem vel onus suo adiutorio(corrected from adiutoreio)
sub vehendo vel arando iuvent. Nam bos carpenta
trahit. et durissimas terre glebas vomere vertit. Equs
et asinus onera portant. et hominum laborem gradiendo;

Adam gave names to all living beings first, giving all one name according to their essential character, respecting the nature of each of them. However, the various nations gave names to each animal in their own language. Adam did not give those names in Latin, Greek, or any other barbarian languages. Instead, he used the language that was common to all before the flood, which was Hebrew. In Latin, animals or living things are called animalĭa, for they are animated by life and are moved by the spirit. Quadrupeds are called so, for they move on four legs. They may be similar to livestock, but they are not farmed like deer, fallow deer, wild asses, or other animals. However, they are neither beasts like lions nor beasts of burden that can be used for human purposes. We call everything that does not have a human form pĕcŭs. The name is usually applied to those animals that are suitable for being eaten, such as sheep and pigs, or those that are useful in human activities, such as horses and oxen. However, there is a difference between pecora and pecudes¹. The ancients commonly used the term pecora to refer to all animals. Pecudes only includes those animals that feed like sheep. Generally, pecudes are called so, for they are led to pasture. The term iumenta derives from the fact that they help humans with their labour by carrying weights and ploughing. Oxen pull carts and manage to plough very hard clods of earth. Horses and donkeys carry weights and facilitate man’s labour.

temperant. Unde et iumenta appellantur ab eo quod iuvent
homines. Sunt enim magnarum virium animalia. Item quoque
armenta. vel quod sint armis(dots underneath) armis apta. idest bello;
vel quod hiis in armis utimur. Alii armenta tantum bo-
ves intelligunt. ab arando. vel quod sint cornibus arma-
ta. Discretio autem est inter armenta et greges. Nam armen-
ta equorum et boum sunt. Greges vero caprarum et ovium.

Therefore, these animals are called iumenta, for they help humans. Indeed, they are animals that possess great strength. Similarly, the animals we call armenta² include those armed for battles and that we take to war or those we are friends with and that we embrace. Other armenta refer only to oxen suitable for ploughing or bulls having horns. The difference between armenta and greges³ lies in the fact that armenta include horses and oxen, while greges refer to flocks of goats and sheep.

Bibliography

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Footnotes

1 Both pecora and pecudes come from pĕcŭs: the former is a feminine noun and the latter a neuter noun. The latter refers to all animals in general whereas the latter can also refer to sheep.

2 Armenta in the plural form means also domestic animals, namely pets.

3 Greges is the plural form of grex, meaning flock/herd.

Sheep, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In medieval Christian symbolism, sheep were often seen as symbolic of Christ himself, reflecting His qualities of innocence, purity, and sacrifice. This symbolism is deeply rooted in biblical imagery, particularly in the portrayal of Jesus as the sacrificial Lamb of God (John 1:29)¹.

They also represented the Christian faithful, highlighting their dependence on Christ as their shepherd and their need for spiritual guidance and protection within the Church and symbolized virtues such as meekness, humility, and obedience, which were considered essential qualities for Christians to cultivate in their spiritual lives.

In the Bible, particularly in the Old Testament, sheep are frequently used as symbols of purity, innocence, and docility. Psalm 23, for instance, famously portrays God as a shepherd and his people as his sheep, symbolizing his care and guidance.

Jesus Christ is often referred to as the Good Shepherd in the New Testament (John 10:11)², emphasizing his role as a caring and protective leader of his followers.

Ovis molle pecus lane. corpore inerme. animo;
placidum. ab oblatione dictum. eoquod apud
veteres initio non tauri. sed oves mactarentur. Ex hiis
quasdam bidentes vocant. eoquod inter octo dentes;
duos altiores habent. quas maxime gentiles in sacrificium
offerebant. Ovis sub adventu hiemis; inexplebilis est

The sheep is an animal whose fur is made of soft wool. Its body is helpless and its spirit calm. Its name comes from an offering, a sacrifice, for among the ancients, sheep were sacrificed initially, instead of bulls. Some of them are called bidentes, two-tooths, for two of its eight teeth are taller. Nations used to offer in sacrifice especially these two-tooths. Upon the arrival of winter, sheep become

ad escam. Insatiabiliter herbam capit eoquod presen-
tiat asperitatem hiemis affuturam. Ut se prius herbe pa-
bulo farciat; quam gelu adurente omnis herba deficiat;

eager for food. Insatiably, they graze as much grass as they can, for they foresee the harshness of the impending winter. Thus, they stuffs themselves with grass before all the grass ceases to be available owing to the freezing cold.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Sheep, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast193.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 John NKJV 1:29: “The next day John saw Jesus coming toward him, and said, “Behold! The Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world!”

2 John 10:11: “I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd gives His life for the sheep.”

Ram, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The ram is known particularly because of its role in the story of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac, where it was provided as a substitute offering. This narrative, found in the Book of Genesis NKJV 22:13: “Then Abraham lifted his eyes and looked, and there behind him was a ram caught in a thicket by its horns. So Abraham went and took the ram, and offered it up for a burnt offering instead of his son” in the Bible, symbolizes obedience to God and the concept of substitutionary sacrifice.

In Christian symbolism, the ram was sometimes seen as a precursor to Christ: just as the ram was offered as a substitute sacrifice in place of Isaac, Christians saw Jesus Christ as the ultimate substitute sacrifice for humanity's sins.

The ram's prominent horns symbolised leadership and strength, reflecting attributes often associated with kingship and authority and its watchful nature and habit of protecting the flock were seen as symbols of faithfulness and vigilance in guarding against spiritual dangers.

Another reference to the ram can be found in Daniel 8:3-8: “Then I lifted my eyes and looked, and behold, a ram which had two horns was standing in front of the canal. Now the two horns were long, but one was longer than the other, with the longer one coming up last. I saw the ram butting westward, northward, and southward, and no other beasts could stand before him nor was there anyone to rescue from his power, but he did as he pleased and magnified himself” where the ram with two horns symbolises the kingdom of Media and Persia.

Vervex a viribus dictus est. quod ceteris ovibus sit forti-
or. vel quod sit vir id est masculus. vel quod vermes in
capite habeat. quarum excitati pruritu; invicem se con-
cutiunt. et pugnantes cum magno impetu. se invicem
feriunt. Aries vel atotoapfoc. idest a marte vocatus
Unde apud nos in gregibus masculi mares dicuntur si-
ve quod hoc pecus a gentilibus primo est aris inmolatum.
Unde est illud Aries mactatur ad aram.

A ram is called vervex from its strength, both for it is stronger than the other sheep, and for it is of male sex, or for it has worms in its head. When these are stimulated by itching, they shake mutually and, fighting with great force, strike each other. A ram is also called ărĭēs which is also the name of the God Mars, in Greek Ἄρης/Ares¹. Hence, among us, in herds, males are called mares, for this type of animal was at first sacrificed on the altars, area, by the pagans. Hence, that ram² was slaughtered on the altar.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ram, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast194.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 In Roman religion, there were some rituals called suovetaurilia maiora, apotropaic rituals designed to avert evil influences. Usually, a boar, a ram and a bull wee sacrificed to the God Mars. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suovetaurilia

2 It might be referring to the ram that Adam sacrificed to God.

Boar, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The boar is a ferocious and an aggressive animal and therefore, it became symbolic of wrath and unbridled violence. In Christian allegory, the boar may represent the dangers of unchecked anger and the destructive consequences of sinful behaviour.

In some medieval Christian contexts, particularly in regions where paganism persisted or where there was conflict with non-Christian cultures, the boar may have symbolised pagan beliefs or heretical practices. This association may have been influenced by pagan traditions that revered the boar as a symbol of strength and fertility.

Similar to other wild and untamed animals, the boar may be associated with demonic forces and evil influences. Its fierce nature and association with darkness and the wilderness made it a fitting symbol for the temptations and trials faced by Christians in their spiritual journey.

Despite its negative connotations, the boar's strength and resilience also made it symbolic of courage and determination in some contexts. This interpretation focused on its ability to confront challenges and emerge victorious, reflecting virtues valued by medieval Christian society.

In the Bible, the boar is mentioned in a few contexts to symbolise wildness or danger:

In Psalm NKJV 80:13: “The boar out of the woods uproots it, And the wild beast of the field devours it”, the Psalmist laments that the boar from the forest ravages the vineyard, symbolising the destruction wreaked upon Israel.

gata .p. Unde apud grecos; suagros idem ferus
dicitur. Omne enim quod ferum est et inmite; abu-
sive agreste vocamus

A wild boar takes the name ăpĕr from its ferocity. The letter f was removed and replaced with p. The Greeks called the same wild creature suagros¹. Everything that is wild and rude, we call it metaphorically rustic, rural.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Boar, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast197.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 The Greeks called the wild boar suagros from σύς/sùs/(pig) and ἀγριος/agrios(wild).

Ox, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The ox's primary symbolic representation was strength and labour: it was commonly seen as a symbol of hard work, patience, and endurance, particularly in agricultural contexts where oxen were used as draft animals.

Its role as a working animal and its association with agricultural labour made it a symbol of sacrifice in the context of offering one's labour to God.

In Christian iconography, the ox is often associated with Luke, one of the four evangelists. This association is based on the descriptions of the four living creatures in the Book of Revelation, which are often interpreted as symbolic representations of the four evangelists.

The ox's role as a domesticated animal that served humans symbolised the virtues of service and submission to God's will.

According to Isidore of Seville, in his Etymologies 12, 4, 22, the ox was capable of curing the bites of water snakes with its own dung.

References to the ox in the Bible can be found in Isaiah NKJV 1:3: “The ox knows its owner And the donkey its master’s crib; But Israel does not know, My people do not consider”: this passage metaphorically compares the relationship between Israel and God to that of an ox and its owner, highlighting Israel's rebellion and lack of understanding.

In Deuteronomy NKJV 25:4: “You shall not muzzle an ox while it treads out the grain”, the verse instructs that one should not muzzle an ox while it is treading out grain, which was interpreted as a principle of fairness and compassion towards animals.

Bovem greci boen dicunt. Hunc latini trionem vo-
cant. eoquod terram terat. quasi terionem. Bo-
um in sociis eximia pietas. Nam alter alterum inqui-
rit; cum quo ducere collo aratra consuevit. et frequen-
ti mugitu pium testatur affectum; si forte defuerit.
Boves inpendente(changed to inpendriente) pluvia; ad presepia se tenere no-
verunt. Idem ubi naturali sensu collegerint muta-
tionem celi foras spectant. et ultra presepia cervices
suas extendunt. una omnes specie; ut prodire se velle
testentur. Viri; agrestes boves sunt in germania. habentes cor-
nua imensa. in tantum; ut regiis mensis insigni ca-
pacitate ex eis gerula potuum fiant. Sunt etiam in
india boves unicornes. solidis ungulis. nec bicissis. sed
atrocissimis. bubali vocationem inde trahunt. quod
sint similes boum adeo indomiti; ut pro feritate iu-
gum non recipiant. Vacca dicta; quasi boacca. Est enim
ex qualitate mobilium nominum. sicut leo leena. dra-
co. dracena. vitulus et(corrected from a) vitula. a viriditate vocati sunt.
idest etate viridi sicut virgo. Vitulam enim parvu-
lam esse. et nondum enixam; dicunt. Nam enixa; iu-
venca est id est vacca.

The Greeks called the ox βοῦς/voús. The Latins called oxen trĭōnes, for they plough the land, from the Greek word θηρίον/thiríon, beast. These animals show unswerving loyalty towards their companions. Since they usually pull the plough with their neck, they look for and care for one another; with frequent bellows, they show sincere affection. Owing to the impending rain, they have learned to seek shelter in mangers. Similarly, when they have perceived a change in the weather by their natural intuition, they look outside and stretch their necks beyond the mangers. They show all together their desire to go out with one glance. In Germania¹, wild oxen are male having huge horns to such an extent that they are used as carriers of drinks for royal banquets owing to their remarkable capacity. Also in India, there are oxen with one horn, with solid hooves, not cloven, but very fierce. Buffaloes take their name therefrom, as they are similar to oxen in being so untamed that they do not accept the yoke due to their ferocity. Vacca is the cow, sounding like bōaca, bogue,² for it is similar to variable names such as lĕo for lion, lĕaena for lioness, drăco for dragon, dracaena for she-dragon, vĭtŭlus for calf, and vĭtŭla for heifer, named from their youthful vigour, i.e., from their blooming, young age that is a characteristic of virgins. A heifer is very young and has not calved yet; when it has calved, it becomes a young cow, that is, a iŭvenca.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ox, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast199.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 The land of the ancient Germanic people.

2 Bōca or boaca is bogue in English, also known as boops boops from Ancient Greek βόωψ, literally 'ox-eyed'. It is a type of seabream native to the Eastern Atlantic. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boops_boops

Camel, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The camel was often associated with wealth and luxury due to its ability to carry heavy loads across long distances, particularly in desert regions and temperance owing to its resistance and ability to endure thirst in the absence of water. In medieval Europe, where camels were rare and exotic animals, they came to symbolize opulence and extravagance.

The hair of a camel symbolised John the Baptist, who was said to wear camel hair whilst preaching in the desert, as we see in Matthew NKJV 3:4: “Now John himself was clothed in camel’s hair, with a leather belt around his waist; and his food was locusts and wild honey”.

Despite its association with wealth, the camel was also seen as symbolic of humility and asceticism. Its ability to endure long journeys across harsh terrain made it a symbol of endurance and perseverance in the face of adversity.

This interpretation stems from the teachings of Jesus Christ, who famously said that it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter the kingdom of God (Matthew 19:24¹, Mark 10:25, Luke 18:25²). This passage emphasized the dangers of wealth and the importance of spiritual humility.

The camel's habit of storing fat in its hump for sustenance during long journeys symbolized prudence and preparedness, encouraging Christians to be wise stewards of their resources and to be prepared for spiritual challenges.

According to Albert Magnus, a Dominican monk, mixing vinegar with the brain of a camel helps with epilepsy and its saliva mixed with water drives demons out of drunkards.

References to the camel in the Bible also include Genesis 24: The story of Abraham's servant finding a wife for Isaac involves camels as a means of transport and is often interpreted allegorically in Christian tradition. The camels' role in carrying the servant and his provisions to Abraham's homeland can be interpreted allegorically as a symbol of God's provision and preparation for His people. Just as the camels were necessary for the success of the servant's mission, God provides everything needed for His people to fulfil His purposes.

Camelis inde nomen accepit. sive quia quando honera-
tur. ut brevior et humilior fiat; accubat. quia
grece cami; humile et breve dicitur. sive quia curvus
est dorso. Camur greco verbo; curvum significat. Hos
licet et alie regiones mittant; sed arabia plurimos gig-
nit. Verum in hoc differunt; quod arabici bina tube-
ra in dorso habent; Reliquarum regionem singuli singu-
la. Cameli habentur in duplex ministerium. Sunt
alii honeri ferendo accomodi. alii pronitiores. Sed illi;
non ultra iustum; pondera recipiunt. nec isti amplius
quam solita spacia volunt ire. et rei gestu; e. cupidine. ef-
frenantur. adeo ut seviant; cum venerem requirunt.
Odio habent equinum genus. Sitim etiam triduo tole-

Camels take their name from the fact that they crouch to the ground, when laden, to bend down as if they were humbling themselves and become smaller: perhaps for in Greek, χαμαί/chamai means to the ground/earth, that is to humble oneself or for they have a curved back. Cămŭr means curved, bent. Although they can be found in various regions, they are indigenous to Arabia. However, they differ in this respect: Arabian camels have two humps on their back, whereas those from other regions have a single hump. Camels serve a dual purpose: some are suited to be beasts of burden, whereas others are swifter. However, the former only carry loads up to a certain limit, and the latter do not travel more than the usual distances whereto they are accustomed. They are controlled by gestures or lust to such an extent that they rage when seeking mating. They hate the horse species. They endure thirst for up to three days.

rant. Verum cum occasio bibendi data est; tantum implen-
tur quantum et saciet desideria preterita; et in futura;
diu prosit. Luculentas aquas captant. puras; refugiunt.
Denique nisi cenosior liquor fuerit. ipsi assidua conculca-
tione lutum excitant; ut turbidetur. Durant in an-
nos centum. Si forte translati ad peregrinas regiones
vel terras. ex insolentia mutati aeris; morbos contra-
hunt. Ad bella femine preparantur. Inventumque est.
ut fiant validores; eas debere arteri a coitibus. Came-
lus in lege; inmundus est. quia licet ruminet; tamen
ungulam non findit sicut equus.

However, when the opportunity to drink arises, they only drink enough to satisfy for a long time past and future needs. They seek muddy water and avoid the clean and clear one unless it is somewhat muddier. They themselves stir up the mud by trampling on it constantly, causing it to become turbid. They live for hundred years unless they contract diseases due to the change in climate or when they are transferred by chance to foreign regions or lands. The female camels are trained for war. It has been discovered that camels become stronger if they refrain from coitus. Normally, camels are unclean animals, for they do not split the hoof as a horse does, although they chew the cud.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Camel, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast208.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Gray, Doug, Christian Symbology, Chapter – Animals, 2021 -2023, https://www.christiansymbols.net/animals.html

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Matthew NKJV 19:24: “And again I say to you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.”

2 Luke NKJV 18:25: “For it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.”

3 Spelling or transcription mistake. According to the original De Mirabilibus Mundi Chapter 49.11 by Solinus, the original word was lŭtŭlentus meaning muddy, dirty. Lūcŭlentus is also a word but it means the opposite shining, crystal-clear. https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/solinus5.html

Dromedary, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The dromedary is smaller than the camel but is faster. Its role in facilitating trade and transportation across desert regions contributed to its association with opulence and extravagance.

Similar to the camel, the dromedary was also seen as a symbol of humility and asceticism, particularly in contrast to its association with wealth and luxury. This interpretation was influenced by Jesus' teaching about the difficulty of a rich person entering the kingdom of God, using the metaphor of a camel passing through the eye of a needle (Matthew 19:24, Mark 10:25, Luke 18:25).

Dromedarius; genus est camelorum. minoris quidem
stature. sed velotioris. Unde et nomen habet. Nam
dromos grece; cursus et velocitas appellatur. Centum enim
et amplius milia; una die perge solet. Quod animal
sicut et bos. et ovis et camelus; ruminat. Rumina-
tio autem dicta est; a ruma eminente gutturis parte
per quam dimissus cibus; a ceteris revocatur animalibus.

The dromedary is a species of camels, of smaller stature indeed, but swifter. Its name derives from the Greek word δρόμος/drómos that means run/running, for this beast covers more than a hundred miles in a single day. This animal ruminates just as oxen, sheep and camels do. Ruminating takes its name from the word rūma, the prominent part of the throat through which the swallowed food travels back from the rumen to the mouth, unlike other animals.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Dromedary, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast209.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Ass, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In the Middle Ages, the ass has mainly negative connotations.

On one hand, it was symbolic of humility due to its humble nature and its role in serving humans, such as carrying burdens or being used for transportation. This humility was often contrasted with the prideful nature of other animals.

On the other hand, the ass could also symbolize stubbornness and ignorance, particularly when it resisted direction or refused to learn. This interpretation was often used to caution against the dangers of arrogance and obstinacy.

As a beast of burden, the ass symbolized servitude and endurance, representing the virtues of patience and perseverance in the face of hardship. This aspect of the ass's symbolism aligned with Christian teachings on the value of humility and service to others.

Due to the size of its sexual organs, the ass was associated to lewdness and embodied sexual pleasure, which was condemned by the Church. It represented the contrast between carnal and spiritual man, Christians and Pagans as well the educated and the ignoramuses.

In Christian theology, the ass is sometimes associated with specific events in the life of Jesus Christ. For example, the Gospel of Matthew recounts Jesus's entry into Jerusalem riding on a donkey (ass) on Palm Sunday, which was seen as fulfilling a prophecy from the Old Testament (Zechariah 9:9)¹. This event symbolized humility, peace, and the arrival of the Messiah.

Asinus et asellus a sedendo dictus. quasi asidus². sed
hoc nomen quod magis equis convenit. ideo hoc
animal sumpsit; quia priusquam equos caperent ho-
mines; huic insidere ceperunt. Animal quippe tar-
dum. et nulla ratione renitens. Statim ut voluerit
sibi homo subtrahit. Asinos arcadicos dictos. eoquod ab
arcadia primum vectisunt. magni et alti. Minor autem
asellus onagro; plus necessarius est. qui et laborem tolerat;

The words ăsĭnus for ass and ăsellus for donkey come from sĕdendo (sitting), and sounds as if the word were asedus but this name is more suitable for horses. Therefore, this animal took this name, for humans began to sit on this creature, prior to utilizing horses. Indeed, it is a slow-moving animal by nature and offers no resistance in any way; therefore, men used to bend it to their will as they pleased. The Arcadian donkeys are called so, for they were first used in Arcadia³. They are large and tall.

However, the smaller donkey is called ŏnăgrus⁴, onager or wild ass; it is a more useful beast, for it tolerates labour

et negligentiam propemodum non recusat;
Asini sive asine nomine; aliquando dicitur gentilis po-
pulus. aliquando iudaicus populus. aliquando infidelis. ali-
quando simplices et idiote honera ecclesie portan-
tes. aliquando stultus et hebes. et luxuriosus et carna-
lis. et sensualis. aliquando stulta sensualitas. et irra-
tionabilis motus carnis. aliquando sancta anima. aliquando
pacientia predicatorum. Que omnia patent in .iiiita.
parte pantheologi. libro .iio. capitulo. xxiii. Asini.

and does not withdraw therefrom. The words ăsĭni or ăsĭnae are also used to refer sometimes to the pagans, sometimes to the Jews, sometimes to infidels, sometimes to simple people carrying the burdens of the church. Sometimes, they refer to foolish and half-witted people, and sometimes to someone indulging in luxury and carnal pleasures. They also denote foolish sensuality and irrational passions of the flesh. Other times, they represent the holy soul, patience of preachers, and all these are explained in the third part of the Pantheology⁵, Book 2, Chapter 23 on donkeys.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ass, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast210.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Zechariah NKJV 9:9: “Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem! Behold, your King is coming to you; He is just and having salvation, Lowly and riding on a donkey, A colt, the foal of a donkey.”

2 The Etymologies, Book 12, 1:38, by Isidore of Seville show asedus. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Isidore/12*.html

3 Arcadia is a region in the central Peloponnese. Its name comes from the mythological character Arcas, and in Greek mythology, it was the home of the gods Hermes and Pan.

4 Another name for ŏnăgrus is ŏnăgĕr.

5 The name of the author is not specified. The author is perhaps referring to the Pantheologia, sive Summa universae theologiae by Rainerius de Pisis (https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-6089361) or Summa universae theologiae (Partes I-IV) by Alexander of Hales (https://archive.org/details/ita-bnc-in2-00001143-001).