Jacob Scott 15/10/2024 Jacob Scott 15/10/2024

Cetus, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The Cetus[1], or ketos, is a legendary sea monster, possibly the same that swallowed Jonah, so immense that it can be imagined as hell itself. Jonah’s words, "The Lord heard me from the belly of hell," reflect this monstrous comparison. In the vast ocean, the Cetus rises above the waves, covers its enormous back with the ocean’s sand, creating a pseudo-island where shrubs and bushes take root. Mistaking it for a real island, sailors land, anchor their ships and make fires to cook their meals. When the beast feels the heat, it dives suddenly, dragging the ships down with it. This creature symbolises the devil, who similarly ensnares those who place their trust in him, pulling them into the abyss.

The Cetus also has a deceptive nature: when hungry, it opens its mouth, releasing a sweet fragrance. Small fish, lured by the scent, swim into its mouth and when it is full, the Cetus snaps its jaws shut, devouring them all. Larger fish, recognising the danger, swim away. This mirrors the devil, who entices those of weak faith with temptations and flattery, swallowing them up, whereas the faithful saints, wise to his tricks, flee. Just as fools are captivated by sweet scents and perfumes, so too are souls ensnared by the devil’s deceptions, leading to their downfall.

Cetus sive cethe est belua in mari. quasi fuit
illa que excepit ionam. tante magnitudinis
ut putari posset infernus dicente ipso iona. Exau-
divit me dominus de ventre inferi. Hec in medio
pelagi elevat dorsum suum super undas maris. et
tante est magnitudines. ut de sabulo maris per
ventum agitato; fiat planicies super dorsum eius
et quasi certa terra. et arbusta et virgulta ibi
crescunt. Unde navigantes hanc inmobiliter
stare videntes; putant insulam magnam esse.
et applicant naves et palos figunt quibus naves
alligant. et focos faciunt ut cibos coquant. Que

The Cetus or ketos is a sea monster, perhaps the one that swallowed Jonah, of such great size that it could be thought of as hell itself, as Jonah says: 'The Lord heard me from the belly of hell.'[2] This creature, in the midst of the sea, raises its back above the waves and covers it with the sand of the sea and then, a kind of plain takes shape on its back where shrubs and bushes grow. Sailors, seeing it motionless, think it is a large island. They land with their ships, cast anchor and make fires to cook their food.

sentiens ardorem ignis; subito se in aquam mergit et
navem secum trahit. Hec belua figuram diaboli gerit.
qui eos qui spem ponunt in eo et se suis operibus illi obli-
gant. secum in baratrum trahit. Secunda autem natura
huius belue est. quod quando esurit; aperit os suum. et odo-
rem quendam bene olentem exalat de ore eius. cuius
dulcedinem ut sentiunt minores pisces; congregant se in
ore eius. Cum vero senserit os suum repletum; subi-
to claudit os suum et transglutit eos. Magni autem
pisces; fugiunt eam. Sic paciuntur omnes qui sunt modi-
ce fidei. voluptatibus ac lenociniis quasi quibusdam
odoribus diabolicis adescati. subito absorbentur ab
eo. sicut pisciculi minuti. Magne vero fidei sancti in-
telligunt astucias diaboli et fugiunt eas. Unguen-
tis enim et variis odoribus delectantur stulti; ut dicit
scriptura. et sic confringitur anima a ruinis.

When the beast feels the heat of the fire, it suddenly dives into the water, dragging the ship along. This beast symbolises the devil, who drags along down into the abyss those who pin their hopes on him and bind themselves to him through their deeds. The second nature of this beast is that when it is hungry, it opens its mouth and exhales a pleasant fragrance. When the smaller fish sense the sweetness of this scent, they flock into its mouth. When the cetus feels that its mouth is full, it suddenly closes it and swallows them all. On the contrary, the larger fish flee from this beast. Similarly, those of little faith are ensnared by the devil’s temptations and flattery, enticed by his devilish odours and suddenly swallowed by him, just like the small fish. On the contrary, those of great faith, the saints, recognise the devil’s tricks and flee. Fools are delighted by perfumes and various scents, as the scripture says, and thus the soul is shattered.

Endnotes

[1] The word cetus has been Latinized from ketos/kitos. The Greek word for whale is κῆτος/kítos. Cetus could be also translated as whale but the author of the bestiary is referring to the mythological sea monster Cetus because the next folio ff104v describes the whale as being smaller than the cetus monster. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetus_(mythology)

[2] Jonah KJV 2:2: "And said, I cried by reason of mine affliction unto the Lord, and he heard me; out of the belly of hell cried I, and thou heardest my voice."

KAS 15/10/2024 KAS 15/10/2024

Urchin, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff107r-107v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

In the maritime world, the sea urchin, a small creature about half a foot long, plays a crucial role as a forecaster of storms. When it attaches itself to a ship, it causes the vessel to become motionless, signalling the approach of a tempest. Its behaviour is a fascinating omen: sensing the storm's winds, it grabs a heavy stone and drags it like an anchor, stabilising itself against the turbulent waves. Unlike relying solely on its strength, it uses the weight of the stone to maintain its position, offering a critical warning to sailors.

This remarkable ability of the sea urchin raises profound questions. What mathematician, astrologer or Chaldean could interpret the movements of the stars and the heavens with such precision? What knowledge or teacher could endow the sea urchin with such foresight? Unlike humans, who often misinterpret atmospheric disturbances, the sea urchin never errs in predicting storms. Its reliable omens suggest a divine gift of foreknowledge.

The text draws a parallel to God’s provision and wisdom. Just as God clothes the grass of the field with splendour and provides for the birds and ravens, He also ensures that creatures like the sea urchin are endowed with the necessary foresight. If God grants strength and bravery to the horse, allowing it to excel in the fields and be favoured by kings, He also imbues irrational and seemingly insignificant things, like grass and lilies, with divine order.

Thus, if the sea urchin is not overlooked by God's wisdom, neither are humans. The divine care is evident in the way God provides for all creation. As Jesus taught, if God cares for the birds and dresses the grass, He will surely provide for you, demonstrating that you are of greater value. This divine assurance calls for faith and trust in God's provision and wisdom.

Echinus est parvus piscis et semipedalis. Qui
si adheret navi; facit eam inmobiliter stare.
Plerumque index future tempestatis e terra nuntius
solet esse navigantibus. Denique cum procellam ventorum
senserit; calculum validum arripit. eumque velut

The sea urchin is a small fish, about half a foot in size. When it clings to a ship, it causes it to remain motionless. In most cases, it predicts an approaching storm and serves as a messenger from the land to sailors. When it senses the winds of a storm approaching, it grabs a heavy stone,

saburram vehit. et tanquam anchoram trahit; ne excu-
ciatur fluctibus. Itaque non suis se liberat virubus. sed
alieno stabilit et regit pondere. Quo inditio naute
velut signum future perturbationis tapescunt; et
sibi precavent. ne eos inperatos inprovisus turbo inveni-
at. Quis matematicus. quis astrologus. quis caldeus
poterit fiderum cursus. et sic celi motus et signa com-
prehendere; Quo ingenio ista colligit. quo doctore
percipit; Quis ei tanti fuit interpres augurii. Sepe
hominis aeris confusionem vident et sepe falluntur.
quia plerumque eam sine tempestate discuciunt. Echinus
non fallitur. nequaquam sua signa pretereunt. Unde tam
exiguo animali tanta scientia; ut futura prenuntiet;

carries it like ballast and drags it like an anchor to prevent itself from being tossed about by the waves. Thus, it does not free itself by using its own strength but stabilises and directs itself with the weight of another. By this omen, sailors become cautious, as if they had received a warning of impending turmoil and take precautions so that they can tackle an unexpected storm.

What kind of mathematician, astrologist or Chaldean[1] can understand the motion of the stars, of the heavens and their signs in such a way? With what skills does the sea urchin gather such knowledge and under what teacher does it learn? Who or what could have been the interpreter of such an omen for the sea urchin? When humans witness the disturbance of the air, they are often mistaken, for they frequently misjudge it when no storm is coming but the sea urchin is not mistaken and is unfailing in interpreting its own omens. From where does such knowledge come to so small a creature that it enables it to foretell the future? I believe that it received the gift of foreknowledge through the mercy of the Lord, who is the ruler of all things. Indeed, if God clothes the grass in such a way that we marvel, how much more will He provide food for the birds and for the ravens whose nestlings cry out to the Lord? If He gave women the ability to weave and taught the spider to dangle subtly and skilfully from doorways, He ensures these creations serve their purpose. God gave strength to the very horse and removed fear from its neck,

de cervice eius formidinem. ut exultet in campis. et
occurrens regibus arrideat. odoretur bellum eminus.
excitetur sono tube. Si hec irrationabilia plurimaque
alia insensibilia. ut fenum. lilia. replevit dispositione
sue sapientie. quid dubitamus quod etiam in echinum
contulerit gratiam eius presciencie; Nichil enim inexplo-
ratum. nichil dissimulatum relinquit. Omnia videt;
qui omnia pascit. Omnia replet sapientia qui omnia
in sapientia fecit sicut scriptum est. Et ideo si echinum
visitationis sue exortem non pretermisit. et futurorum
format inditus. tua non considerat. Immo vero consi-
derat. sicut testatur eius divina sapientia dicens. Si
respicit volatilia. si pascit illa. none vos plues estis illis;
nisi(? covered by capita) fenum agri quod hodie est et cras in ignem mittitur
deus sic vestit. quanto magis vos minime fidei;

allowing this animal to rejoice in the fields and be liked by the kings who encounter it and to sense war from afar and be spurred by the sound of the trumpet. He also imbued irrational and many other insensible things, like grass and lilies, with the order of His wisdom: why then do we doubt that He also bestowed upon the sea urchin the grace of His foreknowledge? Nothing remains unexplored or overlooked by Him. He sees everything, He who feeds all things. He imbues everything with wisdom, He who made all things in wisdom, as it is written . Therefore, since He has not neglected the sea urchin and has instilled foreknowledge of future events into it, how could He not also consider you? Indeed, He does consider you, as His divine wisdom testifies: If He watches over the birds and feeds them, are you not of more value than they? If God so clothes the grass of the field, which today is and tomorrow is cast into the fire, how much more will He clothe you, O you of little faith?

Endnotes

[1] The Chaldeans were ancient people from southern Mesopotamia, particularly around the region of Babylon. In historical contexts, they are best known for their association with astrology, astronomy and divination. By the time of the Roman Empire and the medieval period, Chaldean had become synonymous with astrologers and learned men who studied the stars and the heavens.

[2] Job NKJV 39:19: "Have you given the horse strength? Have you clothed his neck with thunder?"

[3] Proverbs NKJV 3:19: "The Lord by wisdom founded the earth; By understanding He established the heavens."

Wisdom of Solomon 9:1-2 (Deuterocanonical Book): "O God of my fathers and Lord of mercy, who hast made all things with thy word, and ordained man through thy wisdom, that he should have dominion over the creatures thou hast made..."

[4] Matthew 6:26: "Look at the birds of the air, for they neither sow nor reap nor gather into barns; yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not of more value than they?"

Matthew 6:30: "Now if God so clothes the grass of the field, which today is, and tomorrow is thrown into the oven, will He not much more clothe you, O you of little faith?"

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Trees, shrubs, fruits and nuts, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The names of trees, plants and grasses are thought to originate from the Latin word arva, meaning arable land, as they are firmly rooted in the earth. Their close connection is evident: from seeds cast into the ground, grass emerges first, which eventually develops into a tree. In time, what was once mere grass transforms into a sapling.

The term arbusta refers to shrubs, considered as the shaft of a tree, whereas arbustum describes groves or plantations filled with trees, such as willows and thickets, where new green shoots thrive. Frŭtex, a bush, is so named because its foliage blankets the ground, with its plural form being frutecta.

The term nĕmŭs denotes a wood or forest, often associated with deities due to its historical use for pagan idol worship along with lūcus, which is characterized by its dense, tall trees. Grafting, known as insĭtĭo, involves inserting a shoot from a barren tree into a cut trunk.

Plantae, or cuttings, are taken from trees, whereas plantārĭa refers to sets born from seeds, with established roots ready for transplanting. The root (rādix) is firmly embedded in the ground, similar to stakes and its height is said to match that of the tree itself. The trunk (truncus) rises above the root and the outer bark (cortex) protects the wood beneath, with the inner bark known as lĭbĕr.

Branches (rāmi) extend from the trunk, whereas shoots (surcŭli) can be sawed off. Suckers (virgulti) sprout from the root or base of the tree and are often considered unnecessary by farmers. A twig (virga) derives its name from virtus, meaning strength, symbolising the power and vitality of the plant.

Magicians are said to use twigs to pacify snakes, supporting them as they coil around these branches. Philosophers, rulers and messengers also carry twigs, which symbolise peace and vitality. The upper parts of trees are called flagella, with foliage or crowns referred to as cūma or cȳma.

In Greek, leaves are called phylla, which relates to the Latin fŏlĭae. Flowers (flores) are known for their transient beauty, falling from trees with the winds’ influence— the south wind causing them to fall, whereas the west wind nourishes them. The budding shoot is termed germĕn, linked to the process of sprouting and generating life. Fruits (fructus) emerge from this generative process, connected to flavour and nourishment, with pōma signifying any fruit, derived from ŏpīmus, meaning fertile or abundant.

Lastly, wood (ligna) is named for its ability to emit light when ignited, whereas a firebrand (torris) denotes a burning piece of wood, which is often half-burnt and used for warmth or light.

The palm tree, known for its elegant stature and distinctive hand-like branches, holds a special place in symbolism and nature. Its name is derived from its association with victory, as its branches adorn the hands of victors or perhaps because its shape resembles an outstretched human hand. This majestic tree thrives with tall, graceful fronds that retain their leaves throughout the year, symbolising endurance.

In Greek culture, the palm is referred to as φοῖνιξ (phoînix), a name shared with the legendary phoenix, a bird known for its longevity in Arabia. While the palm flourishes in various regions, its fruit, the date, ripens predominantly in Egypt and Syria. The dates, dactўli, resemble fingers and were once a staple for hermits residing in the deserts of Egypt and Syria.

Rich in flesh and high in blood-generating properties, dates are both hot and moist but can be challenging to digest. Frequent consumption may lead to digestive issues, causing constipation and discomfort in the liver, spleen and stomach, along with adverse effects on dental health.

Beyond its physical attributes, the palm tree carries profound symbolic meanings. It represents justice and triumph over the vices of the world, embodying the crown and reward of eternal life bestowed upon victors, as noted in the Pantheology book. In essence, the palm tree stands as a symbol of resilience, nourishment and the eternal rewards of virtue.

Laurel, laurūs, is tied to the word praise (laudāre), as victors were crowned with its leaves in ancient times. Originally called laudĕa, it evolved into laurĕa and laurūs. In Greek, it is known as daphne and is unique for supposedly being the only tree struck by lightning.

The fig tree (fīcus) symbolises fertility, producing fruit multiple times a year. Its fruit, named cārĭca, was once a favoured food for athletes before Pythagoras promoted meat. Fig juice has various uses, from reducing wrinkles to removing fever. The fig could be seen as symbolic of prosperity and blessings due to its abundant fruit but also as a sign of corruption, especially when barren. This dual nature reflected the belief that external appearances could be deceiving, aligning with Christian teachings on spiritual fruitfulness. One of the most significant Biblical references to the fig tree is in the Gospels when Jesus curses a barren fig tree (Mark 11:12-14 , Matthew 21:18-22 ). This act is interpreted as a metaphor for the fate of those who do not bear spiritual fruit, emphasising the importance of faithfulness and good deeds. A fruitful fig tree, in contrast, symbolises those who are spiritually productive and in alignment with God. The fig tree is also associated with the Garden of Eden. After Adam and Eve ate from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, they used fig leaves to cover themselves (Genesis 3:7). As a result, fig leaves became a symbol of both shame and human awareness of sin.

In Medieval medicine, figs were used as a gentle laxative to treat constipation and promote digestion and fig syrup was often used for respiratory issues, such as colds and coughs, due to its soothing and anti-inflammatory effects. Figs were also applied as poultices to treat skin irritations, boils and abscesses. Their antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties were valued in healing wounds and infections.

The bramble (mōrus) bears fruit that once sustained desert shepherds. Throwing its leaves on a snake supposedly kills it. In Christian symbolism, the bramble is perhaps most famously associated with Moses and the Burning Bush (Exodus 3:2 ). The burning bramble that was not consumed by fire symbolised God’s presence in the lowly and humble. The bramble's humility, combined with the fact that it could host the divine presence without being destroyed, became a powerful metaphor for the belief that God’s grace could dwell in the meek and humble. It was seen as symbolic of spiritual endurance, where the faithful could bear suffering and yet remain unharmed, protected by God’s grace.

The mulberry, a taller cousin, is believed by some to be the tree the prophet Hosea plucked in the desert. In the event of an inflammation of the throat between the mouth and the esophagus that could reach the muscles, the bowels should be treated with mulberry syrup.

The bitter tamarisk (mўrīcē) thrives in solitude and is useful for fires or making brooms. According to Avicenna’ medicine, tamarisk mixed with boiling roses, myrtle leaves, mastic tree leaves was used to prepare astringents in order to treat boils that may develop in infants’ bodies. Besides, French tamarisk mixed with pomegranate peel, soft myrtle, acorn’s soft peel, dry rose, burnt horn, alum, goat’s hooves, pomegranate flowers, barley flour or lentil flour was used to treat anal prolapse.

In some biblical contexts, the tamarisk is associated with mourning and lamentation. The tree is mentioned in the story of Abraham planting a tamarisk in Beersheba (Genesis 21:33 ), a moment symbolizing his covenant with God, but in medieval interpretations, it was sometimes seen as a symbol of grief and reflection on spiritual matters. The tree was also linked to the early Christian hermits, known as the Desert Fathers, who sought spiritual growth in isolation. The tamarisk’s presence in arid lands reflected the ascetic lifestyle of these early saints, who found spiritual nourishment and communion with God in desolate surroundings.

Myrtle (mirtus) is a coastal tree with medicinal benefits, including regulating sweat and promoting hair growth. It also had symbolic associations with love in ancient texts. In medieval times, myrtle was used to treat bad breath caused by a stomach disorder by crushing its tips in wine to create a purging drink. According to Avicenna’s medicine, myrtle water mixed with liquorice and rose water was used to wash the belly in order to aid indigestion. Dusting a powder of myrtle with root of white lily or powder of roses and cypress on thighs helped with the abrasion.

In medieval bestiaries, the myrtle was often depicted as symbolic of fertility, life and vitality due to its evergreen nature and aromatic flowers. Its resilience and constant greenery made it an emblem of enduring life and vitality. It is known for its pleasant fragrance and beautiful flowers and was also associated with love and beauty. It symbolised divine love and purity in the Christian context, drawing from classical associations with Venus, the Roman goddess of love.

Cinnamon (cinnămōmum) and cassia (căssia) are both warming spices known for their medicinal properties. Cinnamon aids digestion and respiratory issues, whereas cassia strengthens internal organs and helps alleviate women’s health problems. To clean black teeth, cinnamon was used to make toothpastes by mixing it with cloves, spikenard, frankincense, mastic, grain, date and olive stones and a crab’s foot and grinding them to a powder. If anyone suffered with vetch, some cinnamon and ginger were pulverised with other ingredients to make a juice to treat it.

According to Pliny, cassia was a shrub that grew on the mountains and has a thicker stalk than cinnamon. Both cinnamon and cassia were used in religious rituals in ancient Israel, including the preparation of holy anointing oil as described in the Book of Exodus (30:22-25) . In Christian symbolism, this association with sacred rituals persisted, making cinnamon and cassia emblems of divine worship and sacred offerings. The anointing oil was used to consecrate the priests and objects of worship, symbolizing sanctification and spiritual cleansing.

The almond tree (ămygdăla) is covered with flowers and has medicinal properties. The bitter almond serves as medicine, whereas the sweet almond as food. It is also mentioned in sacred texts. The almond tree features in biblical stories, most notably in Numbers 17:8 , where Aaron's rod blossomed and bore almonds, symbolising God's favour and the selection of the house of Levi for the priesthood. This miraculous event made the almond tree a symbol of divine selection and authority. Also In Jeremiah 1:11-12, the vision of an almond tree is associated with God watching over His word to perform it. This linked the almond tree to God's vigilance and faithfulness to His promises. In Jeremiah 1:11-12 , the vision of an almond tree is associated with God watching over His word to perform it. This linked the almond tree to God's vigilance and faithfulness to His promises.

Sweet almonds were used as food and were considered beneficial for nourishing the body. They were known for their moistening and warming properties, making them suitable for treating dryness in the body and promoting digestive health. Bitter almonds were more commonly used in medicinal preparations. They were believed to have warming and drying properties and were used to treat various ailments, including digestion problems, coughs and asthma and skin problems.

Poplar (pōpŭlus) has dual-coloured leaves, symbolising the transition between day and night. It was often associated with transformation and duality, particularly due to its leaves, which are white on one side and green on the other. This characteristic was seen as symbolic of the dual nature of human life or the passage of time, with one side representing day and the other night or life and death. The two-coloured leaves of the poplar symbolised the contrast between good and evil or between life and death, which resonated with Christian teachings about the dual paths of salvation and damnation. the poplar was valued for its medicinal properties: poplar buds were used to make a soothing balm which was used for treating wounds, burns and skin irritations. The resin from the poplar was thought to have anti-inflammatory and healing properties. In medieval times, parts of the poplar tree were also used for their diuretic effects, helping to cleanse the body of excess fluids and were often prescribed for kidney ailments.

The plane tree (plătănus), with its wide shade, is named after the Greek word for wide, πλατύς/platys. In Christian symbolism, the plane tree was often associated with shade and protection. This was based on its wide, spreading canopy, which offered shelter and rest, metaphorically representing divine protection and refuge. It symbolised spiritual covering, where weary souls could find peace under God’s grace, paralleling how travellers or pilgrims might rest beneath its broad branches. The leaves and bark of the plane tree were thought to have antiseptic and cooling properties. These were used to treat skin inflammations, burns and wounds. The tree's wide availability in Europe and the Middle East made it a popular remedy for such ailments. Infusions made from the bark were used for their anti-inflammatory effects. This could have included the treatment of headaches, joint pain or fever, similar to how willow bark was used for its salicin content.

Juniper (iūnĭpĕrus) was thought to store fire in its ashes for a year, hinting at its endurance. The juniper was often associated with protection and purification. Its evergreen nature symbolised endurance, eternal life and the unyielding spirit of faith. Its ability to thrive in harsh conditions was seen as a metaphor for spiritual resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity. According to Christian tradition, the Holy Family is said to have found refuge under a juniper tree while fleeing to Egypt, which gave the plant a reputation for offering divine protection. This event reinforced the juniper’s association with shelter and safety. Juniper berries were used to treat digestive issues, acting as a remedy for stomach complaints and aiding in the elimination of excess gas and to stimulate urine production, aiding in the treatment of kidney and bladder problems. Juniper oil was believed to have antiseptic properties and was applied to wounds and sores to prevent infection. It was also used to treat respiratory problems, such as coughs and bronchitis, through inhalation or decoction.

Thyme (thўmum) is a fragrant plant, celebrated in Virgil’s Georgics, whose flowers represent preachers. In medieval Christian symbolism, thyme was linked to purity and the Virgin Mary. The small but resilient nature of thyme symbolised humility and dedication to faith. Its widespread use in religious ceremonies reflected its purity and cleansing properties. In medieval herbal medicine, it was valued for its ability to treat coughs, colds and other respiratory problems. Its expectorant properties made it a common remedy for clearing the lungs. Due to its antimicrobial properties, thyme was used for wound care and to prevent infections. Medieval physicians believed thyme helped purify the blood and reduce inflammation. According to Avicenna’s medicine, boiling thyme and placing few drops of it in the ear would treat earaches. Taking equal amounts of thyme, castoreum and cumin mixed with water would help treat convulsions.

The red acacia (shittah or sethim), a durable, incorruptible tree that symbolises purity and strength, reflecting qualities of invincibility. The hardness and resistance of the wood symbolised resilience and spiritual strength and the acacia’s ability to thrive in dry, barren environments reflected the endurance of faith amidst hardship. The wood of the acacia was considered sacred and was believed to protect against evil, symbolising divine providence and the purity of sacred spaces. In Christian symbolism, the red acacia holds profound meaning, primarily due to its association with the construction of the Tabernacle in the Old Testament. The shittim wood, which refers to acacia, was used to build the Ark of the Covenant and parts of the Tabernacle (Exodus 25-27), making it a symbol of God's presence and protection. This association imbued the acacia with a sense of sacredness and divine favour. In medieval medicine, the red acacia was used to stop bleeding and treat wounds due to its strong astringent qualities. It helped to promote healing and prevent infection, making it a common remedy for skin injuries. The bark or resin of the tree was used to treat digestive ailments, particularly diarrhoea, as its astringency helped to soothe the digestive tract. Like thyme, acacia was sometimes used to treat coughs and respiratory conditions, as it helped clear the lungs and alleviate symptoms of colds.

The cedar (Cĕdrus) is revered for its resin, which burns easily and is resistant to woodworms, symbolising durability. Its fragrant wood, often used for preserving books, grows in regions like Crete and Syria. Persius honours its lasting qualities, likening it to the elegance of a swan. The cedar is frequently mentioned in the Bible, symbolising strength and divine favour. In Psalm 92:12-13 , it is likened to the righteous flourishing in the house of the Lord, further enhancing its spiritual significance. It also symbolised Christ’s mother Mary, also called the Cedar of Lebanon, whose branches resist to the seasonal changes just as the beauty of Mary never changes. In medieval medicine, cedar wood and its oil were believed to possess various healing properties. The aromatic qualities of cedar were thought to have antiseptic effects and were used in treatments for respiratory issues.

The fir (Ăbĭes), known for its height and lightness, is integral to shipbuilding, as noted by Virgil. Its wood lacks knots and moisture, making it ideal for various uses. The fir tree's evergreen nature made it symbolic of immortality and eternal life, a concept that resonated with Christian beliefs about the afterlife. Its resilience, especially in harsh winter conditions, was seen as a symbol of the steadfastness of faith and the soul’s enduring nature in the face of sin and death. In medieval Christian symbolism, the fir tree sometimes represented the triumph of Christ over death. The fir could also be linked to the wood of the cross, which symbolised salvation through Christ’s sacrifice. In some pre-Christian mythologies, for instance, fir trees were sacred, often linked to gods and supernatural forces. In Norse mythology, the fir tree was sometimes associated with Yggdrasil, the World Tree, a symbol of cosmic order and life. Over time, as Christian influence grew, these associations were reinterpreted in a Christian context, focusing on divine protection and eternal life. Fir resin was used to treat wounds and skin conditions. Its antiseptic and healing properties made it a valuable substance in medieval herbal medicine. It was also sometimes used in remedies for respiratory problems, including coughs and bronchitis. Inhalations of fir resin vapours were believed to clear congestion and improve breathing.

The cypress (Cŭpressus), characterised by its conical shape, is praised for its impenetrable wood, used in temples. Its branches historically masked the scent of pyres, and it is known for its medicinal properties. In medieval Christian symbolism, the cypress was closely associated with death and mourning. Its use in funerary contexts was widespread due to its evergreen nature, symbolising the eternal soul and its use in graveyards to mark burial sites. The tree was a common feature in cemeteries, representing the immortality of the soul and the hope for resurrection. This believes probably derives from classical mythology, according to which the cypress was connected to mourning through the myth of Cyparissus, a youth loved by Apollo. After accidentally killing his pet stag, Cyparissus was so grief-stricken that he asked to be transformed into a cypress tree so he could mourn forever. This association with eternal sorrow carried over into Christian and medieval traditions, where the tree came to represent mourning and the sadness of death.

According to Avicenna’s medicine, hot astringents, such as myrrh, bark and fruit of cypress, fruit juice of gum arabic, and aloe could help umbilical hernia in infants. Cypress was also mixed with the powder of myrtle, root of white lily, powder of roses, barley flour or lentil flour to treat abrasion of the thigh. The resin of the cypress tree was sometimes applied to wounds as a natural antiseptic and to promote faster healing. Its astringent properties made it effective in stopping bleeding.

The olive tree (Ŏlīva), ŏlĕa, is a symbol of peace, with oil derived from its fruits varying by ripeness. The ŏlĕastĕr, or wild olive, has broader leaves and can transform when grafted with cultivated branches. One of the most enduring symbols of the olive tree is peace. This stems from the Biblical story of Noah's Ark, where a dove returns to the Ark with an olive branch, signalling the end of the flood and the restoration of peace between God and humanity (Genesis 8:11). In medieval Christian symbolism, the olive tree thus represented reconciliation with God, peace after turmoil and the restoration of divine favour. In Greek mythology, the olive tree’s association with wisdom originates from classical antiquity, where it was sacred to the goddess Athena, who, according to myth, gave the olive tree to the city of Athens. The olive tree became a symbol of the city and a representation of peace and prosperity. This mythological heritage influenced the medieval Christian interpretation of the olive tree as a symbol of peace and divine favour. Medieval interpretations retained some of this association, seeing the olive as symbolic of wisdom and strength, particularly spiritual wisdom derived from God.

Olive oil was highly valued in Christian ritual as a symbol of the Holy Spirit. The practice of anointing with olive oil, whether in baptisms, confirmations or the anointing of the sick, emphasised the olive tree’s role in sanctification and spiritual healing. The oil’s purifying and illuminating qualities made it an apt symbol for the Holy Spirit, the light of faith and the grace of God.

The Mount of Olives held deep significance in Christian tradition, as it was the site of Jesus’ prayer and arrest before His crucifixion. The olive tree, therefore, became a symbol not only of peace but also of Christ's suffering and sacrifice. The olives themselves were pressed to extract oil, a process that became an allegory for Christ’s passion and the weight of His suffering to bring salvation to humanity.

Olive oil was often mixed with radish juice and was poured into the ears to treat earaches or loss of hearing. It was sometimes mixed with rose oil and was rubbed on the forehead to heal pained eyes and ease headaches and migraine. It was also applied to soothe and heal wounds, burns and skin conditions. Its emollient and anti-inflammatory properties made it a common remedy for dry or irritated skin. It was also used to treat digestive issues and was thought to help with the proper flow of bile. It was also used to relieve constipation and to alleviate pain from ulcers.

The willow (Sălix) is known for its rapid growth and flexible wood, often associated with fertility concerns. The willow tree is commonly associated with sadness and mourning due to its drooping branches, which give it a melancholic appearance. In Christian symbolism, it became a metaphor for weeping, repentance and sorrow over sin. This sorrow was often connected to the biblical verse in Psalm 137:1-2 , where the Israelites, exiled by the Babylonians, hung their harps on willow trees as they wept for Jerusalem.

Despite its association with grief, the willow also symbolised resilience and hope. Willows grow near water and have an extraordinary ability to regenerate from broken branches, representing renewal and the potential for rebirth. In Christian allegory, this quality was linked to spiritual renewal, repentance and resurrection. Just as the willow could spring back to life, so too could the soul find renewal through repentance and divine grace.

In classical antiquity, the willow was associated with healing, fertility and protection in various cultures, including Greek and Roman mythology. It was sacred to Hecate , the goddess of magic and the underworld and sometimes connected to water spirits or nymphs. These pre-Christian associations with magic and fertility carried over into medieval folklore, though they were often reinterpreted through a Christian lens.

In Celtic traditions, the willow tree was associated with the moon, water and mystical realms. It was believed to have magical properties, particularly in promoting dreams, divination and intuition. Medieval folklore often retained some of these older symbolic meanings, particularly in connection to dreams and intuition, blending them with Christian themes of renewal and divine inspiration.

Willow bark was one of the most important natural remedies in medieval medicine. It contains salicin, a precursor to modern-day aspirin. Physicians used it to treat pain, fever and inflammation. The use of willow bark to reduce fevers and alleviate pain was well-known throughout the Middle Ages and was a foundational treatment for a variety of ailments. Beyond its analgesic effects, willow was also used in remedies for skin conditions, wounds and gastrointestinal issues. The bark or leaves could be made into poultices to reduce swelling or could be applied directly to wounds to promote healing.

The oak (quercŭs) and holm oak (īlex) are discussed in terms of their acorns and galls, used medicinally and historically significant, especially the Oak of Mamre. The oak bears acorns while the holm oak produces oak galls. However, some believe both grow on the same tree, with galls and acorns as different types of fruit. The holm oak's name comes from ēlectus ("chosen"), as its fruit was the first food chosen by humans. The oak is historically significant, as seen in the Oak of Mamre where Abraham settled, which survived until Constantine’s reign.

Oak galls have medicinal uses, whereas acorns, once human food, are now primarily for pigs but are also used in medicine. Acorns are cold, dry, hard to digest and can cause constipation, yet nourish the body and help with certain ailments. Burning oak produces dense smoke that causes headaches. Oak and its by-products, like galls, are beneficial for women's health and treating haemorrhages.

The oak often symbolised strength, endurance and protection. Its stature and longevity made it symbolic of steadfastness, much like the faithful who stand strong against trials. Animals associated with the oak, such as the stag, were seen as creatures of wisdom and strength, further reinforcing the oak's symbolic significance.

In Christian symbolism, the oak often represented virtues such as faith, strength and resilience. Its sturdiness in the face of harsh conditions mirrored the Christian soul’s ability to endure hardships and remain faithful. Additionally, the oak was often linked with martyrs or saints who stood firm in their beliefs even under persecution, drawing parallels between the unwavering nature of the tree and the steadfastness of holy figures. It was also linked to various biblical trees, sometimes seen as a counterpart to the Tree of Life, which bore eternal fruit, offering strength and longevity. In medieval Christian communities, oaks could also be considered sacred trees, where prayers or offerings were made, especially in rural or folk practices, blending Christian and pre-Christian traditions.

The oak features prominently in European and Mediterranean myths. In Greek and Roman mythology, the oak was sacred to Zeus (Jupiter for the Romans), the king of the gods, and was seen as a symbol of divine authority and power. Oak groves were often places where ancient peoples sought omens or divine guidance.

In the Celtic tradition, the oak was revered as a tree of wisdom and power. The Druids, Celtic priests, held the oak in the highest regard, believing it to be a bridge between heaven and earth. The tree’s connection to thunder and lightning further enhanced its mythological status as a symbol of divine strength and protection.

The terebinth tree (Tĕrĕbinthus), producing the finest resin, symbolised strength, endurance and the divine protection provided by God. The terebinth’s longevity and ability to grow in rocky, challenging environments also made it symbolic of spiritual endurance amid adversity. Its resin, used as a form of incense, could symbolise purification or consecration to God. In Christian symbolism, it was sometimes associated with divine judgment and transformation. In the Bible, it is mentioned in a few instances, such as in Genesis 35:4 , where Jacob buries foreign gods under a terebinth tree, symbolising the renunciation of idolatry and a return to monotheism. This act of purification could be seen as a metaphor for Christian repentance and rejection of sin. Moreover, the terebinth is often associated with the oak and like the oak, it may symbolise endurance and faith. In the Book of Isaiah (6:13), the terebinth is mentioned in a metaphor about renewal and restoration after destruction: “As a terebinth or an oak leaves a stump when cut down, so the holy seed will be the stump in the land.” This implies that, even after hardship, faith will endure and bring about renewal. This tree's survival from destruction could thus represent the enduring nature of the Christian Church or the faithful remnant of believers.

The terebinth was highly valued in medieval medicine for its resin that was used to treat various ailments, particularly those related to the respiratory system and digestion. Its antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties made it a popular remedy for wounds, skin conditions and infections. In medieval herbals and medical texts, the resin was often applied externally to cleanse wounds and speed healing. Internally, it was sometimes used to treat coughs, bronchial infections and digestive issues. Its resin, when distilled, could also be used to soothe rheumatism or joint pain, demonstrating its versatility in medieval medical practices.

The pine tree (Pīnŭs), was often associated with immortality and eternal life, primarily due to its evergreen nature. Since it remains green year-round, it was seen as a symbol of enduring life and the triumph of life over death, making it a natural allegory for the resurrection and the Christian promise of eternal life. Its height and ability to thrive in difficult conditions made it a symbol of spiritual strength and the ability to remain faithful under pressure.

Pine cones were often used as a symbol of fertility and renewal, especially in their role in nature as seed bearers. The tree's straight trunk also represented uprightness and righteousness, fitting well with Christian moral ideals. The pine also symbolised pride and wealth, as indicated in Isaiah. Its resin had widespread use in medieval medicine: it was often called turpentine when refined and was valued for its antiseptic and healing properties. It was used to treat a variety of ailments, especially related to respiratory problems like bronchitis and asthma. The resin was applied to wounds as a salve to promote healing, protect against infection and soothe skin irritations. In medieval herbal texts, pine needles were sometimes boiled to create remedies for colds and coughs, as the oils released were believed to help clear the respiratory passages. Pine oil was also used in poultices for joint pain or to treat rheumatic conditions. Pine-scented baths were considered beneficial for their invigorating and purifying properties, helping to cleanse the body of toxins and revitalize the spirit.

The elm (Ulmus) tree thrives in damp areas, embodying the virtues of saints and teachers. This tree was often depicted as a symbol of shelter and support. Its expansive branches provided shade and protection, making it a metaphor for nurturing care, both physically and spiritually. Elm trees, often used as support trees for vines in agriculture, were also associated with cooperation and mutual benefit, symbolising the idea that different entities can work together for the common good. The elm was a living example of harmony in nature. Its strength and deep roots made it an allegory for perseverance and stability, qualities that were often praised in medieval moral and religious teachings. Elm groves were seen as safe places, offering protection from harsh weather, which could be interpreted as spiritual protection in the face of life's storms.

In Christian symbolism, the elm tree was associated with death and rebirth, often linked to the cycles of life, death and resurrection. Elm wood was sometimes used in funeral pyres or coffins, reinforcing its connection to mortality. However, its capacity for regeneration—since new shoots often grew from cut or damaged trees—symbolised renewal and resurrection, aligning with Christian beliefs in life after death. The role of this tree in supporting vines further emphasised its symbolic role in Christian thought. As vines were often used as metaphors for Christ (as in John 15: "I am the vine, you are the branches"), the elm's supportive role could be seen as representing the Church or the faithful, providing structure and support for spiritual growth. Elm trees were sometimes planted in churchyards or monasteries, where their sheltering branches could be interpreted as a symbol of God's protection and care over the faithful. The elm's towering stature also evoked the presence of God and the idea of spiritual elevation, providing a metaphor for reaching towards heaven.

In medieval medicine, the elm tree was known particularly for its bark, which was used to treat various ailments. Elm bark was often employed as an anti-inflammatory agent and a remedy for skin conditions like ulcers, wounds and burns. The inner bark was soaked and made into poultices or decoctions, believed to have cleansing and soothing properties. The bark was also used to treat digestive issues and it was thought to be helpful in soothing the digestive tract. It was used in medicinal drinks to ease throat infections and to calm irritations in the stomach or intestines. Some medieval herbalists believed that the elm’s ability to grow new shoots from damaged areas mirrored its healing properties, making it a popular remedy for wounds and injuries.

The box tree (Buxus) is an evergreen used for writing and associated with strength and excellence. In medieval bestiaries, the box tree was often associated with resilience and endurance, much like other evergreens. Since it remains green year-round and produces hard wood that can withstand various conditions, it symbolised unyielding faith and moral integrity. Its dense wood, difficult to break or rot, was used as a metaphor for steadfastness in the face of sin or temptation. This resilience could be linked to the idea of spiritual fortitude, suggesting that like the box tree, one should be firm in their beliefs. Besides, the slow growth of the box tree symbolised patience and the gradual cultivation of virtue. Just as the tree grows and strengthens over time, so too does one’s moral and spiritual strength develop with practice and persistence.

In Christian symbolism, the box tree represented eternal life and immortality, much like other evergreen trees. Its ability to remain green even in harsh conditions made it a symbol of eternal hope and divine grace, which never fades even in difficult times. This made the box tree a metaphor for the promise of salvation and the enduring nature of God's love.

The boxwood’s use in crafting small, intricate religious items like rosary beads, crosses, statues and tablets also tied it closely to religious devotion. Its strong yet workable wood made it ideal for creating devotional objects, linking the tree symbolically to piety, devotion and the crafting of spiritual tools used in prayer and meditation.

Boxwood also had negative associations due to its toxicity. Consuming the leaves or wood could lead to illness or death, which gave the tree a dual symbolism: it could represent both protection and danger, much like the choices between salvation and sin. The toxicity could be interpreted allegorically as the consequences of straying from the path of righteousness.

In medieval medicine, the box tree’s uses were somewhat limited due to its toxicity. However, it was still employed in some medicinal remedies, primarily involving the external application of its parts. Boxwood leaves were used in poultices to reduce swelling or treat skin conditions and it was sometimes employed in treating rheumatism. The leaves and bark, when prepared with caution, were used in remedies for fevers and other ailments, though ingestion had to be carefully controlled. Boxwood’s astringent properties made it useful in treating wounds or external inflammations. Medieval herbalists understood the tree’s powerful nature but warned of its potential dangers, reflecting the tree’s symbolic association with both healing and harm.

The ebony (Ĕbĕnus) originates from India and Ethiopia: it was admired for its hardness and incorruptibility. Its wood was so dense that it was often said to sink in water, a property that symbolised resilience and unshakable faith. The tree’s resistance to insects and decay became a metaphor for the incorruptibility of virtue. Just as the ebony tree cannot be easily destroyed by external forces, so too should a person’s moral character stand firm against temptations and challenges. The darkness of the ebony wood was often interpreted as a symbol of mystery and depth, showing that appearances can be deceiving. The purity and strength within contrasted with the dark exterior, signifying that one’s inner qualities were more important than outward appearances. In Christian thought, humility was often considered one of the greatest virtues and the ebony tree’s modest yet powerful nature aligned with the Christian ideal of inner spiritual strength. Despite its dark, unassuming exterior, it was regarded as precious and valuable, much like a person who quietly devotes themselves to God without seeking worldly praise. Ebony wood was sometimes used to carve religious items, such as crosses or statues, representing how something seemingly dark or ordinary could be transformed into a sacred object, thereby further enhancing its symbolic resonance with themes of sanctification and spiritual transformation.

The use of ebony in medieval medicine was limited due to its rarity and hard nature, but it was highly prized for its supposed protective and preservative properties. It was believed that objects made from ebony could ward off illness or evil spirits, contributing to the tree’s symbolic role as a protector against spiritual or physical corruption. Ebony was sometimes used in amulets or charms, believed to provide protection from evil or misfortune. Its hard, durable wood was thought to contain inherent medicinal or magical properties, though not necessarily as a consumable. Instead, its protective strength was more allegorical, associated with safeguarding life and health through its sheer incorruptibility.

The bdellium (Bdellĭum), highlighted for its luxurious qualities and medicinal uses, is also prized for its aromatic resin. It was sometimes compared to precious materials like myrrh and frankincense due to its fragrant and resinous nature. In bestiaries and medieval allegory, resins like bdellium were often symbolic of purification and spiritual refinement. The extraction of resin from trees symbolised a process of purging impurities, much like how the soul undergoes trials to achieve purity. Bdellium, being a rare and valuable resin, represented the idea that purity and spiritual refinement are precious and come at a cost. As a substance used in incense, bdellium could be linked to the idea of offerings to God. Just as bdellium’s sweet-smelling aroma would rise to heaven when burned, it could symbolise prayers or righteous acts rising up to God, making it an emblem of piety and devotion. In Christian symbolism, bdellium, like other resins, was associated with sanctity, prayer and the divine. It was mentioned in the Bible, notably in Genesis 2:12 , where it is listed alongside gold and onyx in the description of the land of Havilah, suggesting its preciousness. The use of aromatic resins in religious ceremonies was common and bdellium would have symbolised purity, sanctification and divine presence. The burning of resin in liturgical practices was seen as an act of worship and offering and thus bdellium, with its fragrant smoke, came to symbolise the soul’s ascent to God. The purity of its aroma represented the purification of the soul and its rarity made it a symbol of the preciousness of spiritual gifts.

In medieval medicine, bdellium was used for its therapeutic properties. It was valued for its ability to treat wounds, infections and digestive issues. Bdellium’s antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties made it a popular ingredient in ointments for healing ulcers and sores. It was also sometimes used in poultices to reduce swelling or to promote the healing of abscesses. The resin was believed to have a cleansing effect on the body, reflecting its symbolic role in purification. It was sometimes used to treat respiratory problems and its pleasant aroma made it useful in fumigations to purify the air, especially in times of plague or infection.

Arborum nomina sive herbarum ab arvis in-
flexum creditur. eoquod terris fixis radicibus
adhereant. Utraque ideo sibi pene sullimia sunt; quia
ex uno alterum gignitur. Nam dum sementem in terram
ieceris; herba prius oritur. dehinc confota surgit in
arborem. et infra parvum tempus quam herbam
videras; arbustam suspicis. Arbusta dicitur quasi ar-
boris hasta. Alii arbustum dicunt locum in quo
arbores sunt. Sicut salicta et virecta. ubi salices et
virgule novelle et virentes habenter; Frutex bre-
vis est. appellatus. quod terram frond tegat. cuius

The names of trees or plants or grasses are believed to be inflected from the word arva (arable land), for they all adhere to the earth with fixed roots. Both are almost the same for this reason: one is born from the other. When you have cast a seed into the ground, the grass springs up first and then, it rises to become a tree. Within a short time, that which you had seen as grass, you now behold as a sapling. Shrubs, arbusta[5], are believed to be the shaft of a tree. Others say that arbustum[5] is a grove or plantation where trees grow, such as willow groves and green thickets, where willows and new, green sprigs are found. A bush, frŭtex, is short, so named, for its foliage covers the ground and its plural is frutecta[6].

plurale; nomen frutecta. Nemus a numinibus nuncupatum
quia pagani ydola ibi consecrabant. Sunt enim nemora
arbores maiores. umbrose frondibus. Lucus est. densi-
tas arborum alta. vocata hoc nomine eoquod exiliat in
altum. et in sullime consurgat. Inscicio dicitur; cum insciso
trunco surculus arboris sterilis inseritur. Plante
sunt de arboribus plantaria. Vere ex semine nata sunt
cum radicibus et a terra propria transferuntur. Radix
appellatur quod quasi radiis quibusdam fixa in terris;
in profunda mergitur. Nam phisici dicunt parem esse
altitudinem radicum et arborum. Truncus est statura
arboris insistens radici. Corticem veteres corucem
vocabant. dictus cortex; quod corio lignum tegat
Liber est corticis pars interior. dictus a liberato cortice id est
ablato. Est enim medium quiddam inter lignum et cor-
ticem. Rami sunt; qui de trunco manant. Surculi a
prescidere sere nuncupati. Virgultum est quod de radice
pullulat. Ramus de ipso arboris robore. virgaque de
ramis. Proprie autem virgultum nuncupatur; quod ad ra-
dicem arboris nascitur. et quasi inutile ab agricolis ampu-

Nĕmŭs[7], wood or forest, is named after deities, for pagans used to consecrate idols there. Groves, nemora, are large trees, shaded by foliage. A lūcus, sacred grove, is a density of tall trees, for it rises high and ascends to the heights. Insĭtĭo, grafting, happens when a shoot of a barren tree is inserted after cutting the trunk. Plantae, cuttings, are taken from trees whereas sets, plantārĭa, are born from seeds, have roots and are transplanted from their native soil. A root, rādix, is called such for it is fixed in the ground just like stakes and sinks deep thereinto. Indeed, physicists say that the height of the roots is equal to that of the trees. The trunk, truncus, is the height of the tree resting on the root. The ancients called the bark cortex. The bark is so called, for it covers the wood like skin. The inner part of the bark is called lĭbĕr, for it is freed from the bark, that is, removed. It is something in the midst of the wood and the bark. Branches, rāmi, are those that spread forth from the trunk. Shoots, surcŭli, are those that can be cut off with a saw, from praescindo, to cut off, to remove. Suckers, virgulti, are that which sprouts from the root or at the base of the tree. A branch, ramus, comes from the trunk, the very strength of the tree and a twig, virga, comes from the branches. A sucker, virgultum, is called so, for it grows at the root of the tree, is regarded as useless and is cut off by farmers.

tatur. Et hinc dictum virgultum; quod ex virga tol-
litur. Virga a virtute dicitur. quia vim in se habeat
multam. Vel a viriditate. vel quia paucis indicium est;
quod vireat. Unde hac utuntur magi ad placandos
inter se serpentes. et iccirco in ea hos sustinent illigatos.
Hanc etiam philosophi et reges et magistri et nuntii ac lega-
ti gestant. Flagella dicuntur summe arborum partes.
ab eo quod sustinent crebros ventorum flatus. Cu-
mas; quasi comas vocant. Folia filia grece dicuntur.
Unde ad nos hoc nomen dirivative translatum. flores
nominati; quod cito solvuntur de arboribus. In hiis duplex
gratia. coloris et odoris. Austro enim flores solvuntur. zephi-
ro fruuntur. Germen dicimus surculum pregnantem.
a generando. Unde et generatio fructus nomen acce-
pit. a frumine id est eminente gutteris parte. qua ves-
cimur. et sapores discernimus. Unde et fruges. Fructus
autem proprie dicuntur agrorum et arborum quibus uti-
mur. In averillibus vero abusive et translative
fructum vocari. Poma dicta ab opimo id est copia

The term virgultum for sucker is also used when it is cut off from a twig. A twig, virga, is named after the word virtus (strength), for it holds much power within or after the word vĭrĭdĭtās, greenness or vegetation, or for it is a sign of peace or for it is verdant. Magicians use it to placate snakes fighting against themselves and therefore, they support them coiled around a twig[8]. Philosophers, kings, magistrates, messengers and envoys also carry it. The upper parts of trees are called flagella, for they bear the frequent gusts of wind. The foliage (or crown) of a tree is called cūma or cȳma, for it sounds like cŏmae[9]. Leaves are called φύλλα/phylla in Greek wherefrom the Latin word fŏlĭae derives. Flowers, flores, soon fall from the trees. There is a twofold grace within them: of colour and of scent, for the south wind causes flowers to fall but the west wind benefits them. We call germĕn a budding shoot, from the word germĭnāre, to sprout forth and gĕnĕrāre, to beget or generate. Hence, the word for fruit, fructus, took its name from frūmĕn, that is, the prominent part of the throat wherewith we eat and discern flavours whence also the term fruges[10] (fruits) comes from. Properly speaking, fruits are those of the fields and of the trees whereof we make use. It is also applied, improperly and by transference, to animals. Pōma, fruits of any kind, derive from ŏpīmus, meaning abundant or fertile.

ubertate. Ligna dicta sunt; quia accensa conver-
tuntur in lumen. Unde et lignum dicitur; quod lu-
men dat. Torris lignum est. lignum adustum. quod
vulgo ticionem vocant. foco semiustum et stractum .

Palma dicitur quia victricis manum ornat
vel quia in modum palme hominis;
oppansis est. Est enim arbor insignis proceroque ac
decoro virgulto diuturiusque vestita frondibus. folia
sua sine ulla succensione conservans. Hanc greci;
phenicem dicunt. quia phenix est avis que mul-
to tempore vivit in arabia. Quia palma dum(changed to cum)
in multis locis nascatur; non tamen in omnibus fructus
percipit maturitatem. Frequenter autem in egypto
et in siria. Fructus autem eius sunt dactili. a simili-
tudine digitorum quam habent nuncupati. quibus pasti
sunt olim heremite in egypto et siria et inheremis.
Dactili sunt grossi. sanguinis generativi. calidi et
humidi sunt; et difficiles digestioni. Et si sepe com-

Wood, ligna[11], is called such, for it radiates light when set on fire and therefore, it is called lignum. A firebrand, torris, is burning wood, commonly called tītĭo and is half-burnt and cold on the hearth.

The palm tree is called so, for its branch adorns the hand of victors or for it resembles the shape of a human hand when it stretches out. It is a distinguished tree with tall and graceful branches and is adorned with leaves that it preserves without any shedding. The Greeks call it φοῖνιξ (phoînix)[12], for the phoenix is a bird that lives for a long time in Arabia. Although the palm grows in many places, its fruit does not ripen everywhere. However, it ripens frequently in Egypt and in Syria. Its fruits are called dates, dactўli, so named, due to their resemblance to fingers whereon hermits in Egypt, Syria, in deserts and hermitages fed in the past. Dates are fleshy, generative of blood, hot and moist and are difficult to digest. If eaten frequently, they cause

medantur; faciunt epatis et splenis constipatio-
nem. duriciem. grossitiem. et tumorem. Gingivis et
dentibus sunt nocivi. et dolorem faciunt in ore
stomachi. Quidam in frigida. quidam in calida. qui-
dam in mediocri regione nascuntur. Nomine palme
aliquando dicitur iusticia et victoria vitiorum et mundi
aliquando corona et retribution vite eterne que victoribus de-
betur. ut p3 in .viio. libro. quarte partis pantheologi. ca-
pitulo. lxxxi. ;
Laurus autem ab hoc verbo laudo dicta est. Hac enim
capita victorum apud antiquos coronabantur.
et apud eosdem laudea nominabatur; Postea
.D. littera sublata. et subrogata .R; dicta est laurus.
Ut auricule. que antiquitus audicule dicebantur.
dicte sunt et medidies qui nunc meridies dicitur
Et medidies que nunc meridies dicitur. Hanc ar-
borem dampnem vocant. eo quod numquam deponat vi-
riditatem. Sola quoque hec arbor vulgo fulminari creditur; vel fluminari
Ficus a fecunditate dicitur. eoque feratior sit omnibus
arboribus. Nam ter quaterque singulis annis generat

constipation of the liver and spleen, hardness, thickness and swelling. They are harmful to the gums and teeth and cause pain in the stomach. Some grow in cold regions, some in warm and others in temperate regions. The palm tree, by name, sometimes symbolises justice and victory over the vices of the world; sometimes, it represents the crown and reward of eternal life owed to victors, as it is said in the third book of the seventh part of the Pantheology , chapter 81.

Laūrūs, laurel, is named after the verb laudāre, to praise, for the heads of victors were crowned therewith among the ancients. They used to call it laudĕa; afterwards, the letter D was removed and replaced with R; it resulted in laurĕa[13] and laūrūs[14]. Similarly, aurĭcŭlae, ears, were formerly called audĭcŭlae and mĕrīdĭēs, midday, used to be called mĕdīdĭēs but it is now called mĕrīdĭēs. This tree is also called δάφνη/daphne[14] from Greek and is evergreen. This tree is commonly believed to be the only one that can be struck by lightning.

Fīcus, fig tree, is said to be named after the word fēcundĭtās (fruitfulness, abundance, fertility) and therefore, it is more fruitful than all the other trees, for it bears fruit three to four times each year.

fructum. atque uno maturescente; alter arboritur
Hinc et carice a copia dicuntur. ficus egyptia fecun-
dior fertur. cuius lignum in aquam missum; continuo mer-
gitur et cum in limo aliquandiu iacuerit; demum
in superficiem sustollitur. cum econtrario deberet secundum soli-
tum cursum nature. enatare. et madefactum ex-
pondere humoris mergere. Olim athlete ficis ale-
bantur; antequam pitagoras transtulisset eos ad usus
carnium; que fortior cibus sunt. Ficus enim ceteris fruc-
tibus laudabilior ac nutribilior est. Ficus sepius in ci-
bum sumpta; rugas distendit. Tauri ferocissimi
ad ficus arborem colligati; mansuescere dicuntur.
Ficus fructus humiditatis causa; grossos generat hu-
mores. Natura eius calida et sicca. Ficus mixta frondi-
bus papaueris silvestris; ossa fracta vulneribus eli-
cit. Ficus calorem extinguit. situm aufert. provocat
sudorem. pediculos generat;
Morus a grecis vocatatur. quam ut ysidorus dicit latini;
rubum appellant. eoquod fructus eius vel virgul-
tum eius rubet. Est enim morus silvestris fructum afferens

No sooner does one fruit ripen than another one is borne. Hence, it is also named cārĭca[14] due to its fruitfulness. The Egyptian fig is said to be more fruitful, the wood whereof sinks down forthwith when cast into the water. When it has lain in the mud awhile, it is eventually lifted to the surface, when it should naturally float and, once soaked, sink under the weight of the liquid absorbed. Once, athletes used to feed on figs before Pythagoras encouraged them to eat meat, which is stronger food, for figs are more commendable and nourishing than other fruits. Figs, when often taken into food, stretch wrinkles. The fiercest bulls are said to become tame when tied to a fig tree. The fig generates thick juices due to its fluids. Its nature is warm and dry. Figs mixed with the leaves of wild poppy pull out fractured bones from wounds. Figs reduce fever[15], remove mould (or rust)[16], cause sweat and generate lice.

Mōrus[17], blackberry/bramble, is from Greek μόρος/móros or μορέα /moréa. As Isidore says, the Latins named it rŭbus, for its fruit or its twigs are red. The bramble is a wild tree bearing fruit;

quo in deserto pastorum fames ac penuria confor-
tetur. Huius folia si fuerint superiactata serpenti; fer-
tur interimi. Hodie tamen consueto more diximus morum
arborem quandam magnam. cum latis folus. et fere simili-
bus folus ficus; afferentem(changed from tuem) fructus rubentes.
Sicomorus grecum nomen est. et dicitur ficus fatua. ysido-
rus autem dicit quod sicomorus dicitur eoquod similis mo-
ro sit folio. Hanc latini celsam vocant ab altitudine.
quia non brevis; ut morus. Set ut a nonnullo estimatur;
morus est quod ysidorus dicit sicomorum. et e9o. Osee enim pastor
in deserto; vellicabat sicomoros.
Myrice humilis arbor est. licet quandoque ad staturam hominis
inveniatur. et dicitur ab amaritudine. Gustus enim eius; est
nimis amarus. In solitudine et in saxosa humo nasci-
tur. apta ignibus et scopis et sine fructus est.
Mirtus dicitur a mari. eoquod litorea magis ar-
bor sit. Unde virgilius. Littora mirtetis letissima.
et amantes littora mirtos. Humilis arbor et utilis
potui mellito. Mirtus est. frigida et sicca. Oleum eius;

its fruits feed shepherds in the desert in times of scarcity and famine. If its leaves are thrown onto a snake, the snake will perish. Today, according to custom, we call a certain large tree mōrum[18], mulberry, which has wide leaves almost similar to the leaves of a fig tree and bears red fruits. Sȳcŏmŏrus[19], sycamore, is a Greek name and is called the tasteless, insipid[20] fig. Isidore says that the sycamore is so named, for its leaves are similar to the leaves of a mulberry tree. The Latins named the mulberry also celsa[21], from celsus (high/elevated) due to its height, for it is taller than the mulberry tree. Some reckon that the mulberry tree is what Isidore calls sȳcŏmŏrus. The shepherd Hosea[22] was said to pluck sycamore figs[23] in the desert. Mўrīcē /mўrīca, tamarisk[22], is a short tree and can be found sometimes having the height of a man and is named so after its bitterness, for its taste is very bitter. It is born in solitude and on rocky soil. It is suitable for lighting fires, can serve as brooms or brushes and bears no fruit. Mirtus/myrtus, myrtle tree, is named so, for it is a coastal tree and is found by the sea. Hence, Virgil (Georgics, Book IV): "The shores of the mirte are very delightful” and "Lovers of the shores are myrtles." It is a small and useful tree able to produce honey. The myrtle is cold and dry. Its oil

proroum opilatunim. Unde si corpus quod propter pororum
nimiam apertionem nimis sudat. ex quo minime fiunt
egritudines oleo mirtimo ungatur; pori restringun-
tur. et sudores defitiunt. Mirtus multis mulierum
necessitatibus subvenit. Et est arbor odorifera. quid-
dam dulcedinis et quiddam amaritudinis habens
frigida et sicca. Tussi subvenit. stomacum et intesti-
na confortat. Aqua in qua decocta est. sive oleum
mirtinum; erasure cesariem erasure confirmat et aug-
mentat.

Cassia multum est calida et sicca. Stomacum. epar.
vulnera. et omnia principalia membra confortat.
O pilationem aperit. grossos humores et ventositatem dis-
soluit. Infirmitatibus mulierum succurrit.
Cinnamonium calidum est. et siccum. stomacum con-
fortat. et aromatizat. et eius humiditate desiccat.
Opilationem aperit. cibus digerit. flegma dissoluit. Tus-
sim ex grossa humiditate et catharrum curat. Renum
dolorem mitigat. Ydropisim tympanitem. et morsus repti-
lium curat. Colliriis mixtum; superfluam oculorum

is for opening pores. Hence, if a body sweats excessively due to the excessive opening of its pores, which causes illnesses, let it be anointed with myrtle oil, for the pores will narrow and the sweat will cease. Myrtle helps with many women's natural needs. It is a scented tree, having something sweet and something bitter, cold and dry. It helps with cough, strengthens the stomach and intestines. The water wherein it is boiled or the myrtle oil strengthen and increase hair growth.

Căssia, Chinese cinnamon[23], is very hot and dry. It strengthens the stomach, liver, wounds and all the main members. It opens obstructions, dissolves unhealthy and obstructive fluids and flatulence. It assists women with their ailments.

Cinnămōmum, cinnamon[24], is hot and dry. It strengthens the stomach, adds aroma and it dries with its moisture. It opens obstructions, aids the digestion of food and dissolves phlegm. It cures coughs caused by thick humidity and catarrh. It alleviates pain in the kidneys and heals dropsy, tympanitis and the bite of a reptile. When mixed with eyewash, it dries up excessive moisture

humidiatem desiccat. Tritum et aceto temperatum;
inpetigines et lentigines excirpat. Si cum frigida ieiu-
nis detur; emoroidarum proprie sanguinem stringit.

Amigdala sive amigdalus arbor est. que cunctis ar-
boribus prior; se flore vestit. et ad inferenda poma;
arbusta sequentia prevenit. Et est. amigdala grecum
nomen. que latine nux longa vocatur. Hanc alii nu-
cidam vocant. quasi minorem nucem. Amigdale dulces;
sunt calide et humide. amigdale amare; sunt cali-
de et sicce. Amare; dantur pro medicina. Dulces; pro-
cibo. Nomine amigdale aliquando dnr snie sacre scripture.

Populus duplex est. alba scilicet et nigra. Alba dicitur;
eoquod folia eius in una parte sunt alba. in altera; vi-
rida. Hec ergo bicolor. habens quasi diei et noctis notas. quo
tempore ortu solis occasuque constat. Generat etiam
resinam circa heridanum fluvium. vel ut alii dicunt in finibus sirie.

Platanus a latitudine soliorum dicitur. vel quia
arbor sit patula et ampla. Nam platos dicitur grece;
latum. Expressit scriptura huius arboris et nomen et formam;
dicens. Quasi platanus dilatata sum in plateis. Est atem;

in the eyes. When ground and mixed with vinegar, it expels impetigo (skin infection) and freckles. If it is given cold on an empty stomach, it effectively helps to reduce haemorrhoidal bleeding.

Ămygdăla/Ămygdălus, almond tree, above all other trees, is covered with flowers and prevents the shrubs following it from bearing fruit. The word comes from Greek ἀμυγδάλη/amygdalē but it is also called nux longa, long nut. Others call it nucida, small nut. Sweet almonds are warm and moist. Bitter almonds warm and dry. The bitter ones are given as a medicine. The sweet ones as food. The word ămygdăla sometimes appears in the sacred scriptures[27].

Pōpŭlus[28], poplar, has two parts: its leaves are white on one side and green on the other. Therefore, it is two-coloured, having the characteristics of day and night, when the sun rises and sets. It also produces resin near the river Ērĭdănus[28], or as others say, at the borders of Syria.

Plătănus, plane tree, is named after the wide breadth of its shade, for it is a wide and large tree. In Greek, πλατύς/platýs means wide. The Scriptures describe the name and form of this trees by saying "As a plane tree, I am spread out in the streets." However,

tenerrimis foliis ac mollibus et urticum similibus;
Iuniperus grece dicta. sive quod ab amplo in angustum
finit; ut ignis; sive quod conceptum diu teneat
ignem. adeo ut si prune ex eius cinere fuerint coo-
perte; ad annum perveniant. Pir enim grece dicitur ignis
iuniperus alia est parva alia magna.
Timus sive ligne tima; sunt rotunda. quasi pinea.
sed multo candidiora. et fulgentia valde. et inputri-
bilia. et spinosa; in similitudinem albe spine. Dicitur
quidam quod aliud sit timus arbor. alius tinius sive
timum; herba vel frutex. cuius flosodorem refert. De
qua herba dicit virgilius. Redolentque timo. fragran-
tia mella. Epitimum grecum nomen est quod latine dicitur
flos timi. Nam flos grece; timum vocatur. Est autem
flos timbre similis. Tima ligna significant predicatores.
Sethui sive ligna sethin; sunt semper durabilia.
incorrupta. munda. perfecta. fortia. unde habent signi-
ficare perpetuitatem. durabilitatem. invincibilitatem;

it is a tree with tender and soft leaves similar to nettles.

Iūnĭpĕrus[29], juniper tree, is defined in Greek as a tree that goes from wide to narrow just like fire or can hold fire for a long time so much so that if it were to be covered with its ash, it would last for a year. In Greek, πῦρ/pyr means fire. The juniper has both a small and a large variety.

Thўmum/thўmus, thyme, or lignum thymi, thyme stem, is round resembling the shape of a fir cone but much whiter and very shining. It does not putrefy and is spiny in the likeness of a white thorn. Some say that it is another kind of thyme, perhaps tinius or timum, either an herb or a shrub, which has the scent of flowers. Virgil says thereof: “the fragrant honey is sweet with thyme” (Georgics, book 4, 149). Ĕpĭthўmŏn[30] is the Greek word for that which the Latins call the flower of thyme. In Greek, the flower is called θύμος/thumos[31]. It is a flower similar to the whorled savory. The flowers of thyme symbolise preachers.

Shittah/sethim/shittim[32], red acacia or shittah tree, is always durable, incorruptible, pure, perfect and strong; therefore, it symbolises perpetuity, durability and invincibility.

Endnotes

[1] Transcription error: the correct word was probably pacis, of peace, and not paucis to the few.

[2] Transcription error: the correct word was probably animalibus, to animals.

[3] Transcription error: the correct word was probably extinctum, cold/cooled down.

[4] Arbusta is the plural form of arbustum and usually means bushes/shrubs.

[5] Arbustum in the singular form usually refers to a grove or a plantation of trees.

[6] The plural form frutecta comes from frŭtectum and refers to "a place where shrubs grow" or "a thicket" of bushes. It is a broader term indicating a collection of shrubs or bushes in a specific area. The word frŭtex refers to a single "shrub" or "bush." The plural form is frutices.

[7] The Romans used to give sacred groves the names nĕmŭs or lūcus to distinguish them from ordinary groves that were named silvae. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_grove

[8] In ancient and medieval symbolism, the image of magicians coiling snakes around twigs or rods (such as virga) is closely related to broader mythological and symbolic traditions. A notable example is the Rod of Asclepius, an ancient Greek symbol associated with healing and medicine, which depicts a single serpent coiled around a staff. This imagery conveys the idea of control over serpents, which are often seen as symbols of knowledge, healing or danger. Another related symbol is the caduceus, associated with the god Hermes, showing two snakes coiled around a staff. Though this latter symbol is more connected to commerce and negotiation, it reflects a similar theme of power and wisdom. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_of_Asclepius https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caduceus

[9] The word cŏmae means hair, tresses, mane but also foliage or crown of a tree.

[10] Plural form of frux, fruit.

[11] Ligna is the plural form of lignum. In the plural form, it has the meaning of firewood.

[12] This word could also refer to the Phoenix bird, as the two shared the same name due to their association with longevity and the region of Phoenicia. The word was used to describe both the palm tree and its symbolic meaning, much like in Latin.

[13] The author of this book is not mentioned. The text might be referring to the Pantheologia, sive Summa universae theologiae, a theological encyclopedia written by Rainerius de Pisis, an Italian Dominican who died in 1351. It was the first theological encyclopedia and one of the longest books written in the medieval period. The book was first published in 1473 in Nuremberg and six printed editions were produced in the 15th century.

[14] Mark NKJV 11:12-14: 12 Now the next day, when they had come out from Bethany, He was hungry.
13 And seeing from afar a fig tree having leaves, He went to see if perhaps He would find something on it. When He came to it, He found nothing but leaves, for it was not the season for figs.
14 In response Jesus said to it, “Let no one eat fruit from you ever again.” And His disciples heard it.

[15] Matthew NKJV 18:21-22: 18 Now in the morning, as He returned to the city, He was hungry.
19 And seeing a fig tree by the road, He came to it and found nothing on it but leaves, and said to it, “Let no fruit grow on you ever again.” Immediately the fig tree withered away.
20 And when the disciples saw it, they marveled, saying, “How did the fig tree wither away so soon?”
21 So Jesus answered and said to them, “Assuredly, I say to you, if you have faith and do not doubt, you will not only do what was done to the fig tree, but also if you say to this mountain, ‘Be removed and be cast into the sea,’ it will be done.
22 And whatever things you ask in prayer, believing, you will receive.”

[16] Exodus NKJV 3:2: "And the Angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire from the midst of a bush. So he looked, and behold, the bush was burning with fire, but the bush was not consumed."

[17] Genesis NKJV 21:33: "Then Abraham planted a tamarisk tree in Beersheba, and there called on the name of the Lord, the Everlasting God."

[18] Exodus NKJV 30:22-25: 22 Moreover the Lord spoke to Moses, saying:
23 “Also take for yourself quality spices—five hundred shekels of liquid myrrh, half as much sweet-smelling cinnamon (two hundred and fifty shekels), two hundred and fifty shekels of sweet-smelling cane,
24 five hundred shekels of cassia, according to the shekel of the sanctuary, and a hin of olive oil.
25 And you shall make from these a holy anointing oil, an ointment compounded according to the art of the perfumer. It shall be a holy anointing oil."

[19] Numbers NKJV 17:8: "Now it came to pass on the next day that Moses went into the tabernacle of witness, and behold, the rod of Aaron, of the house of Levi, had sprouted and put forth buds, had produced blossoms and yielded ripe almonds."

[20] Jeremiah NKJV 1:11-12: 11 Moreover the word of the Lord came to me, saying, “Jeremiah, what do you see?”
And I said, “I see a branch of an almond tree.”
12 Then the Lord said to me, “You have seen well, for I am ready to perform My word.”

[21] It is the laurel crown.

[22] It is the laurel tree.

[23] Daphne was also a naiad, a variety of female nymph associated with fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of freshwater. Due to a curse made by the fierce wrath of the god Cupid, son of Venus, on the god Apollo (Phoebus), she became the unwilling object of the infatuation of Apollo, who chased her against her wishes. Just before being kissed by him, Daphne invoked her river god father, who transformed her into a laurel tree, thus foiling Apollo. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphne

[24] Cārĭca was a type of dry fig from Caria, a country in south-west Asia Minor. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caria

[25] Călŏr means both heat and fever in Latin.

[26] The word sĭtŭs has various meanings: it usually means location, position but it also means rust, mould, dirt.

[27] It is referring to the bramble/blackberry tree, the Rubus Fruticosus. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubus_fruticosus

[28] Mōrum or mōrus is the mulberry tree, Morus Nigra, and its leaves are similar to the leaves of a fig tree. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morus_(plant)

[29] This tree is very similar to the fig tree and is also called the Egyptian fig. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus_sycomorus

[30] The Greek word for this tree is συκόμορος/sykómoros

[31] In Latin, fătŭus meant silly/foolish/idiotic but when it referred to food, it meant tasteless/insipid.

[32] The Romans called the mulberry also celsa, from celsus, which means high/elevated. In fact, the word for mulberry in Modern Italian is gelso because it derives from celsus. The language evolved and the letter c was replaced with the letter g, thus resulting in gelso. https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/gelso_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/

[33] Osee, or Hosea, is a significant figure in the Bible, particularly known as a prophet in the Old Testament. He is often referred to as "the shepherd" in various contexts, particularly in the metaphorical sense.

[34] The act of plucking sycamore fruits is not a detailed focus in Hosea’s writings but sycamore figs are mentioned in Amos NKJV 7:14: "Then Amos answered and said to Amaziah: 'I was no prophet, nor was I a son of a prophet, but I was a sheep breeder and a tender of sycamore fruit.'"

[35] Myrice was also a figure in Greek mythology who was transformed into a tamarisk tree, possibly by Aphrodite, the goddess associated with the tree. The story suggests that Myrice was grieving the death of her kinsman Adonis, who was killed by a boar while hunting.

[36] This tree is loaded with symbolism and is mentioned in the Bible, in Genesis NKJV 21:33: "Then Abraham planted a tamarisk tree in Beersheba, and there called on the name of the Lord, the Everlasting God."

[37] It is called Chinese cassia or Chinese cinnamon, Cinnamomum cassia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamomum_cassia

[38] Ordinary cinnamon, also called the true Cinnamon or Ceylon cinnamon, the Cinnamomum verum https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamomum_verum

[39] The word "amygdala," referring to the almond tree, appears in several verses in the Bible, specifically in the context of the almond tree as a symbol or in descriptions.
Numbers NKJV 17:8: "Et factum est, in crastinum, ingressus est Moyses in tabernaculum testimonii, et ecce, germinavit virga Aaron de domo Levi, et protulit germina, et floruit flores, et reddidit amygdala."
"Now it came to pass on the next day that Moses went into the tabernacle of witness, and behold, the rod of Aaron, of the house of Levi, had sprouted and put forth buds, had produced blossoms and yielded ripe almonds."
Jeremiah NKJV 1:11-12: "Et factus est sermo Domini ad me, dicens: Quid tu vides, Ieremia? Et dixi: Amygdalam videns; et dixit Dominus ad me: Bene vidisti, quia vigilabo super verbum meum, ut adimpleam illud."
"Moreover, the word of the LORD came to me, saying, 'Jeremiah, what do you see?' And I said, 'I see a branch of an almond tree.' Then the LORD said to me, 'You have seen well, for I am ready to perform My word.'"
Ecclesiastes NKJV 12:5: "Quia timebitur, et viae erunt terribiles, et amygdala florebit, et onus erit locusta, et deficiet desiderium: quia in domum aeternitatis vadit homo, et circumibunt in plateis plorantes."
"Also they are afraid of height, and of terrors in the way; when the almond tree blossoms, the grasshopper is a burden, and desire fails. For man goes to his eternal home, and the mourners go about the streets."

[40] This tree, Populus tremula, has various names according to the species: poplar, aspen and cottonwood. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus

[41] Ērĭdănus is a mythical river mentioned in Greek mythology and is believed to be in Northern Europe. It is also believed to be the modern river Po, in Northern Italy. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridanos_(river_of_Hades)

[42] In reality, the Greek word for juniper is ἄρκευθος/arkeythos. The etymological dictionary divides the word into junix(heifer) + pario (to give birth) because the juniper is an emmenagogue, an agent that promotes menstrual discharge and it was given to cows to facilitate their delivery. Others replaced junix with junior(young)+ pario because the tree always produces young sprouts. https://www.etimo.it/?term=ginepro&find=Cerca

[43] The ΛΟΓΕΙΟΝ dictionary defines ĕpĭthўmŏn as a parasitic plant growing on thyme, Cuscuta Epithymum https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuscuta_epithymum

[44] θύμον/thymon: Accusative (direct object) form of thyme, used in specific grammatical contexts.

[45] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vachellia_seyal , https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shittah_tree. The shittim tree is mentioned in the Bible, especially in the context of the construction of the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle (Exodus 25:10). The wood was used for these sacred structures because of its lasting qualities. It symbolises endurance, strength and purity in various cultural and religious contexts.

[46] Psalm NKJV 92:12-13: The righteous shall flourish like a palm tree, He shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon. Those who are planted in the house of the Lord shall flourish in the courts of our God.

[47] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyparissus

[48] Psalm NKJV 137:1-2:
1 By the rivers of Babylon, There we sat down, yea, we wept when we remembered Zion.
2 We hung our harps upon the willows in the midst of it.

[49] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecate

[50] Genesis NKJV 35:4: So they gave Jacob all the foreign gods which were in their hands, and the earrings which were in their ears; and Jacob hid them under the terebinth tree which was by Shechem.

[51] Genesis NKJV 2:12: And the gold of that land is good. Bdellium and the onyx stone are there.

[52] Roman poet and satirist of Etruscan origin. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persius

[53] In classical and medieval literature, the swan often symbolised purity, beauty and poetic excellence. Therefore, worthy of the swan emphasises something elevated or noble in nature, fitting the swan’s symbolic association with grace and high standards. Persius’s words or ideas being worthy of such an elegant or enduring symbol connects the durability and nobility of the cedar with the poetic loftiness symbolised by the swan.

[54] Transcription error. Virgil actually wrote in the Georgics: “et casus abies visura marinos” and not “et casus abies insura marmos”.

[55] Cōnus means cone or pine cone in Latin.

[56] Song of Songs NKJV 1:17: “The beams of our houses are cedar, And our rafters of fir.”

[57] Variation of hispanum. The oil made from white olives was called Spanish oil, ŏlĕum hispānum.

[58] Probably from lux(light) or lŭcerna(lamp) and it is referring to the oil used for lighting lamps.

[59] It means light, lamp and comes from the Greek word λύχνος/lýchnos.

[60] The word ēlectus comes from the verb ēlego, to choose.

[61] The word is an adjective referring to the oak. There are variants: quernus, quernĕus, querculus, quercĭnus.

[62] The verb quaero means to seek answers/responses, to look or to ask for something.

[63] The Oak of Mamre or Oak of Sibta at Khirbet es-Sibte or Ain Sibta in Hebron in the West Bank is a site venerated by some as the "Oak of Abraham". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_of_Mamre

[64] Mambra (or Mamre) in the Bible refers to a site near Hebron in ancient Canaan. Mamre is associated with Abraham, who settled there and built an altar to the Lord. In Genesis 13:18, it is mentioned that Abraham moved to the oak grove of Mamre, which is near Hebron. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamre

[65] Parthia is a historical region located in North Eastern Greater Iran. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia

[66] Pīnŭs also meant spear or lance in Latin.

[67] Germania was a historical region in north-central Europe during the Roman era, which was associated by Roman authors with the Germanic peoples. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germania

[68] Isaiah NKJV 60:13: "The glory of Lebanon shall come to you, the cypress, the pine, and the box tree together, to beautify the place of My sanctuary; and I will make the place of My feet glorious."

[69] Isaiah NKJV 41:19: "I will put in the wilderness the cedar, the acacia tree, the myrtle, and the olive tree; I will set in the desert the cypress tree and the pine and the box tree together."

[70] The word ăpex not only means top, point or summit but also the outlines of the letters of the alphabet and ĕlĕmenta are also the characters of the letters of the alphabet.

[71] This passage highlights the qualities of the box tree and its significance in writing, particularly its use in creating writing implements such as tablets for instance. In fact, buxus also means tablet in Latin. In Habakkuk NKJV 2:2: Then the LORD answered me and said: “Write the vision And make it plain on tablets, That he may run who reads it.

[72] 2 Esdras NKJV 14:24: "But look thou prepare thee many box trees, and take with thee Sarea, Dabria, Selemia, Ecanus, and Asiel, these five which are ready to write swiftly"

[73] There is a confusion between Egypt and India. The term Mareotis refers to the Mareotic Lake in Egypt, known for the presence of ebony. This type of geographical confusion was common in ancient texts, as the authors often had limited knowledge of distant lands and their resources.

KAS 15/10/2024 KAS 15/10/2024

Human nature and the soul, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff123v-125v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

A section in the Rochester Bestiary on humans and the human body opens with a consideration of human nature and the soul.

nendi enim et faciendi potens est. Hanc quidam deum
esse dixerunt a quo omnia creata sunt et ex istunt.

Genus a gignendo dicitur. Cui dirivatum nomen
a terra ex quo omnia gignuntur. Ge enim grece; ter-
ra dicitur. Vita dicta propter vigorem. vel quod
vim teneat nascendi atque crescendi. Unde et arbores vi-
tam habere dicuntur. quia gignunt et crescunt. Ho-
mo dictus quia ex humo est factus erasure Sicut et in ge-
nesi dicitur. Et creavit deus hominem de humo terre.
Abusive enim pronuntiatur ex utraque substantia; totus
homo. id est ex societate anime et corporis. Nam
proprie homo; ab humo. Greci enim hominem antro-
pum appellaverunt. eoquod sursum aspectet.
sublevatus ab humo ad contemplationem artificis
sui. Quod ovidius designat cum dicit. Pronaque cum

Nature is called as such, for something is brought into existence therefrom. Nature has the power to generate and produce. Some have called this power God, from whom all things are created and to whom they return. The word gĕnŭs comes from gignendo, which means to beget and its derivative name comes from terra, which means earth, the source wherefrom all things are created. The Greek word for terra is Ge. Vīta (life) is named so owing to its force, for it possesses the power to generate and grow. Whence, trees are said to have life for they generate and grow. Hŏmo (Man) is named so, for it is made from a handful of soil that was scraped away, exactly as it is stated in the Genesis that God created Man from the dust of the earth. The word hŏmo has been abused and its meaning extended by catachresis to “being of dual essence”, that is the union of body and soul. In truth, hŏmo comes from humus that means soil, earth. In fact, the Greeks called Man ánthropos, meaning the one who looks upwards, raised from the earth to contemplate his creator. That which Ovid means when he writes:

spectant animalia cetera terram. Os homini sub-
lime dedit celumque videre. Iussit et erectos ad
sidera tollere vultus. Qui ideo erectus; celum aspi-
cit; ut deum querat; non ut terram intendat.

Veluti pecora que natura prona et ventris obe-
dicia finxit. Duplex est. autem homo. Interior et exte-
rior. Interior homo anima. Exterior; corpus.

Anima autem a gentilibus nomen accepit. eoquod ven-
tus sit. Unde et grece ventus animos dicitur. quod
ore trahentes aerem; vivere videamur. Sed aper-
tissime falsum est. Quia multo prius gignitur
anima; quam concipi aer ore possit. que iam in ge-
nitricis utero erasure vivit. Non est igitur aer anima;
quod putaverunt quidam. qui non potuerunt
incorpoream eius cogitare naturam. Spiritum idem
esse quod animam; evangelista pronuntiat dicens.

Potestatem habeo ponendi animam. et po. ha. iterum
su. e. De hac quoque anima. in ipso dominice passionis

“and whereas all other animals watch the earth, facing downwards, Man was given a face and was ordered to look above towards the sky; therefore, he stands straight and can raise his eyes to heaven in order to seek God and not to focus on the earth”.

Just as nature has fashioned animals to be prone and obey the dictates of the belly, Man is twofold: interior and exterior. The interior is the soul, and the exterior is the body. The soul has taken its name from the Pagans and meant “vital breath/air”. In Greek, the vital breath is called ἄνεμος (anemos), which also means wind, for we seem to come to life when we receive air through our mouth as if it were brought by the wind. This is openly false, for the soul is created long before air enters the mouth. The soul already lives in the womb of the mother. Therefore, the soul is not air, as some have believed, because they were not able to reflect upon its incorporeal nature.

The Evangelist declares that the spirit is the same as the soul, by stating: “I have the power to lay down my soul and to take it back”. Also, concerning this soul, during the very time of the Lord's Passion,

tempore. memoratus evangelista ita protulit dicens

Et inclinato capite; emisit spiritum. Quid est. enim
emittere spiritum. nisi quod animam ponere; Sed anima
dicta propter quod vivit. spiritus autem vel spi-
ritali natura. vel pro eo quod spiret in corpore. Item
animum idem esse quod animam. Sed anima vite est.
animus consilii. Unde et dicunt philosophi etiam
sine animo vitam manere. et sine mente ani-
mam durare. Unde et amentes. Nam mentem
vocari ut sciat; animam ut velit. Mens enim
vocata; quod emineat in anima. vel quod me-
minit. Unde et inmemores amentes. Quapropter non
anima sed quod excellit in anima; mens vocatur;
tanquam caput eius vel oculus. Unde et ipse homo
secundum mentem ymago dei dicitur. Ita enim hec omina
adiuncta sunt anime; ut una res sit. Pro effi-
cientiis enim causarum; diversa nomina sorti-
ta est anima. Nam et memoria mens est. Unde
et inmemores amentes. Dum ergo vivificat corpus;
anima est. Dum vult animus est. dum scit; mens est.

the Evangelist expressed it as follows: "And bowing His head, He yielded up His spirit.” What does it mean to yield up the spirit if not to lay down the soul? The soul is named so owing to its living nature, whereas the spirit either owing to its spiritual essence or for it breathes within the body. Likewise, the mind is the same as the soul, but the soul pertains to life, whereas the mind pertains to reason. Thus, philosophers say that life can remain without the mind and the soul can endure without the mind. Hence, those without reason are called amentes (devoid of mind). The mind knows, the soul desires. The mind is that which stands out in the soul or that which remembers. Therefore, those who are forgetful are amentes (devoid of mind). Thus, it is not the soul but that which excels in the soul that is called the mind, just as its head or eye. Whence, Man himself is said to be the image of God according to his mind. All these things are connected to the soul as one thing. The soul has received various names. Memory, for instance, is a part of the mind; therefore, those who are forgetful are amentes, devoid of mind. Thus, as long as it enlivens the body, it is the soul working. Desires are yearned for by the soul, knowledge is craved by the mind.

Dum recolit memoria est. dum rectum iudicat;
ratio est. dum spirat; spiritus est. dum aliquit
sentit; sensus est. Nam inde animus sensus dicitur.
pro hiis que sentit. Unde et sententia nomen
accepit. Corpus dictum eoquod corruptum pe-
rit. Solubile enim atque mortale est. et aliquando
solvendum. Caro a creando est appellata. Cre-
mentum enim est. semen masculi. unde animalium
et hominum corpora concipiuntur. Hinc et paren-
tes creatores vocantur; Caro enim ex quatuor
elementis compacta est. Nam terra in carne est.
aer in halitu. humor in sanguine. ignis in
calore vitali. Habent enim in nobis elementa suam
queque partem. cuius quidem debetur compage
resoluta. Caro enim et corpus diversa signifi-
cant. In carne semper corpus est; non semper in
corpore caro. Nam caro est. que vivit. Idem et cor-
pus. Corpus quod non vivit. idem nec caro. Nam
corpus dicitur. aut quod post vitam est mortuum.

It is memory working as long as it recalls, it is reason as long as it judges rightly. As long as it breathes, it is the spirit. When things are perceived, it is the senses. Therefore, the mind is also called sensus for the things it perceives. Hence, the name sententĭa (judgment). The body is called so, for it decays when it perishes. It is mortal, and at some point, it will be dissolved. The flesh is named so from its creation, for it is the offspring and the seed of the male, wherefrom the bodies of animals and humans are conceived. Thus, parents are also called creators, for flesh is composed of four elements: earth is in the flesh, air in the breath, moisture in the blood, and fire in the vital heat. Each element has its own part within us, and when the compound of these elements is dissolved, it becomes flesh. Flesh and body are different in meaning. In the flesh, there is always a body, but in the body, there is not always flesh. Flesh is that which is alive, and the same applies to the body. A body that does not live is not flesh either. The body is called that which is dead after life or that which is buried without life. Sometimes even when the body is alive, it is not flesh, as in the case of plants and wood.

aut sine vita est conditum. Interdum et cum
vita corpus et non caro. Ut herba. lignum. Sensus
corporis quinque sunt; Visus. auditus. gustus. odo-
ratus et tactus. Ex quibus duo aperiuntur et erasure clau-
duntur. duo semper patentes sunt. Sensus dicti; quia
per eos anima subtilissime totum corpus agitat
vigore sentiendi. Unde et presentia nuncupantur;
quod sint pre sensibus. sicut
pre oculis quode presto sint oculis. Visus est;
qui a philosophis humor vitreus appellatur.

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Human senses, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff123v-125v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The section of the Rochester Bestiary on humans continues with a description of the five known senses. Although is it typical for a medieval bestiary to include a section on humans, the Ages of Man are not included which is a relatively standard text.

Visum enim quidam fieri asserunt. aut terra
extrema etheria luce. aut interno spiritu
lucido. pertenues vias a cerebro. atque penetra-
tis tunicis in aere exeuntes. et tunc comixtio-
ne similis materie visum dantes. Visus dictus;
quod vivatior sit ceteris sensibus. ac prestanti-
or. sive velotior. ampliusque vigeat; quantum me-
moria inter cetera mentis officia. Vicinior enim
est. cerebro; unde omnia manant. Ex quo fit; ut ea

There are five senses of the body: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Among these, two are opened and three are closed, whereas two are always open. They are called senses, for through them, the soul subtly animates the whole body with the power of sensation. Whence, they are called praesentĭa (presence/promptness/determination), just as they are before the senses, and just as before the eyes, there are things that are visible. Sight, compared by philosophers to a liquid as clear as glass, is said to be produced either from the farthest light of the ethereal earth or from the inner, luminous spirit that traverses the delicate pathways from the brain, passing through the membranes and coming out into the air, and then providing a mixture of similar matter that gives sight. Sight is named so, for it is more vital than the other senses, superior, swifter, and more vigorous, just as memory excels among the other functions of the mind. It is closer to the brain, wherefrom all things flow

que ad alios pertinent sensus. vide dicamus. Velu-
ti cum dicimus. Vide quomodo sanat. quomodo
sapit. Sic et de ceteris. Auditus appellatus; quod
voces hauriat. Hoc est aere verberato; suscipiat
sonos. Odoratus; quasi aeris odor attractus. Tacto enim
aere sentitur; sicut et olfactus; quod odoribus afficia-
tur. Gustus a gutture(changed from guttere) dictus. Tactus; eoquod per-
tractet. et tangat. et per omnia membra vigorem sensus
aspergat. Nam tactu probamus; quicquid ceteris sen-
sibus iudicare non possumus. Duo enim genera tactus
esse; certissimum est. Nam aut extrinsecus venit quod
feriat; aut intus in ipso corpore oritur. Unicuique enim
sensui propriam naturam datam. Nam quod vi-
dendum est; oculis capitur. quod audiendum; auribus.

Mollia ac dura; tactu estimantur. Sapor gustu. odor
naribus; ducitur. Prima pars hominis; caput.

Datumque illi hoc nomen; eoquod sensus omnes et ner-
vi. inde initium capiant. atque ex eo omnis vigen-
di causa oriatur. Ibi enim omnes sensus apparent. Unde

and it happens that those senses also pertain to the others. For this reason, we use the word see when we refer to things pertaining to the other senses. Just as when we say “see how it heals or see how it tastes”.

Hearing is so called, for it catches sounds. This happens when the air is struck and it receives the sounds. The sense of smell behaves just as if it drew the scent of air. In fact, the sense of touch is perceived by the air, just as smell is affected by odours. The sense of taste is called gustŭs, for it comes from the throat guttŭr. The sense of touch handles and holds, and diffuses the power of sensation through all the limbs. Through the sense of touch, we experience that which we cannot judge through the other senses, for there are indeed two kinds of touch: it is most certain. The sensation of touching either comes from without by experience or from within the body itself. Each sense has its own nature. That which is to be seen is perceived by the eyes, that which is to be heard, by the ears. Soft and hard things are assessed by touch. Flavour by taste, smell by the nose. The first part of Man is the head: this name is given to it, for all the senses and nerves take their beginning from there,

ipsius anime que consulit corpori; quodammodo personam
gerit.

and it is the seat of all the senses. Here all the senses appear from where it somehow assumes the role of the soul itself, which tends to the body.

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Human anatomy, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff126v-138v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The section of the Rochester Bestiary on humans includes a long description of various parts of the body from head to toe.

Vertex est. ea pars qua capilli capitis colliguntur.
et in qua cesaries vertitur. unde et nuncupatur. Calva-
ria ab ossibus calvis dicta per defectionem. et neutraliter
pronuntiatur. Occipitium capitis pars posterior. quasi contra
capitium. vel quod sit capitis retrorsum. Capilli;
quasi capitis pili. facti ut decorem prestent; et cerebrum
adversus frigus muniant atque a sole defendant. Pi-
li dicti a pelle qua prodeunt. Sicut et pilum dicitur;
a pila; ubi pigmentum contunditur. Cesaries a cedendo
vocata. Ideoque tantum virorum est. Virum enim tonsum esse
decet. mulierem non decet. Come sunt proprie; non cesi
capilli. et est grecus sermo. Nam comas greci. kaimoc
a secando nominant. Unde et kirin. tondere di-
cunt. Inde et cirri vocantur. quod idem grec ma-

Crines proprie mulierum sunt. dicti crines eoquod
vittis discernantur. Unde et discriminalia dicuntur.
a quibus divisi religantur. Tempora sunt; que calva-
rie dextra levaque subiacent. Que ideo sic nuncupantur;

Vertex is the crown of the head, the part that connects the hair to the head, wherefrom the hair moves and turns around. Vertex takes its name from vertĕre (to turn). Calvaria is the cranium formed by the parietal and frontal bones and is named so for the bare bones, and by ellipsis, it is pronounced in the neuter form. The occipitium is the nape, back of the head, almost against the forehead or for it is turned backward. Capilli are the hairs of the head made to provide decoration and to protect the brain from the cold and defend it from the sun. Pili (hairs) are named so from the skin wherefrom they grow. Pilum is said to come from the pestle where pigment is pounded. Caesărĭēs is a hairstyle and comes from "caedĕre" (to cut); therefore, it is only for men. In fact, shearing befits men, not women. Cŏmae are properly uncut hair and it is the Greek term for kaimos from their word for cutting off. Hence, they also say kirin/keirein to mean cutting. Hence, curls are called cirri, which the Greeks call maaonem/mallos, a lock of hair. The word crines refers to women’s hair, for they are separated by fillets. Hence, they are also called discriminalia, the bodkins wherefrom they are divided and tied from the back. Tempora, temples, are located beneath the right and left side of the cranium. They are so called, for they move. With that mobility, like time, they are changed at certain intervals.

quia moventur. ipsaque mobilitate quasi tempora qui-
busdam intervallis mutantur. Facies dicta ab ef-
figie. Ibi enim est tota figura hominis. et uniuscuiusque persone
cognitio. Vultus vero dictus; eoquod per eum animi volun-
tas ostenditur. Secundum voluntatem enim; in varios motus
mutantur. Unde et differunt sibi utraque. Nam facies sim-
pliciter accipitur; de uniuscuiusque naturali aspectu

Vultus enim animorum qualitatem significat. Frons ab
oculorum foraminibus nominata est Hec ymago que-
dam animi mentis nomen specie sua exprimit; dum vel
leta vel tristis est. Oculi vocati sive quia eos ciliorum
tegmina occultant. ne qua incedentis iniurie of-
fensione ledantur. sive quia occultum lumen
habent. idest secretum vel interpositum. Hii inter omnes
sensus; viciniores anime existunt. In oculis enim
omne mentis inditium est. Unde et anime pertur-
batio vel hylaritas; in oculis apparet. Oculi enim
hoc sepe fallet idem et lumina. Et dicta lumina; quod ex eis
lumen manat. Vel quod ex(added) initio sui; clausam tene-

The term facies is derived from effĭgĭēs (image). In fact, the entire figure of a man is portrayed therein and the knowledge of each person. Vultus (countenance/face) takes its name from voluntas (will), since the will of the soul is shown through it. In fact, they are changed into various movements according to the will. Hence, each of them differs from the other. Facies, the face, is simply, a person’s natural appearance and vultus, countenance, truly signifies the inner disposition of the soul. Frons (forehead) is named from the openings of the eyes. This image, in its own form, expresses the intellect, when it is either happy or sad. The eyes are called oculi, for the covering of eyelids conceals them, lest they be harmed by the impact of an injury, or for they have a hidden light, that is, secret or inner light.

ant lucem aut extrinsecus acceptam visui proponen-
do refundant. Pupilla est medius punctus oculi in quo
vis videndi est. Ubi quia parve ymagines nobis
videntur; propterea pupille appellantur. Nam parvuli
pupilli appellantur. Hanc plerique pupillam vocant;
eoquod sit pura atque inpolluta ut sunt puelle.

Phisici dicunt easdem pupillas quas videmus in oculis;
morituros ante triduum non habere. quibus non vi-
sis; certa est desperatio. Circulus vero quo a pupilla al-
be partes oculi separantur discreta nigredine; corona
dicitur. quod rotunditate sua ornet ambitum pupil-
le. Volvos quidam appellant ipsos vertices oculorum
a similitudine valvarum. Palpebre sunt sinus oculorum
a palpitatione dicte. quia semper moventur. Cu erasure r-
runt enim invicem. ut assiduo motu(corrected); reficiant obtu-
tum. Munite sunt enim vallo capillorum. ut et apertis ocu-
lis si quid inciderit; repellatur. et sompno cohibentibus
tanquam involuti; quiescant latentes. In summitate enim
palpebrarum. locis quibus se ultraque clausa contingunt.

These, among all the senses, are closest to the soul. In the eyes, every indication of the mind is given. Hence, the disturbance or hilarity of the soul appears in the eyes. The eyes often deceive in this way, and so do the lights, which are called lumina, for light emanates from them or for they hold a light within them from the beginning, and reflect it to create vision. The pupil is the middle point of the eye where the power of seeing resides and where small images appear to us. Small children are called pupilli, pupils. Most people call it pupil, for it is pure and undefiled as young girls are. Doctors say that dying people do not have those same pupils we see in the eyes for three days prior to death. If pupils are not visible, the person’s condition is hopeless. Moreover, the circle, defined by its distinct blackness, whereby the white parts of the eye are separated from the pupil is called corona ciliaris, the ciliary body, for it adorns the orbit of the pupil with its roundness like a garland. Some call the eyeballs volvos/bulbos, for they resemble the wing of a door. The cutaneous fold of the eyes are called palpebrae, for they are always fluttering. They rub against each other with continuous motion to refresh the vision. A wall of hair fortifies them so that if anything falls into the open eyes, it is repelled. When closed, as if wrapped up by sleep, they rest hidden. In fact, at the top of the eyelids, in the places where both sides touch when closed, there appear lashes serving as protection for the eyes according to a prearranged order,

extant adnotati ordine servato capilli tutelam ocu-
lis ministrantes. ne iuventes facile iniurias excipiant.
et ex eo noceantur. ut pulveris vel cuiusquam crassioris
materie arceant contactum. Aut ipsum quoque aerem
concidendo mestificent. quo tenuem atque serenum;
faciunt visum. Lacrimas a laceratione mentis quidam
putant dictas. Alii existimant ideo; quod greci lar-
siria vocant. Cilia sunt tegmina quibus cooperiuntur
oculi. dicta cilia; quod celent oculos tegantque tuta
custodia. Supercilia dicta; quia superposita sunt ciliis

Que iccirco pilis vestita sunt; ut oculis munimenta
pretendant. et sudorem a capite defluentem depel-
lant. Intercilium non est. medium illud inter supercilia
quod sine pilis est. Gene sunt inferiores oculorum
partes. unde barbe inchoant. Nam grece genos bar-
ba. Hinc et gene quod inde incipiant barbe gigni.

Male sunt eminentes sub oculis partes. ad protectionem
eorum subposite. Vocate autem male. sive quod in-
fra oculos prominent in rotunditatem quam greci mela

so that young people or children might not easily receive injuries and be harmed by it, and so that contact with dust or any coarser material is prevented. They might also filter the air, which can make the vision tenuous and clear. Some consider tears, lăcrĭmae, to be a result of the rending of the mind. Others believe that they are called "lachrymae" from that which the Greeks called lassiria(dakry δάκρυ). Cilia, eyelashes, are coverings for the eyes and are called cilia, for they conceal and guard the eyes securely. Supercilia, the eyebrows, are named so, for they are placed above the eyelashes. They are covered with hair for this reason: to protect the eyes and repel sweat flowing from the head. The intercilium, the glabella, is the space between the eyebrows devoid of hair. Gĕnae, the cheeks, are the lower parts of the eyes, where the beard begins to grow. In Greek, γένειον (geneion) means beard. Hence, beard begins to grow on the cheeks. Māla, jaw or cheekbones, is the part beneath the eyes that protrudes, serving as a protection beneath them. They are named mālae, for they protrude below the eyes into a round shape that the Greeks call mela/melon

appellant. Sive quod sunt supra maxillas. Maxille
per diminutionem. a malis. sicuti paxillus a palo.
taxillus; a talo. Mandibule sunt maxillarum
partes. ex qua et nomen factum. Barbam veteres
vocaverunt; quod virorum sit non mulierum. Au-
rium inde dictum nomen; a vocibus h(added)auriendis. Unde
et virgilius. Vocemque hiis auribus hausi. Aut quia vocem
ipsam greci audienlidien vocant; ab auditu. Per
immutationem enim littere; aures quasi audes nun-
cupate sunt. Vox enim repercussa; per anfractus quo sen-
sum accipiant audiendi earum sonum facit.

Pinnula summa pars auris ab acumine dicta. Pin-
nion enim; antiqui acutum dicebant. Unde et bi-
pennis et pinna. Nares iccirco nominantur; quia per
eas odor vel spiritus manare non desinit. Sive
quia nos odore admonent. ut odorem aliquid
ac sciamus. Unde econtra inscii ac rudes ignari di-
cuntur. Olfecisse enim veteres; scisse dicebant.

Terentius. Ac non notis ex mensibus prius olfecissent

or for they are above the jaws. The jawbone, maxilla, is a diminutive of mala, as paxillus, peg, comes from palus, pole, taxillus, a small die, from talus, a full-sized die. Mandĭbŭlae, the mandibles, are parts of the jaw, wherefrom their name derives. The Ancients named it beard, for it is characteristic of men, not women. The term auris for ear comes from the expression voces aurire (to hear voices). In this context, Virgil wrote: "And I have picked up the voice with my own ears" (see Aeneid, 4, 359). The Greeks call the voice itself audienlidien, wherefrom audītŭs, hearing, derives. By the figure of speech immutatio verborum (transposition of words or letters), the ears are pronounced as aures instead of audes. In fact, the voice, being re-echoed, produces the sound of them through the passage whereby they receive the sense of hearing. Pinnŭla is the tip of the ear, the pinna. In fact, the Ancients called pinnus/pinnion anything sharp. From this term, bipennis (two-edged/having two wings) and pinna (pen/fether/fin) derive. Therefore, nāres, the nostrils, are named so, for through them, the scent or breath does not cease to flow or they remind us of something we have smelt, so we can recognise it. Hence, the ignorami and the uncouth are called ignari, ignorant, to their faces. The ancients used to say that to smell something meant to know something. Terence: 'And would they not have smelled it six whole months before he started anything?' (Adelphi, 397).

quam ille quicquam fecerint(dots underneath) ceperit. Narium recta pars
eoquod equaliter sit in longitudine et rotun-
ditate porrecta columpna vocatur. Extremitas
eius pirula. a formula pomi piri(changed from piri pomi). Que vero dex-
tra levaque sunt pennule; ab alarum simili-
tudine. Medium autem interfinium. Os dictum;
quod per ipsum quasi per ostium; cibos intus mitti-
mus. et sputum foras proicimus. Vel quia illuc
ingrediuntur cibi. et inde egrediuntur(corrected from nigrediuntur) sermo-
nes. Labia a lambendo sunt nominata. Quod
autem superius est; labium dicimus. quod inferius
quia grossius sit; labrum. Alii virorum
labra. mulierum; labia dicunt. Lingue; a
ligando cibo; putat varro nomen inpositum.

Alii; quod verba per articulatos sonos ligat. Si-
cut enim plectrum cordis. ita lingua inliditur
dentibus et vocalem efficit sonum. Dentes;
greci odontes dicunt. et inde in latinum tra-
here videntur nomen. Horum primi preci-
sores(changed from siores) dicuntur. quia omne quod accipitur;

ipsi prius incidunt. Sequentes; canini dicuntur. quorum
duo in dextera maxilla et duo in sinistra sunt.

Et dicti canini; quia ad similitudinem caninorum;
existunt. et canis ex ipsis ossa confringit sicut
et homo. Ut quod non possunt priores precidere;
illis tradunt ut confringant. Hos vulgus pro lon-
gitudine et rotunditate colomellos vocant.

Ultimi sunt molares. qui conscisa a prioribus atque
confracta subigunt et molunt atque immassant.

Unde et molares vocati sunt. Dentium autem nume-
rum; discernit qualitas sexus. Nam in viris plu-
res. in feminis; pautiores existunt. Gingive a
gignendis dentibus nominate. Facte sunt etiam
ad decorem dentium. ne nudi horrori potius
quam hornamento existerent. Palatum sursum sicut
celum est positum. et inde palatum a polo per
dirivationem. Set et greci similiter palatum ura-
num appellant. eoquod pro sui concavitate celi si-
militudinem habeat. Fauces a fundendis vocibus
nominate. vel quod per eas famur. Artherie

vocate sive quod per eas a pulmone aer. hoc est
spiritus fertur. seu quod artis et angustis meatibus
spiritum vitalem retineant. Unde vocis sonos emit-
tunt. Qui soni uno modo sonarent; nisi lingue
motus distantias vocis efficeret. Toles gallica lin-
gua dicuntur. quos vulgo per diminutionem toxil-
los vocant. que in faucibus turgescere solent;

Mentum dictum; quod mandibule inde oriantur.
vel quod ibi iungantur. Gurgulio a gutture no-
men trahit. cuius meatus ad os et nares protendit ha-
bens viam qua vox ad linguam transmittitur.
ut possit verba collidere. Unde et garrire dicimus.

Rumen proximum gurgulioni quo cibus et po-
tio devoratur. Hinc bestie que cibum revocant;
ac remandunt; ruminare dicuntur. Sublingui-
um vel operculum gurgolionis. quasi parva lin-
gua. que foramen lingue recludit operit ve. Col-
lum dictum; quod sit rigidum et erectum ut co-
lumpna. baiulans capud et sustentans quasi

capitolium. Cuius anterior pars gula vocatur. Posterior;
cervix. Cervix autem vocata; quod per eam partem ce-
rebrum ad medullam spine dirigitur; quasi cerebri
via. Veteres autem plurali tantum numero; cervi-
ces tantum dicebant. Prius; ortensius cervicem singula-
riter dixit. Cervix autem numero singulari; membrum
ipsum significat. Nam pluraliter contumaciam sepe demon-
strat. Cicero in verrinis. Pretorem tu accuses; frange cer-
vices. Humeri dicti; quasi armi. ad distinctionem ho-
minis a pecudibus mutis. Ut hii humeros. illi armos
habere dicantur. Nam proprie armi quadrupedum
sunt. Ola summi humeri; pars posterior. Brachia
a fortitudine nominata. Bari enim grece forte et
grave significatur. In brachis enim thori lacertorum
sunt et insigne musculorum(changed to masculorum) robur existit. In hiis sunt
thori id est masculi. et dicti thori; quod illic viscera tor-
ta videantur. Cubitum dictum; quod cibos su-
mendos(changed to mendo) in ipso cubamus. Ulna secundum quosdam;
utriusque manus extensio est. Secundum alios cubitus. quod

magis verum est. Quia grece ulenos cubitus dicitur.

Ale sub brachia(changed to brachis) sunt appellate; eoquod ex eis in mo-
dum alarum motus brachiorum inchoat. quas
quidam ascellas vocant; quod ex eis brachia cil-
luntur; idest moventur. Unde et oscilla dicta; ab
eo quod oscillantur id est moveantur ora. Nam cillere;
est movere. Has quidam subhyrcos vocant. prop-
ter quod in plerisque hominibus hircorum fetorem
reddant; Manus dicta; quod sit totius corporis
munus. Ipsa enim cibum corpori ministrat. ipsa
operatur omnia. atque dispensat. Per eam accipimus;
et damus. Abusive autem manus etiam ars vel artifex.

Unde et manus precium dicimus. Dextera vocatur a dan-
do. Ipsa enim pignus pacis datur. Ipsa fidei tes-
tis atque salutis adhibetur. Et hoc est illud apud
tullium.: Fidem publicam iussu senatus dedi. id est
dexteram. Unde et apostolus dicit. Dextras michi
dederunt. Sinistra autem vocata; quasi sine dextera.
sive quod rem fieri sinat. A sinendo enim sinistra

vocata est nuncupata. Palma est manus expansis digi-
tis. sicut contractis; pugnus. Pugnus a pugillo
sicut palma a spansis palme ramis. Digiti nun-
cupati vel quod decem sunt. vel quia decenter
iuncti existunt. Nam habent in se et numerum perfectum
et ordinem decentissimum. Primus pollex vocatus
quod inter ceteros polleat virtute et potestate.

Secundus index et salutaris sive demonstratorius. quia
eo salutamus. ostendimus vel indicamus. Tertius inpu-
dicus. quod plerum per eum obprobrii insectatio
exprimitur. Quartus anularis. eoquod in ipso anu-
lus geritur; Idem et medicinalis. quod eo trita
colliria a medicis colliguntur. Quintus erasure auricu-
laris. eo quod eo aures scalpimus. Ungulas ex
greco vocamus. Illi enim has onices dicunt. Trun-
cus media pars corporis. a collo; ad inguinem. De
quo nigidius. Caput collo vehitur. truncus
sustinetur coxis et genibus cruribusque. Torax; a
grecis dicitur anterior pars trunci; a collo usque

ad stomacum. quam nos dicimus archam. eoquod ibi
archanum sit id est secretum quo ceteri arcentur. Unde
et archa et ara dicta; quasi res secrete. Cuius emi-
nentes pulpe mamille. Inter quas illa pars os-
sea; pectus dicitur. Dextra levaque; coste. Pectus
vocatum quod sit pexum. inter eminentes
mamillarum partes. Unde et pectinem dici; quod
pexos capillos facit. Mamille vocate; quia ro-
tunde sunt. quasi male per diminutionem scilicet.

Papille capita mamillarum sunt. quas sugentes
comprehendunt. Et dicte papille; quod infantes
eas quasi palpant dum lac sugunt. Proinde ma-
milla est omnis eminentia uberis. papilla; illud
brve unde lac trahitur. Ubera vero dicta; vel
quia lacte uberta. vel quia humida humore
scilicet lactis. in modum uvarum plena. Lac
vim nominis a calore trahit. vel quod sit li-
quor albus. Leucos enim greci; album dicunt. Cuius
natura; ex sanguine commutatur. Nam post partum

si quid sanguinis nondum fuerit uteri nutrimento
consumptum. naturali meatu fluit in mammas. et
earum virtute albescens lactis accipit qualitatem.

Cutis est; que in corpore prima est. sic appellata quod
ipsa corpori superposita inscisionem prima paciatur. Cutis
enim grece; inscisio dicitur. Idem et pellis. quod externas in-
iurias corporis tegendo pellat. pluviasque et ventos
solisque ardores perferat. Pellis autem mox detracta; subacta
iam corium dicitur. Corium autem per dirivationem
appellatur; quod eo caro tegatur. Sed hoc in brutis
animalibus proprium est. Pori corporis proprio nomine
appellantur; qui latine proprie spiramenta dicuntur.
eoquod per eos vivificus spiritus exterius ministretur.

Arvina est pinguedo cuti adherens. Pulpa est. caro
sine pinguedine. dicta quod palpitet. Resilit enim
sepe. Hanc plerique et viscum vocant; quod glutinosa
sit. Membra sunt partes corporis. Artus; quibus
colligantur membra. ab artando dicti. Nervi greca di-
rivatione appellati quos illi neutra vocant. Alii
latine vocatos nervos putant eoquod artuum

coniunctiones invicem hiis inhereant. Maximam
autem virium substantiam nervos facere certissi-
mum est. Nam quanto fuerint densiores; tanto propensius
augescere firmitatem. Artus dicti quod conligati in-
vicem nervis coarcentur. quorum diminutiva
sunt articuli. Nam artus dicimus membra maiora ut
brachia. Articula minora(dots underneath) minora membra(corrected); ut digitos

Compagines capita sunt ossuum. sic dicta; eoquod
compacta sunt nervis. et(added) velut glutino quodam;
adhereant. Ossa sunt corporis solidamenta.

In hiis enim positio omnis roburque consistit. Ossa
autem ab usto dicta(changed from dica) noscuntur. eoquod ab antiquis
cremarentur. sive ut alii putant; ab ore. eoquod
ibi pateant. Nam ubique cute visceribusque celantur;
nisi in dentibus. Medulle appellate; quod madefa-
ciant ossa. Irrigant enim et confortant. Vertibu-
la sunt summe ossium partes crassioribus nodis;
conglobate. dicta ita eoquod ad inflexionem mem-
brorum illa vertantur. Cartilagines ossa mollia et

sine medulla. Quod genus auricule et narium
discrimen. et costarum extremitates habent; sive oper-
acula ossiumque moventur. Et dicti cartilagines quod
levi attritu careant dolore dum plectuntur.

Costas appellari quidam putant. quod ab ipsis inte-
riora custodiantur. et tota mollicies ventris val-
lata salvetur. Latus; quia iacentibus nobis latet.

Est enim leva pars corporis. Dextro autem lateri ha-
bilior motus est. levo fortior et honeri feren-
do accommodatior. Unde et leva nuncupa-
ta; quod aptior sit ad levandum aliquid et por-
tandum. Ipsa enim gestat clipeum. ensem faretram.
et reliqua honera ut expedita sit dextera ad
agendum. Dorsum est a cervice usque adrenes
dictum dorsum; quod sit superficies durior corporis;
in modum saxi fortis. et ad portandum et ad perpe-
tiendum. Terga quia in eis supini in iacemus in ter-
ra. quod solus homo potest. Nam muta anima-
lia tantum aut in ventre aut in latere iacent.

Unde in animalibus abusive terga dicuntur. Scapu-

la a scandendo dicitur. Interscapilium est. spatium
quod inter scapulas est. Unde et nominatum. Pale sunt
dorsi dextra levaque eminentia membra. Dicta quod
in luctando eas primimus. quod greci palin di-
cunt. Spina est iunctura dorsi. dicta quod habeat
radiolos acutos. Cuius iuncture spondilie appel-
lantur. propter partem cerebri. que fertur
per os longo tractu ad ceteras corporis partes. Sa-
cra spina est ima perpetue spine quam greci
hironostoni vocant. quoniam primum infante
concepto nascitur. Ideoque et hostia id primum
a gentibus diis suis dabatur. Unde et sacra spina
dicitur. Renes ait varro dictos quod rivi ab
hiis obsceni humoris(changed from amoris) nascuntur. Nam vene et me-
dulle tenuem liquorem desudant in renibus.

Qui liquor rursus a renibus calore venerio re-
solutus; decurrit. Lumbi ob libidinis lascivi-
am dicti. quia in(dot underneath) viris causa corporee volupta-
tis in ipsis est. sicut in umbilico feminis. Unde
et ad iob dictum est. Accingere sicut vir lumbos

tuos. Ut in hiis esset resistendi preparatio; in qui-
bus libidinis est usitata dominandi occasio. Umbi-
licus est. medius locus corporis. dictus quod sit umbus
iliorum. Unde et umbo appellatur locus in medio
clipei. a quo pendet. Ex eo enim infans in utero pen-
det. Ex eo etiam enutritur. Ilium greco sermone ap-
pellatur; quod ibi nos obvolvamus. Grece enim ileos
obvolvere dicitur. Clunes vocati; quod sint iuxta
colum. quod est. longum. Nates quod ipsis in nitimur
dum sedemus. Unde et conglobata est. in eis caro. ne
prementis corporis mole ossa dolerent. Genitalia
corporis partes ut nomen ipsum docet; gignende so-
bolis acceperunt vocabulum. quod hiis precreatur
et gignitur. Hec et pudenda pro verecundia. sive
a pube. Unde et indumento operiuntur. Dicuntur autem
ista et inhonesta; quia non habent eam speciem deco-
ris sicut membra que in promptu locata sunt.

Idem et veretrum; quia viri est. tantum. sive quod vi-
rus ex eo emittitur. Nam virus proprie dicitur humor

fluens a natura viri. Testiculi per diminutionem
a testibus dicti. quorum numerus incipit a duobus;

Hii semen calamo ministrant. quod ab spine medul-
la et renes et lumbi suscipiunt; ad gratiam procre-
andi. Viscus est pellis in qua testiculi sunt. Posteriora
vocata; quod retro sunt et a vultu aversa. nedum
alvum purgamus; inquinaremus aspectum. Meatus inde
appellatus; quod per eum meant idest egeruntur sterco-
ra. Femora dicta; quod ea parte a femina sexus dis-
crepet. Sunt enim ab inguinibus usque ad genua.

Femina per dirivationem femorum; partes sunt;
quibus equitando tergis equorum inheremus. Unde
olim preliatores sub feminibus equos amisisse dice-
bantur; Coxe quasi coniuncte axes. In ipsis enim
femora moventur. Quorum concava vertebra vocantur.
quod in eis capita femorum vertuntur. Sufragines;
quia subtus franguntur. idest flectuntur. non supra. sicut
in brachiis. Genua sunt commissiones femorum et cru-
rum. Et dicta genua; eoquod in utero sint genis

opposita. Coherent enim sibi. et cognata sunt oculis
lacrimarum indicibus et misercordie. Nam a genis;
genua dicuntur. Denique complicatum gigni formarique
hominem. ita ut genua sursum sint quibus oculi forman-
tur. ut cavi ac reconditi fiant. Ennius. Atque genua
comprimit arta gena. Inde est. quod homines dum ad
genua se prosternunt; statim lacrimantur. Voluit enim
eos natura uterum maternum rememorare. ubi qua-
si in tenebris considebant; antequam venirent ad lu-
cem. Crura dicta quia in hiis currimus et gressum
facimus. Sunt autem sub genibus usque ad suras. Tibie
vocate; quasi tube. Sunt autem et longitudine et specie
similes. Talus dictus a tolo. Nam tolus est. eminens ro-
tunditas. Unde et fastigium templi rotundi; tolus vo-
catur. Talus autem sub crure est. sub talo; calcanei.

Pedes a greca ethimologia nomen sortiti sunt. Hos
enim greci podas dicunt. qui alternis motibus solo
fixi incedunt. Plante a planicie nuncupate. quia
non rotunde ut in quadrupedibus. ne stare non
possit bipes homo. set plane atque longiores for-

mate sunt; ut stabile corpus efficerent. Sunt autem
plante anteriores partes. que etiam de multis os-
sibus constant. Calcis prima pars plante a callo(changed from collo) il-
li nomen inpositum. quod terram calcamus. Hinc
et calcaneus. Solum; inferior pars pedis. dictum
quia eo vestigia terre inprimimus. Sed et solum dicitur
omne quod aliquid sustinet quasi solidum. Unde
et solum terra. quod cuncta sustineat. et solum pe-
dis. quod totam molem corporis portat. Viscera
non tantum intestina dicimus. set quicquid sub corio est.
a visco quod est inter cutem et carnem. Item visce-
ra vitalia. idest circumfusa fordis loca. quasi
viscora. eoquod ibi vita id est anima continetur.

Interviscera capita nervorum ex sanguine et
nervis copulata. Item lacerti sive mures; quia sic
in singulis membris cordis loco sunt; ut cor in
media totius corporis parte sit. Appellanturque a no-
mine similium animalium sub terra delitescenti-
um. Nam inde musculi a murium similitudine

Idem etiam et thori quod illic viscera torta videantur

Cor a greca derivatione nomen accepit. quod illi
cardian dicunt. Sive a cura. In eo enim omnis
sollicitudo et scientie causa manet. Quod ideo
pulmoni viscinius est; ut cum ira accenditur; pul-
monis humore temperetur. Huius due arterie sunt.

Equibus sinistra plus sanguinis habet. dextera plus
spiritus. Unde et in dextro brachio; pulsum inspi-
cimus; Precordia sunt loca cordi viscina(dot under first i). quibus
sensus perspicitur. dicta precordia; eoquod ibi sit prin-
cipium cordis et cogitationis. Pulsus vocatus; quod
palpitet. Cuius inditio aut infirmitatem intelligimus
aut sanitatem. Huius duplex est motus. aut simplex
aut compositus. Simplex est qui ex uno saltu constat;

Compositus est; qui ex pluribus motibus inordinatus
et inequalis existit. Qui motus certa habet spa-
cia. Dactilicum percussum quamdiu sine vicio sunt.

Siquando non citatiores sunt; ut dorcazontes. aut

leniores; ut mirmizontes mortis signa sunt. Ve-
ne dicte; eoquod vie sunt natantis sanguinis.
atque rivi per corpus omne divisi. quibus universa
membra irrigantur. Sanguis ex greca ethimologia
nomen duxit. quod vegetet et sustentet et vivat.

Sanguis autem est; dum in corpore est. Effusus vero cruor
dicitur. Nam et cruor vocatus; ab eo quod effusus de-
currit. Vel ab eo quod currendo corruat. Alii cruorem
interpectantur sanguinem corruptum qui emittitur.

Alii aiunt vocatum sanguinem; quod suavis
sit. Sanguis autem non est integer nisi in iuvenibus(changed from iuventibus).

Nam dicunt phisici minui sanguinem per etatem. Unde
in senibus tremor est. Proprie autem sanguis anime
possessio est. Inde genas lacerare mulieres in luc-
tu solent. Inde et purpuree vestes et flores purpu-
rei; mortuis prebentur. Pulmo ex greco trahit
vocabulum. Greci enim pulmonem pleumon
vocant. eoquod cordis flabellum sit. in quo

neuma. idest spiritus inest. per quod et agitantur
et moventur. Unde et pulmones vocati sunt.

Nam grece pneuma spiritus dicitur. qui flando et agi-
tando aerem admittit et recipit. a quo moven-
tur pulmones et palpitant. et aperiendo se ut fla-
tum capiant; stringendo; ut eiciant. Est enim orga-
num corporis. Iecur nomen habet. eoquod ibi ignis
habeat sedem. Qui in cerebro subvolat. Inde ad
oculos ceterosque sensus et membra diffunditur. et
calore suo ad se sucum ex cibo tractum vertit
in sanguinem. Quem ad usum pascendi nutri-
endique singulis membris prebet. In iecore autem
persistit voluptas et concupiscentia. iuxta eos qui
de phisica disputant. Fibre iecoris sunt extremi-
tates. sicut et extreme partes foliorum in vitibus.
sive quasi lingue eminentes. Dictas autem fibras quod
apud gentiles in sacris ad phebi aras ferebantur
ab ariolis. Quibus oblatis atque succensis; responsa
acciperent. Splen dictum a supplemento ex contraria

parte iecoris ne vacua existeret. Quem quidam
risus causa factum existimant. Nam splene ri-
demus. felle irascimur. corde sapimus. iecore amamus

Quibus quatuor elementis constantibus integrum
est animal. Fel appellatum quod sit folliculus ges-
tans humorem qui vocatur bilis. Stomacus grece
os vocatur. eoquod hostium ventris sit. et ipse
cibum erasure excipiat. atque in intestina transmit-
tat. Intestina dicuntur eoquod corporis interiori
parte cohibentur. Que iccirco longis nexibus in cir-
culorum modum ordinata sunt; ut susceptas
escas paulatim digerant et superadditis cibis
non impediantur. Omentum membranum est. quod
continet intestinorum maiorem partem. Disceptum
intestinum quod discernit ventrem. et cetera
intestina a pulmonibus ad cor. Cetum intestinum
quod sit sine foramine et exitu. Ieiuna te-
nue intestinum. Unde et ieiunium dicitur. Venter
autem et alvus et uterus; inter se differunt.

Venter est qui acceptos cibos digerit. et apparet extrin-
secus. pertingitque a pectore usque ad inguinem. Et dictus
venter quod per totum corpus vite alimenta trans-
mittat. Alvus est. que cibum recipit. et purgari so-
let. Salustius. Simulans sibi alvum purgari. Et vo-
cata alvus quod abluatur id est purgetur. Ex ipsa enim
sordes stercorum defluunt. Uterum sole mulieres
habent. in quo concipiunt. ad similitudinem cauliculi. Ta-
men auctores uterum pro utrolibet sexu. ventrem
que plerumque ponunt. Nec poete tantummodo; set et ceteri.

Translation

Translated by Gabriele Macelletti, Translator.

The straight part of the nostrils is called cŏlumna, for it is extended evenly in length and roundness. The end of the nose is named pirula, little pear, for it is pear-shaped. The right and left parts are named pennŭlae/pinnŭlae (little wings) due to their similarity to wings. That which is in the middle is the septum, interfinium.

Ōs, the mouth, is named so, for through it, as if it were a door, we send food within and then we expel it by spitting, or for food enters thither and thence, speech comes out. Lăbĭa, the lips, derive from lambĕre, licking. The upper lip is called labium; the lower lip, being thicker, is called lăbrum. Others say that men’s lips are lăbra; women’s lăbĭa. Varro thinks that the tongue, lingua, has this name, for it is used for binding food; others think that it binds words with articulate sounds. In fact, just as a plectrum hits the strings, so does the tongue against the teeth, producing a vocal sound. The Greeks call teeth odontes, wherefrom the Latin word dentes has been adapted. The first front teeth are called praecisores, the incisors, for they are able to cut and break up ff129v: food received in the mouth. The teeth following the incisors are called cănīni, canines, two of which are in the upper right jaw and two in the upper left. They are called canines, for they resemble dogs’ fangs. A dog breaks bones with these teeth just as a human does. Food that the incisors are not able to cut up is handed over to the canines to be broken up. They are commonly called colomelli, for they are long and round like little pillars. The last teeth are the molares, the molars that work, grind and chew the food the incisors have cut up and the canines have broken up. Their name derives from mŏlĕre, to grind. Moreover, sex determines the number of teeth. In fact, there are more teeth in men, fewer in women. The gums are named gingīvae, from gignĕre, for they generate teeth. They also serve as decoration for the teeth, for bare teeth would be a horror-inspiring sight. Pălātum, the palate is placed above, just like the sky, and the term pălātum derives from pŏlus that means pole/sky. Similarly, the Greeks called the palate ouranos/ouraniskos, for it resembles the concavity of the sky. The throat, fauces, plural of faux, is named so, for we utter sounds and speak therewith.

Artērĭae, windpipes, are named so, for they carry air (breath) from the lungs or they retain the vital breath within the narrow and artful passages. Hence, they utter the sounds of the voice. If these sounds were to resonate in only one way, the movement of the tongue would not create variations of the voice. Toxilli, diminutive of tonsillae, tonsils, is a colloquial word deriving from tōlēs, goitre, probably of Gallic origin. They tend to swell up in the throat. The word for chin is mentum wherefrom the jaws arise or are joined together. Gurgulio, the trachea, derives from guttur, throat, and its passageway extends to the mouth and nostrils, providing the pathway through which the voice is transmitted to the tongue, enabling the collision of words. Thus, we also use the term garrīre for to babble/chat.

Next to the trachea is rumen/ruma, the oesophagus, where food and drinks are swallowed. Hence, animals that regurgitate food and chew it again are said to ruminate, rumināre. Sublinguium is the term for the epiglottis, which resembles a small tongue and uncovers or covers the hole of the tongue. Collum is the word for the neck, which is rigid and straight like a column, carrying the head and supporting it as if it were the Capitol. The front part is called gŭla, throat, the rear part is the nape, cervix. The nape, however, is so called, for the brain is directed to the spinal cord through this part, as if it were the route of the brain. The Ancients preferred the plural form only: they used to say cervices. Formerly, Hortensius used to say cervicem in the singular form. However, the word cervix in the singular form signifies the back of the neck itself. In the plural form, it often indicates obstinacy and stubbornness. Cicero, in his orations against Verres wrote: “you accuse the praetor, curb your boldness (6,110). The shoulders are called armi whereas the hŭmĕri/ŭmĕri are the humeri, the bones in the upper arms to distinguish humans from animals. The former have shoulders, the latter have arms. The armi are a feature of quadrupeds. The back part is called ola summi humeri. The forearms, brāchĭa, are named so for their strength, for barus βαρύς means strength and heaviness in Greek. In fact, there are bulges of the muscles in the arms where the strength of the muscles resides. The bulges of the muscles are called thori, for you can see the twisted internal parts. The cŭbĭtus, the elbow, is so named, for we lie thereon when we eat. According to some, the ulna, forearm long bone, is the extension of both hands but according to others, it is of the elbow, ff131r: which is more accurate. In Greek, the elbow is called oleni/ ὠλένη. Ālae are the armpits wherefrom the motion of the arms' swinging like wings begins. These are also called ascellae, for the arms move therefrom, that is, they are set in motion. Hence, they are also called oscillae from the fact that they swing, that is, they are moved, for cillere means to move; some call them subhyrci. This is so, for they emanate goat stench in many people. Mănŭs, the hand, is named so, for the entire body can perform various functions therewith: for instance, it serves food to the body itself, operates and manages everything. We receive and give therewith. Moreover, the term mănŭs is used incorrectly to refer to a skill or a craftsman. Thus, we also say manus pretium, which means cost of labour. The right hand is used for giving something, for instance, the pledge of peace; it is also employed as a proof of faith and salvation. This is mentioned by Tullius: 'By order of the Senate, I have pledged the public faith', that is, the right hand (Cicero, Catiline, 3, 8). The Apostle says: 'They gave to me and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship' (Galatians, 2:9). The left hand is called sĭnistra as it were sine dextera, without the right hand. The left hand allows something to happen or to be done. Sĭnistra derives ff131v: from the verb sĭnĕre (to allow, to let). The palm of the hand, palma is the hand with the fingers outstretched; when they are clenched, it is called a fist. The word pugnus comes from pŭgillus, a handful, just as the word palma comes from the outstretched branches of a palm tree. Dĭgĭti, the fingers, are named so, for they are ten in number, or they are joined together appropriately. In fact, ten represents a perfect number and furthermore, they are arranged in a perfect order. The first finger is called pollex, the thumb, for it excels in strength and power among the other fingers. The second finger, index, is the index finger also called the greeting or pointing finger, for we greet, show, or point at things therewith. The third finger, dĭgĭtus medius, is the middle finger, also called the lewd and immodest finger, for it can be used to hurl insults and abuse. The fourth finger, dĭgĭtus anularis, is the ring finger, whereon rings are worn; it is also called dĭgĭtus mĕdĭcīnālis, the medical finger, for doctors apply eye ointments therewith. The fifth finger is dĭgĭtus ăurĭculāris (auricular), the little finger, for we scratch our ears therewith. We call the nails ungŭlae from the Greeks, who call nails ὄνυξ/onix. Truncus, the trunk, is the middle part of the body, from the neck to the groin. Nigidius wrote: 'The head is carried by the neck, the trunk is supported by the hips, knees and legs' (Opera, 108).

Thōrax is the word for chest and comes from the Greek word θώραξ/thorax. It is the front part of the body from the neck to the stomach, which we call archa, for it conceals something arcane, arcānus, viz. a secret wherefrom others should be protected. Therefore, both archa(chest) and ara (altar/shelter/protection) imply secrecy. The soft mounds on this part of the body are called breasts, mamillae. Pectŭs, the breastbone, is the bony part between them. To the right and left, are the ribs, costae. The chest is called pectus, for it is hairy, pexus, between the prominent parts of the breasts. Therefore, a comb, pectĕn, is called so, for it makes hair neatly combed. The breasts, mamillae, are called so, for they are round as if the word were a diminutive of mala, apples. The tips of the nipples are the papillae, which sucklings grasp whilst breast-feeding. They are called papillae, for infants palpate them whilst sucking milk. Consequently, the protuberance of the breasts is a mamilla whereas the papilla is that short thing wherefrom milk is drawn. Ūbĕra (breasts) are so named, for they are rich (ubertus) in milk or they abound with (uvidus) fluid, namely with milk, just as grapes, uva, are rich in juice. Milk takes the power of its name from its colour, for it is a white liquid. The Greeks call white leucos/λευκόν, the appearance of which is transformed from blood. In fact, after childbirth, if any blood has not yet been consumed as nourishment for the womb, it flows by its natural passage into the breasts and, becoming white from their particular quality, acquires the properties of milk.

Cŭtis, cutis, is that which you first see on the body. It is called so, for it is placed over the body and suffers cuts and wounds. Pellis, skin, the underlying surface that keeps off external injuries by protecting the body; it also endures rain, wind, and stands the burning heat of the sun. However, when the skin is removed, that which is underneath is called cŏrĭum, the epidermis. Cŏrĭum derives from caro, flesh, for it covers the flesh. This is peculiar to heavy animals.

The pores of the body are called by their proper name, which is spirāmenta in Latin. This is so, for through them, the life-giving breath is supplied from the outside. Arvīna (fat) is the fat adhering to the skin. Pulpa is the flesh without fat, so named, for it pulsates and often contracts. This is often called viscŭs as well, for it is glutinous. Membra, limbs, are the parts of the body. Artŭs are the joints by which the limbs are connected, named so from the verb artāre, meaning that they are tightened together. Nervi, nerves, derive from the Greek word νευρᾶ/nevrá. Some believe they are called nervi in Latin for they are closely connected with the limbs. Most of men’s strength, however, most certainly comes from the nerves. The thicker they are, the more likely they are to increase man’s strength. Joints are said to be compressed by interconnecting nerves. Their diminutives are called artĭcŭli, articulations. We call artŭs the larger limbs such as the arms. We call artĭcŭli the smaller limbs such as the fingers. Compāgēs is the word for the epiphyses, the heads of the bones. They are called so, for they are joined together by nerves, and they adhere to one another as if they were glued. The bones are that which strengthens the body. All strength and stability reside therein. Bones are known to derive from ustus, burnt, for the Ancients used to burn them. Others think the word derives from os that also means face; therefore, bones have their face visible when flesh is burnt, for indeed everywhere else they are hidden under a covering of skin and organs, except in the teeth. Mĕdulla, marrow, is named so, for it moistens, refreshes and strengthens the bones. Vertĭbŭlae, vertebrae, are the extremities of the bones with thick knots, compactly joined. They are so named, for they facilitate the bending of limbs. Cartĭlāgines, the cartilages, are the soft bones without marrow. The external part of the ear, the partition between the nostrils and the ends of the ribs are of this kind, or the coverings of those bones that are articulated. They are so called, for there is no pain, if they rub together lightly when they are bent. Costae, ribs, are thought to be named so, for they guard the bowels, preserving the entire softness of the belly. Lătŭs, side/hip, it is named so, for it is hidden when we lie down. In fact, this is the case of the left side of the body. The right side has more flexible movement, the left side is stronger and more capable of carrying weight. Hence, it is also called laeva, for it is more suited for lifting and carrying something. The left side carries the shield, the quiver, the sword, and any other weight so that the right side is free for action.

Dorsum, the back, extends from the neck to the kidneys. It is named so, for it is the harder surface of the body, as strong as a rock; it is able to carry and endure things. Terga are the hinder parts and are named so, for we lie flat thereon on the ground, something that only men can do. Animals lie only on their belly or side. Hence, the term terga is used incorrectly for animals. Scăpŭlae are said to be designed for mounting. Interscapilium is the interscapular space, which is the space between the shoulder blades wherefrom it gets its name. Pālae, the shoulder blades, are the right and left prominent parts of the back. They are called so, for we use them in wrestling. Spīna, spine, is the joint of the back, named so, for it has sharp thorns whose joints are called spondyli, vertebrae, from the part of the brain which is carried by them on a long course to other parts of the body. Sacra spīna, the sacrum, is the bone at the end of the spine called hironostoni in Greek because it is the first thing created in an infant immediately after conception and it was the first offering given to the Gods by the people. Therefore, it is called the 'sacred spine'. Varro says the kidneys are called rēnes, for streams of that indecent semen are born from them. In fact, the veins and the marrow release a thin liquid in the kidneys. Freed by the heat of sexual desire, it flows from the kidneys. The loins are called lumbi due to lustful desire, for the source of bodily pleasure is within them, just as in women it is in the navel. Hence, God said to Job: 'Gird up now thy loins like a man' (Job,38:2), in order that he should make ready his resistance there, where the dominance of lust normally begins. Umbĭlīcus, the navel, is the middle point of the body, named so, for it is a protruding area on the abdomen. Hence, the central part of a shield is called umbo wherefrom it hangs. From this point, an infant hangs in the womb and therefrom it is nourished. The word for groin, ilia, comes from Greek, because we are wrapped there, for the Greek word ileos [eileo] means 'to wind round”. Clūnes, the gluteal region, is named so, for it is near the rectum. Nătes, the buttocks, are that which we lean on when sitting. Therefore, the flesh is compressed into a round shape within them so that the bones do not ache under the pressure of the body weight. The term gĕnĭtālĭa, the genitals, derives from gignĕre (to beget) meaning that genitals are designed for begetting offspring. They are also called pŭdenda (the shameful parts), private parts or pudenda, owing to shame or modesty, or they derive from pūbēs, the pubic area, which we cover with clothing. Moreover, these parts are deemed shameful, for they do not have the appearance of beauty like the organs that are readily visible. The same applies to vĕrĕtrum, the penis, for it pertains only to men, or for the fluid is discharged therefrom. The fluid is properly called vīrus, which flows from the nature of man (vĭr). Testĭcŭli, testicles, are a diminutive of the word testis, and they are two in number. Through a small duct, they provide semen that they take from the spinal cord, kidneys, and loins for the purpose of procreation. The skin wherein the testicles are located is called viscŭs, the scrotum. Posteriora is that which is located behind, it is man’s backside, something that our face is reluctant to watch when we empty our bowels. Through the opening, faeces are expelled. Fĕmŏra, the femora or thighbones, are so named, for they have anatomical differences in men and women; they extend from the groin to the knees. Fĕmĭna are those parts of the thighs wherewith we cling to the back of horses whilst riding. Hence, it was formerly said that warriors would lose their horses from under their thigs. Coxae, the hipbones, resemble two axles joined together wherein the femora move. The concave parts of them are called vertebrae, articulation joints, wherein the heads of the femora are turned, forming the acetabulum. Suffrāgĭnes, the back of the heel, the part from the heel to the calf, are called so, for they bend and flex downwards, not upwards like the arms. Gĕnūa, the knees, are the joints of the thighs and the legs. They are called so, for in the womb, they are opposite the cheeks. Knees and cheeks press closely together and, in the same way as the eyes signify grief, the knees signify the desire for mercy. That is the reason why gĕnūa derives from gĕna. To sum up, man is born and moulded into a folded shape, so that the knees are above, wherefrom the eyes are formed, so that they become hollow and concealed. Ennius wrote: 'And the cheek presses against bent knees' (Incerta, 14). Hence, when men prostrate themselves to their knees, they immediately burst into tears. Nature wills men to remember the maternal womb, where they lay in the dark before they were born.

Crūra, the legs, are called so, for they allow us to run and to take steps. They extend from below the knees to the calves. Tībĭae, the shinbones, are called so, for they resemble tubes. They are also similar in both length and appearance. Tālus, the ankle, derives from the word thŏlus (dome vault) which indicates prominent roundness. Hence, the top of a round temple is called thŏlus. Moreover, the ankle is below the leg. Below the ankle is the heel, calcānĕum.

The word for feet, pĕdes, is of Greek etymology. The Greeks call them ποδός/podós, which means that they move firmly on the ground, alternating footsteps. Planta, the sole of the foot, derives from plānĭtĭēs (flat surface) because they are not rounded like in quadrupeds, lest a biped such as man be unable to stand on them, but they are flat and somewhat longer in order to make the body stable. Moreover, the soles are the front parts that also consist of many bones. Calx is the heel bone or calcaneus at the back of the sole and its name derives from callum, callus or corn, from the fact that we tread upon the earth. Hence, the term calcaneus, from calco (to tread, to trample upon), refers to the heel bone. Solum, the sole, the lower part of the foot, is so named, for we imprint our footsteps on the ground. The term "sole" is also used for anything that supports something solid, from solidus. Therefore, solum terra refers to the earth as a whole that supports everything, and solum pedis refers to the sole of the foot that carries the entire mass of the body.

Viscĕra does not just refer to the interiora, but rather to anything under the skin. It comes from viscŭs, which is the layer between the skin and the flesh. Furthermore, the term viscĕra vitalia denotes the vital parts, i.e., the internal parts surrounding the heart, for that is where life, that is, the soul, is contained.

Interviscĕra refers to the main centres of the nerves and their connections through blood vessels and nerves. Similarly, lacerti or mures, the muscles, are in every single member of the heart, so that it can be the main part of the whole body. They are called by names of animals - lacerti lizards, mures mice – for they lie hidden under the ground the same way. Thus a muscle, musculus, takes this name from its similarity to small mice.

Similarly, tori, the swelling protuberance of muscles, are named so, for they are twisted and resemble twisted threads. Cor, heart, derives from the Greek word καρδία/kardía or from cūra (care/love), for thoughts and knowledge dwell therein. Therefore, it is close to the lungs so that when it is inflamed with anger, it may be soothed by the moisture of the lung. Two arteries belong to the heart; the left artery carries more blood, the right one more spirit. Hence, we feel somebody’s pulse on the right arm. Praecordĭa are the regions located near the heart wherefrom sensations and feelings are identified. They are called praecordĭa, for the origin of emotion and thought is there. Pulsus is the palpitations. By its indication, we understand either illness or health. Its motion is twofold, either simple or composite. Simple is that which consists of one single beat; composite is that which arises from multiple irregular and unequal motions. Such motion has definite intervals.

Finger-tapping is correct as long as it is without fault. If the beats are not more rapid at times, like dorcacizontes or at other times more feeble like mirmizontes, it might be a sign of death.

Vēnae, veins, are so named, for they are the channel of flowing blood and the channels throughout the entire body wherethrough all the limbs are supplied with blood. The term sanguĭs, blood, is of Greek etymology, signifying that which enlivens, sustains, and gives life. Blood, however, is such only while it remains within the body. Once spilled, it is called crŭŏr, gore, which is clotted blood or blood dripping from a wound. Some interpret crŭŏr as corrupted blood that is expelled. Others say that sanguĭs is called so, for it is pleasant. Blood, moreover, is not whole except in young people, for doctors say that blood diminishes with age. Hence, trembling occurs in the elderly. Moreover, blood is property of the soul. Thus, women tear from their cheeks when mourning. Hence, purple clothing and purple flowers are offered to the dead. The term pulmo, lung, derives from the Greek word πνεύμων/pnevmon. The Greeks call the lung πνεύμων, for it is like a small fan for the heart, wherein πνεῦμα/pnevma that is, spirit, resides, by means of which both agitation and movement occur. Hence, the lungs are called pulmōnes. In Greek, pnevma means spirit, which, by breathing and moving, breathes air in and out. The lungs are set in motion by it and they palpitate. They expand to take air in and contract to expel it. It is indeed an organ of the body. Iĕcŭr is the liver wherein fire that flies up to the brain resides and wherefrom it spreads to the eyes and other senses and limbs. It converts the juice from food into blood through its heat and feeds each limb with nourishment. In the liver, moreover, desire and lust reside, according to those who debate upon physics. Fibrae, the fibres, are the extremities of the liver similar to the outer parts of leaves on a grapevine or like protruding tongues. We use the term fibrae, for soothsayers used to offer them to the altars of Phoebus during Pagan rituals. When these were offered and burnt, the soothsayers received responses. Splēn, spleen, takes its name from supplēmentum, for it is located on the opposite side of the liver, lest there should be an empty space. Some think it was created as a seat for laughter. In fact, we laugh with the spleen; we rage with the gall; we perceive with the heart; we love with the liver. An animal is composed of these four elements in harmony.

The gall is called fĕl, for it is a small pouch containing the fluid known as bile. The gullet is called στόμαχος/stómachos in Greek, for it is the doorway through the belly where food enters and is sent to the intestines. The intestines are named so, for they are contained within the inner part of the body. Therefore, they are arranged into a tangle of long tubes in a circle, so that they can gradually digest the received food and not be hindered by additional nourishment. Ōmentum, the omentum or caul, is the membrane containing the greater part of the intestines. Dissaeptum, the diaphragm, separates the belly and the other intestines from the lungs and the heart. The caecum intestinum is the one without an opening or an exit. The intestinum tenue is the one that refrains from eating, from the verb ieiunāre, to fast. Hence, the word ieiunium, fasting. The stomach, ventĕr, the bowel, alvus, and the womb, ŭtĕrus, differ from one other.

The stomach is that which digests the received food and appears from the outside. It extends from the chest down to the groin. It is called so, for it carries life's nourishment throughout the entire body. The bowel receives food and purges it. Sallustius simulated the purging of his bowel, and called the bowel that which is filtered and cleansed, that is, purified, wherefrom the filth of excrements flows out. Women only have a womb wherein they conceive as if it were in a small cabbage stalk. Nevertheless, authors often use the term uterus for either gender to refer to the belly. Not only poets, but others as well. Ŭtĕrus, the womb, is so called, for it is double and is divided into two parts that twine like the horns of a ram, or for it is filled with the foetus. Hence, the term ŭtĕrus comes from ŭtĕr, wineskin, for it contains something inside, like members and organs. However, the term ăquālĭcŭlus is properly used for the womb of a pig. For this reason, it is translated as venter. It is called matrix, a female animal for breeding, for the foetus of an animal is generated therein. In fact, it revives the semen, moulds it into a body and other parts of the body are added thereto.

KAS 15/10/2024 KAS 15/10/2024

Human reproduction, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff139r-140v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The section of the Rochester Bestiary on humans and the human body concludes with a discussion of reproduction.

Vulva vocata; quasi valva id est ianua ventris. Vel
quod semen recipiat. vel quod ex ea fetus proce-
dat. Vesica dicta quia sicut vas aqua; ita de
renibus urina collecta completur et humore
distenditur. Cuius usus in volucribus non habetur.

Urina autem dicta; sive quod urat. seu quia ex
renibus egreditur. cuius inditio et salus et egritu-
do futura; monstratur. Qui humor vulgo lo-
tium dicitur. quod eo lota id est munda vestimenta
efficiantur. Semen est quod iactum sumitur. aut a
terra. aut ab utero. ad gignendum vel fructus
vel fetus. Est enim liquor ex cibi et corporis de-
coctione factus. ac diffusus. per venas atque medul-
las. Qui inde dissudatur in modum sen-
tine. Concrescit in renibus eiectusque per
coitus et in utero mulieris susceptus;
calore quodammodo viscerum et menstrualis san-
guinis irrigatione formatur in corpore. Menstru-
um; est. supervacuus mulierum sanguis. dictum

Vulva, vulva/womb or female genitalia, is named so, for it resembles the wings of the door of the belly or for it receives semen, or the foetus emerges therefrom. Vēsīca, the bladder, is called so, for it is filled with water the same as a vase; it is also filled with collected urine from the kidneys and it swells owing to the fluid. Birds need not do this. Ūrīna, urine, is called so, for it burns or it comes out from the kidneys that may reveal both health and future illnesses. The liquid commonly called lōtĭum is the moisture whereby clothes are cleaned when washed therewith. Sēmĕn, the seed, is that which is scattered and then consumed, either by the earth or by the uterus, in order to generate either fruits, plants or a foetus. It is a fluid formed by the digestion of food and the body, and propagated through the veins and marrow, wherefrom it is sweated out like bilgewater. It thickens in the kidneys and is ejaculated through sexual intercourse and received in the uterus of a woman. Through the warmth of the viscera and the irrigation of menstrual blood, it is shaped in the body. Menstrŭum, mensis or menstruation,

menstruum a circuitu lunaris luminis quo solet
hoc venire profluvium. Luna enim grece mene dicitur

Hec et muliebria nuncupantur. Nam mulier sola;
animal menstruale est. Cuius cruoris tactu fru-
ges non germinant. acescunt arbusta. moriun-
tur herbe. amittunt arbores fetus. ferrum rubi-
go corripit. nigrescunt era. Siqui canes inde
commedant; in rabiem. inr(dots under) efferuntur. Glutinum
asfalti quod nec ferro nec aquis dissolvitur. cruore
ipso pollutum sponte dispergitur. Post plurimos
autem dies ideo non esse menstruos semen gene-
rabile; quia iam non est menstrualis sanguis
a quo perfusus irrigetur. Tenue semen muliebribus
locis non adheret. Labitur enim nec habet
vim adherendi. Similiter et crassum
vim non habet gignendi. quia muliebri
sanguini se miscere non potest; propter nimi-
am sui spissitudinem. Hinc et steriles mares vel
feminas fieri. vel per nimiam seminis vel sangui-
nis vrassitudinem. vel propter nimiaru raritatem.

is the excess blood of women, so named for it usually comes with the light of the lunar cycle that brings about the discharge. The Greek word for lūna, moon, is Μήνη, Mēnē in Latin. It is an epithet of Selene, the Greek lunar goddess. These are also referred to as "female" things. Only a woman is a menstruating creature. Without the touch of her blood, crops do not sprout. Shrubs turn sour, grass perishes, and trees lose their offspring. Iron quickly corrodes. Bronze and copper blacken. If dogs consume it, they become furious. The glue of asphalt is not dissolved neither by iron nor by water but is dispersed by the blood itself when it is tainted. After many days, moreover, semen is not generated from menstruation, for there is no longer menstrual blood whereby it can be irrigated once imbued. Thin semen does not adhere to the female parts, for it flows away and has no power of attachment. Similarly, thick semen also has no power of procreation, for it cannot mix with female blood due to its excessive thickness. Hence, both sterile males and females are born either due to an excessive thickness of semen or blood, or due to excessive thinness.

Primum autem aiunt cor hominis fingi. quod in eo sit
et vita omnis et sapientia. Deinde quadrage-
simo die totum opus expleri quod ex abortionibus
ut ferunt collectum est. Alii fetus a capite exordium
sumere dicunt. Unde et in avium fetu primum oculos
in ovis fingi videmus. Fetus autem dictus quod adhuc
in utero foveatur. Cuius secunde dicuntur folliculus qui
simul cum infante nascitur. continetque eum.

Dictus quia et cum editur sequitur. Nasci autem
patribus similes aiunt; si paternum semen validius sit.

Matribus; si matris. Hac ratione similes exprimi
vultus. Qui autem utriusque parentis figuram red-
dunt; equaliter mixto paterno maternoque se-
mine; concipiuntur. Avorum proavorumque simi-
les fieri; quia sicut in terra multa semina occul-
ta celantur; sic et in hominibus semina celantur
nobis figuram parentum redditura. Ex paterno
autem semine puellas nasci. et ex materno pueros.

Quia omnis partus constat duplici semine. cuius pars

The heart of a person is said to be formed first, for both life and all wisdom reside therein. It is handed down that the whole work gathered from abortions is completed afterward, on the fortieth day. Some say that the shaping of the foetus begins from the head, whence we see that, in the embryo of birds, eyes are formed first in the eggs. Moreover, the foetus is called so, for it is nourished in the womb. The second part is said to be the shell (amnion) that is born at the same time as the infant and that contains it. Children are supposed to be similar to their fathers if the paternal seed is stronger

maior cum invaluerit; occupat similitudinem sexus
In corpore nostro quedam tamen utilitatis causa facta sunt
ut viscera. Quedam et utilitatis et decoris. ut sen-
sus in facie et in corpore manus et pedes. Quorum mem-
brorum et utilitas magna est; et species decentissi-
ma. Quedam tantum decoris. Ut mamille in viris.
et in utroque sexu umbilicus. Quedam discretionis.

Ut in viris genitalia. barba prolixa. pectus amplum.
In mulieribus leves gene. et angustum pectus. Ad
concipiendos autem et portandos fetus; renes et
latera dilatata. Quod ad hominem et partes attinet
hominis; et eius corporis; ex parte dictum est.

and to mothers if the mother's seed is stronger. For this reason, children’s faces are similar to their parents’ faces. Those who exhibit the features of both parents are conceived with mixed paternal and maternal seeds equally. They resemble grandfathers and great-grandfathers, for just as there are many seeds hidden in the earth, so there are seeds hidden in man, which will give us the features of our ancestors. From the paternal seed, girls are born, and from the maternal, boys. Inasmuch as every birth consists of a dual seed, the greater part of which anticipates the similarity of the sex when it dominates. Moreover, certain things, such as organs, have been made in our body for the sake of usefulness. Other things for both usefulness and beauty such as the sensory organs on the face and the hands and feet on the body. The usefulness of these limbs is great, and their appearance is most becoming. Some things are designed only for beauty such as nipples in men, and in both sexes, the navel. Some are for distinction, like the genitals in men, a long beard, a broad chest. In women, soft cheeks and a narrow chest. Moreover, their loins and hips dilate, with regard to conceiving and carrying babies. (That which pertains to man and his body parts has been described in part. The age section is missing).

KAS 15/10/2024 KAS 15/10/2024

Firestones, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f141r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The medieval lapidary records that when male and female types of firestones are brought together they can start wildfires. A lapidary (‘Book of Stones’) in Old French is appended to the Rochester Bestiary (MS 12 F XIII). One Latin entry on firestones is found on folio 141r of the manuscript.

tis. masculus et famina. Isti quando longe sunt
ab invicem; ignis in eis non accenditur. Cum autem
casu appropinquaverit femina masculo; statim
ignis accenditur. ita ut ardeant omnia que sunt
circa illum montem. Unde et vos homines qui
istam vitam geritis; a feminis vos longe sepa-
rate. ne cum appropinquaveritis ad invicem;
accendatur in vobis ille ignis geminus. et consumat
bona que christus contulit in vobis. Sunt enim angeli
sathane qui semper inpugnant iustos. non solum
sanctos viros. set etiam castas mulieres. Denique
samson et ioseph ambo per mulieres temptati sunt.
Unus vicit; alter victus est. Eva et susanna temp-
tate sunt. Hec vicit; illa victa est. Custodiendum
est igitur cor. et divinis preceptis omnimodis monen-
dum. Nam amor feminarum quarum peccatum
ab initio cepit; ab adam usque nunc in filios
inobedientie debachatur;

There are firestones on a certain mountain in the East, one male and one female. When they are far from each other, fire in them is not ignited. On the contrary, when the female comes close to the male by chance, fire is ignited at once. Thus, everything around that mountain burns.

And you, men who lead this life, separate yourselves from women for a long while. May that twin fire within you not be ignited, should you come close to each other, and not consume the good that Christ has brought within yourselves. It is indeed the angels of Satan who will always attack the righteous, not only holy men but also chaste women. In the end, Samson and Joseph were both tempted by women.

One won, the other yielded to temptation. Eve and Susanna were tempted: the latter won, the former yielded to temptation. Therefore, the heart must be guarded in every possible way. For instance, the love of women, whose sin took hold from the beginning and from Adam until now, disobedience rages in his descendants.

Cetus, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

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Kent Archaeological Society