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Amphisbaena, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The amphisbaena is a fascinating snake with two heads—one at its tail and one at its normal head. This unique feature allows it to move in both directions, earning its name which means "running from both ends." Unlike other snakes, the amphisbaena boldly exposes itself to the cold and sheds its skin during winter. Lucan captures its eerie presence, describing it as "grievous, turning toward its two heads," with eyes that shine like lamps.

Legend has it that this snake was born from the blood dripping from Medusa’s head, when Perseus killed it. According to Pliny and folk medicine, when women wore the snake around their necks, they could expect to have a safe pregnancy but if they wanted to cure arthritis or the cold, they just needed to wear its skin only.

Est serpens duo habens capita. unum in cau-
da. et alterum in loco suo. et ex utroque ca-
pite currit. Unde dicitur amphivena. quasi ex am-
babus partibus currens. Hec sola serpentium frigori se com-
mittit. it ut hieme eximiam deponat. Unde lu-
canus. Est gravis ingeminum vergens capud am-
phivena. Cuius oculi lucent velut lucerne.

There is a snake with two heads, one at its tail and the other in its proper place and it moves from both heads. Hence, it is called amphĭsbaena , meaning running from both ends. Only this snake among all the others exposes itself to the cold and sheds in winter. Thus, Lucan says thereof: "Grievous is the amphisbaena, turning toward its two heads. Its eyes shine like lamps."

Footnotes

[1] This snake is a mythological creature that eats ants with a head at each end. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphisbaena

[2] Lucan, Civil War 9.717: "Grievous is the amphisbaena, turning toward its two heads. Its eyes shine like lamps."

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Hydra, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

In ancient myths, the Hydra is depicted as a fearsome multi-headed water dragon inhabiting the marshes of Lerna in Arcadia. Known as excĕtra in Latin, this mythical creature was infamous for its regenerative powers: you cut off one head and three more grow back in its place. This tale is more legend than reality. The truth reveals that the Hydra was not a monster but a source of devastating floods that plagued a nearby city. When one channel was blocked, others erupted, causing chaos.

Hercules took on the challenge, drying up the floods and sealing the destructive waters. The name Hydra derives from the Greek word for water, ὕδωρ (ýdor). The myth of Hercules defeating the hydra was often used to symbolise the triumph of virtue and faith over evil. Just as Hercules successfully subdued the Hydra, so too could the faithful overcome sin and evil through perseverance and divine assistance.

Distinct from the Hydra is the Hydros or Hydrus, a cunning snake with a vendetta against crocodiles. When it spots a crocodile sleeping with its mouth open, the hydros wraps itself in mud, slipping into the crocodile's throat. The crocodile, startled, swallows it alive. Yet, the hydros does more than survive; it tears apart the crocodile's entrails and emerges unscathed.

This struggle mirrors the spiritual battle between death and life. In Christian theology, death and hell are symbolised as a crocodile, with Jesus Christ as their ultimate adversary. By taking on human form, Christ descended to hell, tearing apart its grasp and liberating souls held unjustly. His resurrection marked the defeat of death itself. As the prophet exclaims, "O death, where is your sting? O hell, where is your victory?" This triumphant declaration celebrates Christ's victory over death and the promise of eternal life.

The hydra’s many heads and its regeneration were allegorically linked to the Devil or Satan. In Christian symbolism, the Devil is often depicted as a multi-faceted force of evil that persists despite attempts to overcome it. The hydra’s ability to regrow heads symbolized the way Satan’s influence could seem to multiply, making the struggle against sin a continual battle.

Est serpens aquatilis qui(changed from que) dicitur ydros.
Greci atuem ydros aquam vocant. A quo ic-
ti; oburgescunt. sed fimo boum morbus me-
detur. Quem morbum quidam bam dicunt
propter predictam proprietatem;
Idra draco multorum capitum aquatilis. fuit in
lerna insula vel palude provincie archadie. Hec lati-
ne exedra dicitur. quod uno ceso tria capita excres-
cebant. Sed hoc fabulosum est. Nam constat ydram
locum fuisse evomentem aquas vastantem visci-
nam civitatem. In quo uno meatu clauso; multi
erumpebant. Quod hercules videns; loca exhau-
sit. et sic aque clausit meatus. Nam ydra ab aqua
dicta est. Sed ydros sive ydrus serpens inimicus est
cocodrillo. et hanc habet naturam et consuetu-
dinem. ut cum viderit cocodrillum dormientem
in littore; (vadit aperto changed to a.v.) ore; et involvit se in luto.
quo facilius possit in faucibus eius illabi. Coco-
drillus igitur subito illum vivum transglutit. Ille
vero dilanians omnia viscera eius; non solum
vivus; sed etiam illesus exit. Sic ergo mors et in-
fernus figuram habent cocodrilli quorum inimicus
est. dominus noster ihesus cristus. Nam assumens humanam
carnem; descendit ad infernum. et dirumpens
omnia viscera eius; eduxit eos qui iniuste tene-

The Hydra is a multi-headed water dragon. It is found on the island or marsh of Lerna[1] in the province of Arcadia. The hydra is called excĕtra in Latin: cutting off one head causes three more to grow back. This is a fairy tale. It is established that the Hydra was a place where floods flew into the neighbouring city, devastating it. If one of its passages were blocked, many others would gush out. Hercules, seeing this, dried up the place and thus closed off the water passages. The Hydra is named after the Greek word for water, ὕδωρ/ýdor. Do not confuse the hydra with the hydros or hydrus, which is a snake that is the enemy of crocodiles. When it sees a crocodile sleeping on the shore with its mouth open, it wraps itself in mud so that it can more easily slip into the crocodile's throat. The crocodile, therefore, suddenly swallows it alive. However, not only does the hydra manage to tear apart all the crocodile’s entrails but also comes out alive and unscathed. Thus, death and hell have the form of a crocodile, whose enemy is our Lord Jesus Christ. When taking on the human flesh, He descended to hell, and, ripping apart all its entrails, He rescued the souls

from unjust captivity. He mortified death itself by rising from the dead. The prophet[2] taunts it, by saying, "O death, where is your sting? O hell, where is your victory?"[3]

Endnotes

[1] Lerna was a region of springs and a former lake located in the municipality of the same name, near the east coast of the Peloponnesus, south of Argos. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lerna

[2] The Apostle Paul discusses the resurrection of the dead and the victory over death brought by Jesus Christ. It celebrates the Christian belief in the resurrection and eternal life, asserting that death and the grave have been defeated.

[3] 1 Corinthians NKJV 15:55: "O Death, where is your sting? O Hades, where is your victory?” Here, "Hades" is used in place of "grave" or "hell", referring to the place of the dead. The question highlights that Hades no longer has the power to claim victory over believers due to the resurrection.

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Jaculus, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f94r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The jaculus is a fearsome creature of ancient myth, described as a flying snake with deadly speed and precision. The Roman poet Lucan famously referenced this snake in his epic poem, the Pharsalia, vividly capturing the terrifying nature of these “flying iaculi.”

According to ancient descriptions, the jaculus is not just any ordinary serpent. It lies coiled high among the branches of trees, waiting with patient cunning for its unsuspecting prey. When an animal passes by beneath, the jaculus strikes with lightning speed, launching itself like a javelin — a fitting name since iăcŭlum derives from the Latin verb iăcĕre meaning to throw. This airborne assault is swift and deadly, as the snake propels itself through the air, colliding with its target and delivering a fatal blow.

The jaculus’s terrifying reputation has fuelled its symbolism as a creature of sudden danger, embodying the unpredictability of death striking from above. It represents not just a literal serpent but also a metaphorical embodiment of stealth, speed, and lethal precision. Whether in literature, art or medieval bestiaries, the jaculus has endured as a powerful symbol of nature’s more unpredictable and deadly elements, lurking just out of sight, ready to strike without warning.

Iaculus serpens est. volans. de quo lucanus. Iaculique
volantes. Exiliunt enim in arboribus. et dum ali-
quod animal obvium fuerit; iactant se super illud
et perimunt. Unde et iaculi dicti sunt.

The jaculus[1], iăcŭlus[2], is a flying snake, as mentioned by Lucan: “and the flying iaculi. They leap out of trees and whenever any animal happens to pass by, they throw themselves onto it and kill it. Hence, they are called jaculi."[3]

Endnotes

[1] In reality, there is a species of boa called eryx jaculus, known commonly as the javelin sand boa. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryx_jaculus

[2] In Latin, iăcŭlum means also javelin. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaculus

[3] Lucan, Civil War 9.720: “And the flying iaculi, for they spring up into trees, and whenever some animal happens by they throw (iactare) themselves on it and kill it, whence they are called iaculus”.

Boa, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f94r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The boa is an ancient and formidable snake rooted in Italian lore, described as a snake of immense size and strength. According to ancient sources, this terrifying creature earned its notorious reputation by attacking herds of cattle and buffaloes. Unlike other serpents that might use venom or constriction, the boa has a more insidious method: it attaches itself to the udders of these large animals, drawing vast quantities of milk until the livestock are drained and ultimately killed.

The boa’s name is directly tied to its destructive habits, deriving from the Latin bōs meaning cow. Its behaviour of targeting cattle made it a dreaded presence, symbolising unchecked consumption and devastation. This voracious serpent was believed to cause great harm to farmers and herders, leaving a wake of dead animals and empty pastures in its path.

In the minds of those who recorded such tales, the boa represented not only a physical threat but also an embodiment of greed and gluttony—a creature that takes without end, draining the life from whatever it touches. Its legendary status in ancient texts, especially in medieval bestiaries, has cemented the boa as a creature both feared and fascinating, reflecting the dangers lurking within nature’s untamed corners.

Boas anguis italie inmensa mole; greges
armentorum. et bubalos. et plurimo lac-
te uberibus innectit. et suggens inte-
rimit. Atque inde a boum depopulatione; boas dcitur;

The boa is a snake of Italy of immense size; it attacks herds of cattle and buffaloes, attaching itself to their udders with great quantities of milk and kills them by suckling on them. Thus, it is named after the destruction of cows, bōs, whence bŏa derives.

Siren snake, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

In the mystic deserts of Arabia, legends speak of an extraordinary creature known as the siren snake—a mesmerizing and deadly serpent unlike any other. These serpents are described as white snakes with wings, blending the features of a snake and a bird in a way that defies nature. While traditional snakes slither on the ground, the sirens are said to both fly and run, moving with a speed so great that they can outrun the swiftest horses.

The most fearsome aspect of these winged serpents is their venom, which is unlike anything seen in ordinary snakes. According to ancient lore, their venom is so potent that death comes faster than pain—a terrifying testament to this snake’s lethal nature. Victims fall almost instantly, succumbing to the venom before they even register the pain of the bite.

Siren snakes embody the mysterious and perilous beauty of the Arabian landscape, a place where the boundaries of myth and reality blur. They serve as a powerful reminder of the dangers that lie hidden in the sands, combining speed, flight, and deadly toxicity into a single, haunting figure of ancient myth. The siren snake is not only a creature of legend but also symbolic of swift, silent and inevitable danger—a perfect embodiment of the ancient world’s fascination with the strange and the deadly.

In arabia autem serpentes albi sunt cum alis que si-
rene vocantur. que etiam plus currunt ab equis
sed etiam et volare dicuntur. Quorum virus tan-
tum est; ut mors ante morsum insequatur; quam dolor;

In Arabia, however, there are white snakes with wings called sirens. They fly and are said to run faster than horses. Their venom is so powerful that death ensues before pain even occurs.

Seps, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f94v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The seps is a small but terrifying creature from ancient mythology, feared for its unparalleled lethality. Unlike ordinary snakes, it is notorious for its venom’s horrific effect—not only does it kill but also dissolves the entire body, including the bones. The venom was believed to cause the putrefaction of wounds. This gruesome ability has cemented the seps as one of the most fearsome serpents in classical literature.

The Roman poet Lucan, in his epic poem Pharsalia, vividly captures the nightmarish nature of the seps, describing it as a corrosive serpent that wastes away both bones and flesh. According to Lucan, a single bite from the seps could cause a victim to melt away, their body turning into a putrid mass in moments. This graphic imagery highlights the seps’ symbolic role as a representation of extreme decay and corruption.

Medieval writers and bestiaries later used the seps to illustrate the destructive power of unchecked venom and the fragility of human life. This snake became a powerful allegory for the rapid decay of flesh and the inescapable reach of death.

In literature and myth, the seps stands as more than just a snake—it is symbolic of nature’s terrifying and unstoppable forces, a reminder of how swiftly life can be consumed and reduced to nothing. The seps embodies the ultimate predator: small, unassuming, but with a venom that erases the very essence of its prey.

Seps exiguus serpens que non solum corpus. sed
etiam ossa veneno consumit. Cuius poeta sic me-
minit. Ossaque dissolvens cum corpore tabificus
seps;

The seps is a small snake that consumes not only the body but also the bones with its venom. Lucan refers thereto thus: “The corrosive seps, dissolving bones along with the body”[1].

Endnotes

[1] Lucan, Civil War 9.723: “The corrosive seps, dissolving bones along with the body”

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Dipsas, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f95r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

In the realm of ancient myth and lore, the dipsăs emerges as one of the most elusive and deadly serpents known to humanity. This tiny, nearly invisible snake is infamous for its remarkably small size, so much so that it can barely be seen when stepped on. Yet, its size belies its fearsome potency.

The dipsăs is described with chilling efficiency: its venom is so swift and potent that it kills before the victim even feels the bite. This means that those unfortunate enough to be bitten by the dipsăs are struck down with such speed that they have no chance to react, their bodies succumbing to death before any pain or awareness can register. As a result, the face of the dying betrays no sign of horror or suffering.

The Roman poet Lucan captures the dreadfulness of this snake in his vivid portrayal: "With its head twisted back, the dipsas, when it was stepped on, bit the young standard-bearer Aulus of Tyrrhenian blood; there was barely any pain or sensation of fangs." This evocative description emphasises the serpent’s lethal nature—its bite is not only swift but also nearly imperceptible, causing minimal pain and leaving its victims with a final, eerie tranquillity.

The dipsăs stands as a haunting symbol of nature’s hidden dangers, embodying a blend of invisibility and swift, unseen death. Its legend serves as a grim reminder of how the smallest and most unassuming creatures can wield the most deadly power.

Dipsa tante exiguitatis fertur. ut cum calcatur
non videatur. cuius venenum ante extinguit.
quam senciatur. ut facies preventa morte; nec tristi-
ciam inducat morituro. De quo poeta. Signife-
rum iuvenem tyrem sanguinis aulum. torta ca-
pud retro dipsa calcata momordit. Vix dolor
aut sensus dentis fuit;

The dipsăs is said to be so small that, when stepped on, it is not seen. Its venom kills before it is felt, so that death prevents the victim from becoming aware of the bite and the face of the dying displays no horror. The poet[1] says thereof: “With its head twisted back the dipsas, when it was stepped on, bit the young standard-bearer Aulus of Tyrrhenian blood; there was barely any pain or sensation of fangs”.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Dipsa, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast275.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Lucan.

[2] Lucan, Civil War 9.737: “With its head twisted back the dipsas, when it was stepped on, bit the young standard-bearer Aulus of Tyrrhenian blood; there was barely any pain or sensation of fangs”

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Lizards, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f96v-97r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

Lizards, named from the Latin lăcertus or lăcerta due to their arm-like limbs, encompass a wide variety of species, each with unique traits and symbolic meanings. Key types include the bătrăchus, salamander, saura, and stellĭo.

Bătrăchus was named after its frog-like face, linking it to the Greek word for frog, βάτραχος (bátrakhos). This emphasised the blending of characteristics between reptiles and amphibians, emphasizing adaptability and the idea of transformation.

The salamander was often associated with fire and the element of transformation, the salamander symbolizes resilience and the ability to thrive in challenging environments, stemming from ancient beliefs that it could live in flames.

The term saura directly translates to lizard in Greek and represents agility, regeneration, and the ability to move between different worlds (land and water), embodying fluidity and the power of change.

The stellĭo is a specific type of lizard known for its star-like spots and symbolises cunning and stealth. In ancient symbolism, it represented the ability to blend into one’s surroundings, reflecting adaptability and protection.

Lizards in general symbolise regeneration and renewal, as they can regrow lost tails, making them a potent emblem of rebirth and resilience. Their ability to thrive in varied environments—from deserts to forests—emphasises their adaptability and resourcefulness. In many cultures, lizards are seen as omens of good luck, representing the sun, warmth, and positive energy. They are also symbolic of dreams and perception, often thought to bring messages from the subconscious.

In ancient texts, lizards were often seen as creatures that could navigate between different realms, embodying the liminal space between the seen and unseen. Their stealth and speed make them symbols of survival and quick thinking. They remind us of the importance of adapting to our surroundings and making the most of the resources available to us.

Lacertus sive lacerta dicitur eo quod brachia
habeat. Genera lacertarum sunt plura.
ut Botraca. Salamandra. Saura. Stellio.
Botraca dicta; quod rane habeat faciem. Nam
greci ranam botracam vocant.

Stellio a colore inditum nomen habet. Est
enim in tergore pictus. lucentibus guttis in
modum stellarum. de quo ovidius. Aptumque co-
lori; nomen habet variis stellatus corpore
guttis. Hic autem scorpionibus adeo contrarius
dicitur. ut viso eo pavorem habeant et tor-
porem . Omnes serpentes naturaliter frigi-
de sunt. Non percutiunt; nisi quando calescunt.
Unde et venena eorum que naturaliter frigi-
da sunt; plus die quam nocte nocent. In hieme
in nodos torpent. in estate solvuntur. Nec vene-
num quod frigidum est. prius nocet; quam ad sangui-
nem qui calidus est et fugit venenum per venas

The lizard or small lizard is called so, for it has arms. There are several kinds of lizards, such as the bătrăchus, salamander, saura[1], and stellĭo[2]. The bătrăchus is named so, for it has the face of a frog. In fact, the Greeks called a frog βάτραχος (bátrakhos).

Endnotes

[1] The word saura actually comes from the Ancient Greek σαῦρα (saura) that means lizard. Sauria can be considered the crown group of diapsids, or reptiles in general. Depending on the systematics, Sauria includes all modern reptiles or most of them (including birds, a type of archosaur) as well as various extinct groups. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauria

[2] Most probably a newt or a starred lizard.

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Salamander, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff95r-96r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The salamander, renowned for its legendary connection to fire, is said to possess extraordinary abilities that set it apart from all other creatures. According to myth, the salamander can withstand flames without harm—living right in the heart of the blaze.

Pliny the Elder, a Roman author and naturalist, described the salamander as having such a cold body that it could extinguish fire merely by touching it. This belief was echoed in various ancient texts and art, where the salamander's connection to fire became a prominent theme.

Unlike other venomous animals that pose a threat to individuals, the salamander's venom is described as uniquely powerful, capable of affecting many at once. If it crawls into a tree, it taints all the fruit, poisoning anyone who eats it. Similarly, if it falls into a well, its venom contaminates the water, endangering all who drink from it. This creature is said to extinguish flames entirely, embodying an unmatched resilience and an almost magical defiance of nature’s fiercest element.

In Christian bestiaries, the salamander’s supposed ability to endure fire without harm was interpreted as a symbol of purity and faith. Just as the salamander could supposedly live in flames without being burned, the true believer could pass through the fires of temptation and sin without being corrupted. This made the salamander symbolic of steadfastness in faith and the soul's triumph over the trials of earthly life.

It was also likened to Christ or saints who endured suffering and emerged unscathed, representing the idea of resurrection and eternal life. This interpretation reinforced the salamander’s status as a creature that, through divine grace, could conquer the fiery trials of the world.

Salamandra vocatur; quod contra incen-
dia valere. Cuius inter omnia ve-
nenata vis maxima est. Cetera enim singulos
feriunt; hec plurimos pariter interimit. Nam
si irrepserit arbori; omnia poma inficit vene-

It is called salamander, for it is able to withstand fire. Among all venomous creatures, it has the greatest power. Whilst others harm people one at a time, this one can harm many simultaneously. If it creeps into a tree, it poisons all the fruits

no. et eos qui ea ederint inficit veneno et sic oc-
cidit. Que etiam vel si in puteum cadat(changed from cadant) vis ve-
neni eius potantes interimit. Ista contra in-
cendia repugnans; sola animalium ignes ex-
tinguit. Vivit enim in mediis flamis; sine dolo-
re. et consumptione. et non solum non uritur;
set extinguit incendium et flammas

and the poison kills those who eat them. If this creature falls into a well, its venom kills those who drink the water. It withstands fire[1]: it is the only animal able to do it. It lives in the midst of flames without feeling pain and not only does it not burn but also extinguishes fire and flames.

Endnotes

[1] The idea that salamanders are immune to fire is a myth that originates from ancient and medieval folklore. In reality, salamanders are not immune to fire and do not have any special abilities to resist or extinguish flames. The myth likely originated from observations of real salamanders hiding in logs or piles of wood. When these logs were thrown into a fire, the salamanders would suddenly emerge, giving the impression that they had been born from or were resistant to the flames.

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Scorpion, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The scorpion, though more akin to worms than snakes, is grouped with snakes due to its venomous sting and tail strikes. Its distinctive nature includes not stinging the palm of the hand. Symbolically, the scorpion represents various negative aspects: a scourge, heretics, individuals who sabotage good deeds or despair that inflicts harm. In historical contexts, scourges or whips associated with scorpions were often crafted from thorny branches or apple wood, resembling knotted rods. Alternatively, the scourges of the Saracens were made with rods tipped with leaden balls, used to flog martyrs.

The scorpion was frequently associated with heretics and false teachings. Just as a scorpion appears harmless but carries a hidden sting, heretics were seen as deceitful, presenting a facade of righteousness while spreading dangerous ideas. Its ability to sting with its tail symbolised betrayal and treachery. This imagery was often linked to Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus, likening his actions to a scorpion's hidden sting.

This animal was sometimes seen as symboloc of divine punishment or scourge. Its sting was likened to the suffering inflicted upon sinners or the faithful, reminiscent of the spiritual trials and tribulations that test one's faith and its venom was allegorically used to represent spiritual harm, such as temptations or the devil's influence, which could lead a person astray from the path of righteousness.

Scorpio est vermis terrenus qui potius ver-
mibus ascribi deberet quam serpentibus. Sed quia
est animal armatum aculeo. et cauda figit. et
arcuato vulnere venena diffundit; inter ser-
pentes nominatur. Proprium autem scorpionis est. quod
manus palmam non feriat. Nomine igitur scorpio-
nis aliquando dicitur flagellum[1]. aliquando hereticus. aliquando qui
inchoatas virtutes[2] ante consummationem viciat. ali-
quando desperatio qui in fine nocet. Quando pro flagellis accipi-
untur; fiunt de spinis vel pomariis quasi virge nodose.
Vel flagellum saracenorum cum duabus virgis vel tribus. q .in sum-
mitate habent plubeas grandines. quibus martires flagellaban-
tur;

The scorpion is a land worm that should be classed among worms rather than among snakes. However, it is listed among snakes, for it is an animal armed with an aculeus (sting), strikes with its tail and spreads its poison with its curved aculeus. It is typical of the scorpion not to sting the palm of the hand. Therefore, the scorpion sometimes symbolises scourge, sometimes heretics, sometimes someone who sabotage good deeds before they are performed and other times despair that always harms. When we are referring to scourges and whips, they are made of thorns or apple wood, resembling branches full of knots. Alternatively, the scourge of the Saracens has two or three rods with leaden balls at the tips wherewith martyrs were flogged.

Endnotes

[1] The word flagellum means whip, lash but also scourge in the figurative sense.

[2] Virtus means virtue in Latin but in the plural form, virtutes, also means good deeds, mighty works.

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Worms and insects, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f99v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

A worm is a creature that typically arises from flesh, wood or other earthly materials without mating, although some, like the scorpion, may also hatch from eggs. Worms can be found in various forms, originating from earth, water, air, flesh, leaves, wood or even clothing. Among these, the spider is a unique worm of the air, sustained by the air itself. Despite its small size, the spider tirelessly spins intricate webs, constantly labouring and enduring the toll of its craft. It creates its own web, from which it sometimes hangs and then retracts. Once feared for the swelling caused by its venom, the spider remains a symbol of ceaseless effort and delicate balance in nature. Although this animal is industrious, its endless labour was sometimes seen as pointless or excessive, serving as a caution against overworking for material or vain pursuits, rather than focusing on spiritual matters. This symbolises the emptiness of work done without divine purpose or faith.

The spider’s web was often seen as a symbol of the vanity of worldly pursuits—beautiful but fragile and easily destroyed. Just as a spider continually spins its web, which can be destroyed in an instant, humans are reminded of the futility of investing too much in worldly accomplishments that can be quickly undone. The web, being a trap for unsuspecting prey, symbolised deceit, cunning and the devil’s temptations. The spider, hiding and waiting to ensnare its victims, was likened to Satan, who sets traps to lead people into sin.

Vermis est animal quod plerumque de carne vel de
ligno. vel de quacumque re terrena nascitur; sine
concubitu. licet nomiumque et de ovis nascatur sicut
scorpio. Sunt autem vermes aut terre aut aque aut
aeris. aut carnium aut frondium. aut lignorum aut
vestimentorum.
Aranea est. vermis aeris. ab aeris nutrimento cogno-
minata. que exiguo corpore longa fila deducit. et
tele semper intenta; numquam desinit laborare. perpetu-
um sustinens in sua arte dispendium. Filia quos que
de se producit. per que nonnumquam pendet; iterum retra-
hit. Et est tempus quando timeri solet aranea; propter ve-
neni tumorem;

A worm is an animal that generally originates from flesh, wood or any other earthly substance without mating, although sometimes it also comes from eggs, as in the case of the scorpion. Worms can be of the earth, water, air, flesh, leaves, wood or clothing.

The spider is a worm of the air, named after its nourishment from the air. With its small body, it spins long webs and, hanging from its web, never ceases to labour: weaving its web requires continuous effort and energy. It itself produces the web wherefrom it sometimes hangs and then it draws it back. There was a time when the spider was feared owing to the swelling caused by its venom.

Endnotes

[1] Nonnunquăm = sometimes

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Millipede, leech, silkworm and caterpillar, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f100r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The millipede, known as multĭpēs due to its many legs, curls up into a ball and swells like a small urn for protection. The leech, sanguĭsūga, is a water worm famous for its bloodsucking habits; it lies in wait for those who drink, slipping into their throats or clinging to them to drain and refresh its blood supply.

The silkworm, bombyx, is a leaf-dwelling worm that produces silk. Its name reflects its process of weaving silk threads, during which it empties itself, leaving only air inside its body.

The caterpillar, ērūca, feeds on leaves and wraps itself in cabbage or vine leaves. Derived from ērōdĕre (to gnaw), it is described by Plautus as mimicking a harmful beast wrapped in a vine leaf. The caterpillar, slow and lazy, devours plants, leaving them half-eaten and ultimately contributing to the destruction of crops. Some even consider it a type of locust, known as brūchus.

Multipes vermis terrenus ex multitudine pedum
sic vocatur. qui contractus in globum; urnas amplificat.
Sanguissuga vermis aquatilis. sic dicta quod san-
guinem sugit. Potantibus enim insidiatur. Cumque illabi-
tur faucibus vel ubi quispiam adheserit; sanguinem
haurit. ut recentiorem denuo sugat;
Bombex est frondium vermis. ex cuius textura bom-
bicinum conficitur. Appellatur autem hoc nomine;
quod evacuetur dum fila generat. et aer solus in
eo remanet;
Eruca frondium vermis in olere vel panpino
involutus. ab erodendo dicta. De qua meminit sic
plautus. Imitatus nequam bestiam et maleficam pampino
involutam. Implicat se eadem. nec volat. Hec pessima
bestia ut locusta huc illucque discurrens; semipasta
dimittit. sed permanet perituris frugibus. et tardo lapsu
et pigris morsibus universa consumit. Et est eruca
ut quidam putant brucus. qui est species locuste.
Locusta est. et terrestris et maritima. et dicitur

The millipede, multĭpēs, is a land worm named as such due to its multitude of legs. When it curls up into a ball, it swells like an urn. The leech, sanguĭsūga, is a water worm, called so, for it sucks blood, sanguis. It lies in ambush for those who drink and when it slips into their throat or hangs on to someone, it drains the blood to suck it fresh again. The silkworm, bombyx, is a leaf worm, from whose weaving silk is made. It is named as such, for it empties itself whilst weaving silk threads, leaving only air inside the body. The caterpillar, ērūca, is a leaf worm, wrapped up in cabbage or vine leaves and its name derives from ērōdĕre, meaning to gnaw. Plautus mentions it thus: 'It imitates a wicked and harmful beast wrapped in a vine leaf.' It wraps itself up in the same manner and does not fly. This bad creature, like a locust, runs hither and thither, leaving plants half-eaten and gnawed but remains among crops bound to perish. With slow motion and lazy bites, it consumes everything. Some think that the caterpillar is the brūchus, which is a species of locust.

Endnotes

[1] Bombyx = silkworm

[2] Plautus (c. 254–184 BCE) was a Roman playwright known for his comedies. His full name was Titus Maccius Plautus. He is one of the earliest and most influential Roman comic dramatists and his works were highly regarded in ancient Rome. Plautus’s plays were characterized by their lively plots, clever dialogue and humour that involved stock characters like clever slaves, foolish old men and young lovers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plautus

[3] Cistellaria, 728-30: "Imitatus nequam bestiam et maleficam pampino involutam. Implicat se eadem. nec volat." ("It imitates a wicked and harmful beast wrapped in a vine leaf. It entangles itself in the same manner and does not fly.")

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Frog, moth, flea and hornet, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff101r-101v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

Frogs, known as rānae, are famous for their incessant croaking around swamps and marshes, producing sounds that can be quite irritating. They come in various types:

Water frogs: Typical of aquatic environments.

Swamp frogs: Found in marshy areas.

Land frogs, rŭbētae: These are larger, venomous frogs living in brambles and bushes, known for being particularly harmful.

Among these, the term cruxaveium is used for a particular species, whereas călāmītes refers to small, mute frogs that dwell among reeds and are the greenest and smallest of all. Additionally, the agrēdŭlae are small frogs inhabiting dry places or fields, with a peculiar belief that dogs do not bark when these frogs are included in their food. Metaphorically, the word for frog, rāna, symbolises poets whose grandiose and empty odes resemble the croaking of frogs, regaling the world with their dramatic tales.

The moth, tĭnĕa, is known as the worm of garments because it clings to and destroys clothes, being born from the very fabric it consumes. Symbolically, it represents luxury that arises from the flesh and consumes the flesh, similar to how gambling is viewed as a vice.

Fleas, pūlices, thrive in dusty environments. When pursued, they leap and escape, symbolizing the saints who, despite being rejected by the world, fled from persecution according to God's command. This is emphasised in the Bible where David refers to himself as a dead dog and a single flea in his plea to King Saul.

Hornets, crābrones, emerge from the decaying flesh of horses. The term derives from cabo (stallion) and căballus (horse), reflecting their origin from decomposition. From hornets, scarabs, scărăbei, are born, linking them by name. Hornets are symbolic of fear and terror. In the Bible, particularly in Deuteronomy, hornets were sent among the inhabitants of the Promised Land to drive them out before the Israelites, aiding in their conquest of the land.

Rane a garrulitate sic vocate; eoquod circa ge-
nitales strepunt paludes et sonos vocis inportu-
nis clamoribus reddunt. Ex hiis quedam dicuntur aqua-
tice. quedam palustres. quedam terrestres que di-
cuntur rubete. ob id quia in vepribus vivunt gran-
diores ceteris pessime et venenose. Quod gemis
vulgo dicitur cruxaveium. Alie calamites vocantur.
Quoniam in palustrubis inter arundines et frutices vivunt;
et sine voce sunt et mute. et minime omnium.
et viridissime. Egredule sunt rane pervule in sicco
vel in agris morantes. Negant quidam canes latra-
re. quibus in offa hee rane fuerint date. Nomine
igitur rane significantur carmina poetarum. qui
inani et inflata modulatione velut ranarum sonis
et cantibus. mundo; direptionis fabulas intulerunt.
Ad nichil enim animal illud utile est; nisi quod sonum
vocis inprobis et inportunis clamoribus reddit;
Tinea est. vestimentorum vermis. sic dicta quod tene-
at vestimentum donec erodat. et ex ipso vestimento quod

Frogs, rānae, are so named after their garrulous nature, for they croak around swamps and marshes and produce irritating sounds. Among them, there are water frogs, swamp ones and land frogs called rŭbētae, tree frogs, for they live in brambles and bushes: they are venomous, larger and more harmful than the other frogs. The species commonly called cruxaveium[1] pertains to these. Others are called călămītes[2], for they live among reeds and shrubs in marshes: they are voiceless and mute, the smallest of all and the greenest. The small frogs, called agrēdŭlae[3] live in dry places or fields. Some say that dogs do not bark when these frogs are given to them as food. Therefore, the word for frog, rāna, is used metaphorically to symbolise the odes of poets, who, with empty and inflated tunes like the sounds and croaks of frogs, regale the world with tales of devastation. This poor creature is of no use, except that it utters bad and irritating sounds.

The moth, tĭnĕa, is the worm of garments: it is so called, for it clings to the garment until it wears it out and is born from that very garment.

consumit; oritur. Unde aliquando significat luxuriam
que ex carne nascens ipsam carnem consumit. et
alea similiter carnis vicia. Aliquando penam eternam.
Aliquando hereticum. aliquando vindictam dei.
Pulices vocati sunt; quod ex pulvere magis nu-
triuntur. Qui cum persecutionem sentiunt psal-
tum dant et evadunt. Et ideo significant sanctos.
qui mundo contemptibiles dum persecutionem passi sunt
fugerunt de civitate in civitatem ex precepto domini.
Unde in libro regum dicit david ad saul. Quem per-
sequeris rex isrel quem persequeris; Canem portuum
persequeris et pulicem unum.
Scrabones volant et nascuntur de equorum carni-
bus putridis. Et dicuntur scrabones. a cabo id est a caballo.
a quibus creantur. Ex scrabonibus nascuntur scarabei.
Unde et cognominate sunt. Nomine scrabonis dicuntur
timoris punctiones. Unde in deuteronomio. Dominus misit
scrabones in habitatores terre promissionis ante faciem
filiorum israhel; donec habitatores terre paulatim defi-
cerent.

Thus, it sometimes symbolises luxury being born from the flesh and consuming the flesh itself; similarly, gambling is a vice of the flesh. Sometimes, it symbolises eternal punishment, sometimes heretics, other times the vengeance of God.

Fleas, pūlices, are so called, for they are more nourished by dust. When they are being chased, they leap and escape. Therefore, they symbolise the saints who were contemptible in the eyes of the world and fled from city to city when they suffered persecution, according to the command of the Lord. Hence, in the book of Kings, David says to Saul, "Whom do you pursue, king of Israel? Whom do you pursue? You pursue a dead dog and a single flea."

Hornets, crābrones[5], are flying creatures, born from the rotting flesh of horses. The word derives from cabo (stallion) and căballus (horse), for they originate from the decomposition of horses. From these hornets, scarabs, scărăbei, are born; therefore, they are named similarly. The hornet symbolises the stings of fear. Thus, in Deuteronomy[6], the Lord sent hornets among the inhabitants of the Promised Land before the face of the children of Israel, until the inhabitants of the land gradually perished.

Endnotes

[1] It is most probably referring to the Crucifix toad, also known as the holy cross or Catholic frog, from crux = cross. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifix_toad

[2] According to Pliny, the călămītes were the green frogs, Lithobates clamitans. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithobates_clamitans

[3] It is not known exactly what the meaning of the words agrēdŭlae[4] 1 Samuel NKJV 24:14: "Against whom has the king of Israel come out? Whom do you pursue? A dead dog? A flea?" In this passage, David is speaking to King Saul, addressing Saul's pursuit of him. David is emphasising the futility of Saul's pursuit by comparing himself to a dead dog and a flea, suggesting that he is of no significant threat or value.

[5] The word for hornet has variants: crābro, scrābro, scarabo.

[6] Deuteronomy NKJV 7:20: "Moreover, the Lord your God will send the hornet among them until those who are left, who hide themselves from you, are destroyed."

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Gnat and mosquito, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff102r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

Gnats (cĭnĭphes) are elusive, minuscule insects that are virtually invisible to the naked eye. Despite their size, they deliver a painfully sharp sting, particularly around sensitive areas. This subtle yet irritating behaviour serves as a metaphor in art and dialectics for the way minute, elusive troubles can torment the mind, leading it astray through unseen and complex deceptions. In biblical terms, gnats were responsible for the third plague of Egypt, while the cynomya, or carrion fly, caused the fourth. Morally speaking, these two types of flies are seen as analogous.
Mosquitoes (cŭlex), known for their painful sting and the incessant buzzing sound they produce, are notorious for their irritation, especially in hot summer nights. They have a specialized mouthpart that functions as a sting, which they use to both irritate and draw blood. Unlike the mosquito, the horsefly (oestrum), also called ăsīlus or tăbānus, is known for its painful bites that affect livestock. The mosquito, therefore, symbolises a troublesome and seditious figure akin to Barabbas from the Gospel, representing a persistent and irritating disruptor.

Ciniphes sunt animalis penis suspensa. et in aere volan-
tia. sed ita subtilia et minuta; et oculi visum nisi acute
cernentis effugiant. Corpus tamen cui insederint; acerbissimo
tenebrant stimulo. Ut quos volantes quis videre non valet;
sentiat stimulantes. Hoc animalium genus art dialectice
comparatur. que minutis et subtilibus cerborum stimulis;
animas tenebrat. et tanta caliiditate circumvenit; ut
deceptus nec videat nec intelligat; unde decipiatur;
Et nota quod cyniphes fecerunt terciam plagam egyp-
ti. musca autem que dicitur cinomia fecit quartam.
Et quantum ad moralem intellectum; idem sunt cyniphes
et musca que dicitur cinomia;
Culex ab aculeo dicitur quo sanguinem fugit acerbissi-
me; sonum in volando faciens donec nude carni insederit.
et maxime in noctibus estatis et calidi temporis nocet. Habet
in ore fistulam in modum stimuli. qua carnem tenebrat;
ut sanguinem sugat. et differt ab oestro; qui latine dicitur
asilus. et vulgo dicitur taunus. qui est armentis moles-
tissimus aculeo. Nomine igitur culicis significatur latro ille et
seditiosus barrraban. de quo in evangelio dicitur ad iudeos.

Gnats, cĭnĭphes[1], are creatures that hang from the male genitalia and fly in the air. They are so thin and small that their vision escapes anyone who does not see very sharply. Nevertheless, they inflict the most painful sting to the body. Thus, although one cannot see them while they are flying, they can still feel their stings. This type of animal is compared in art and dialectics to those that torment the soul with minute and subtle stings of the brain, misleading it with subtle tricks that the victim neither sees nor understands and thus is deceived. Note that the cĭnĭphes caused the third plague of Egypt, whereas the fly called cynomya caused the fourth. From a moral point of view, cĭnĭphes and cynomya are the same.
The mosquito, cŭlex, is named after its sting, draws blood painfully, produces a buzzing sound while flying until it lands on bare flesh. It is especially harmful during the summer nights and hot weather. It has a pipe-like structure in its mouth serving as a sting, which it uses to irritate the flesh and suck blood. It differs from the horsefly, oestrum[3], known in Latin also as ăsīlus[4] and commonly called tăbānus, whose sting annoys cattle. The term cŭlex thus symbolises that troublesome and seditious thief Barabbas[5], similar to how it is described in the Gospel concerning the Jews.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Gnat, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast106213.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] There is no exact translation for the word cĭnĭphes. It could be translated as louse or gnat but lice do not fly whereas gnats do. In the text, cĭnĭphes were able to fly and caused the third plague. The lice that caused the third plague in Egypt did not fly. These lice are typically understood to be similar to modern lice, which are small, wingless, parasitic insects that crawl rather than fly.
[2] The Bible does not specify the type of flies that caused the plague. It might have been the carrion flies, Cynomya Mortuorum, seeing that plague and death are being discussed. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynomya_mortuorum
[3] Horsefly or gadfly
[4] Horsefly and robber fly
[5] John 18:40 (NKJV): "Then they all cried again, saying, 'Not this Man, but Barabbas!' Now Barabbas was a robber."
Mark 15:7 (NKJV): "And there was one named Barabbas, who was chained with his fellow rebels; they had committed murder in the rebellion."

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Woodword, emigramus, tapeworm, lice, larinus, recinus, usia and cumex, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f102v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

"Leaders of the blind, who refine the gnat and swallow the camel." This phrase emphasises the irony of focusing on minor issues while neglecting major ones. Unlike snakes, worms do not move with a sinuous motion but rather extend and contract their body in a straight line, wriggling and gliding in a more segmented manner.
The Greeks referred to woodworms as τερηδών (teridón), derived from τῆραι (tĕrĕre), meaning to gnaw or to wear out, reflecting their habit of consuming wood. In Latin, these are called tarmĭtes.
Emigramus or hēmĭcrānus are types of head worms, while lumbrīcus denotes the tapeworm, commonly found in the intestines. Pēdĭcŭli refers to lice, named after pĕdĭcŭlus ("little foot"), and those infested are known as pēdĭcŭlōsi. Larinus is a worm associated with lard and racinus is a dog worm found in the ears of dogs, with κύων/kýōn being the Greek word for dog. Usia is a pig worm that causes intense burning and blistering. The cumex is named after a plant with a foul smell and is known for its presence in decaying flesh.

Duces ceti. excolantes culicem. camelum autem glu-// cientes; Teredones greci vocant lignorum vermes // quod terendo edant. hos; tramites dicimus. Ita enim // apud latinos vermes vocantur. Emigramus ver-// mis est capitis. Lumbricus vermis est. intestinorum // dictus quasi lumbicus. quia labitur. vel quia in lum-// bis sit. Pediculi vermes carnis a pedibus dicti. Unde // et pediculosi dicuntur quibus pediculi in corpore ver-// mescunt. Larinus vermis est lardi. Racinus est // vermes canis. sic vocatus quod hereat in auribus canum. // Cenos enim grece canis dicitur. Usia vermis porci quia // urit. Nam ubit momorderit adeo locus ardet ut vesice // ibi fiant. Cumex de similitudine cuiusdam herbe // vocatur cuius fetorem habet. et est proprie vermis que // nascitur in carne putrida. Vermis non ut serpen-// tes apertis passibus. set(dots underneath) vel squamarum visibus repit. // quia non est ei spine rigor. ut colubri. sed in directum // corpusculi sui partes gradatin porrigendo contractas con-// trahendo porrectos motus explicat. Sic agitatur perlabitur; //

"Leaders of the blind, who refine the gnat and swallow the camel."[1] The Greeks called woodworm τερηδών/teridón[2], for they eat by gnawing at wood from tĕrĕre (to gnaw, to wear out). The term for these worms in Latin is tarmĭtes. This is how the Latins called these worms. The emigramus or hēmĭcrānus is a type of head worm. The lumbrīcus, tapeworm, is an intestinal worm and is so named, for it is found in the intestines. The pēdĭcŭli, lice, are worms of the flesh, named after pĕdĭcŭlus, little foot, and those who have lice on their bodies are called pĕdĭcŭlōsi[3]. Larinus is a type of worm found in lard. Racinus is a dog worm named so, for it dwells in the ears of dogs. In Greek, the term for dog is κύων/kýōn. Usia is a pig worm, for it burns. Indeed, that which it has bitten burns so intensely that it starts blistering. Cumex is named after a certain plant[4] that has a foul smell and is specifically a worm that originates in decaying flesh. The worm does not crawl like snakes but its movement is reminiscent of the way scales move. It does not have the rigidity of the spine like a snake. Instead, it extends its body in a straight line, gradually stretching and contracting its parts to move. Thus, it wriggles and glides along.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Woodworm, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast106313.htm
David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Louse, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast106218.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Episcopi Herefordensis, A.D. 1391, fol. 102v, available at Melocki.org.uk: "Leaders of the blind, who refine the gnat and swallow the camel," discussing the Pharisees' focus on minor details over significant matters. This phrase is a metaphorical way of saying that they are more concerned with trivialities than with important ethical and spiritual issues. https://www.melocki.org.uk/registers/1389_Trefnant.html#p001
[2] There is also the Latin word tĕrēdo for woodworm.
[3] The terms pĕdĭcŭlōsi or pēdĭcōsi meant literally lousy, lice-ridden, full of lice but figuratively, they meant stingy, niggardly and mean.
[4] In medieval texts, the plant associated with a foul or unpleasant smell similar to that described for cumex is typically the garlic. Garlic, particularly when it decays or is used in a specific context, can emit a strong, pungent odour that might be likened to the foul smell of parasites or decay.
Another plant that might be associated with a similar smell is the skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus), known for its strong, unpleasant odour, especially when it is in bloom. This plant has a smell that can be compared to decaying organic matter.

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Fish, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

Fish are known as nătantes, natant, for their swimming nature, closely related to reptiles due to their resemblance to creatures that crawl. Though they dive deep, fish seem to crawl even as they swim, echoing David’s words: "This great and wide sea is filled with creeping things innumerable, both small and great beasts." Amphibians, like certain fish, are named for their dual ability to walk on land and swim in water—rooted in the Greek word ἄμφω/ámfo meaning both. Generally, cold and wet by nature, most fish inhabit only water, whereas some, like seals, crocodiles and hippopotami—called "floating horses"—thrive in both water and land. These fascinating creatures, grazing on crops by night, have front halves resembling horses and back halves resembling fish.

Pisces dicti natant ideo reptilia dicuntur; eoquod rep-
tandi habent speciem et naturam. Quamvis se
in profundum mergant; tamen in natando repunt. Unde
et david ait. Hoc mare magnum et spatiosum val-
de illic reptilia quorum non est numerus. Amphia sunt
quedam genera piscium sic dicta quod ambulandi in
terris et natandi in aquis officium habeant. Am-
phi enim grece; utrumque dicitur. id est quia in aquis et
in terris vivunt. Omnes pisces generaliter frigide sunt
nature; et humide. Quidam habitant tantum in aquis.
Quidam in terris et in aquis. ut phoce. cocodrilli. yppo-
tami. hoc est. equi fluctuales. qui in indie in aquis commoran-
tur. et nocte segetes depascunt. qui prima parte equi
sunt; postrema soluuntur in piscem;

Fish are called natant, nătans[1]; therefore, reptiles are called so, for they have the appearance and nature of a crawling creature, reptans[2]. Although they dive into the depths of the sea, they still crawl whilst swimming. Thus, David says: "So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts."[3] Amphĭbĭa, amphibians, are certain kinds of fish so called, for they have the ability to walk on land and swim in water. In Greek, ἄμφω/ámfo means both and that is, for they live both in water and on land. All fish are generally of a cold and wet nature. Some live only in water. Some live both on land and in water, like seals, crocodiles and hippopotami—that is, floating horses dwelling in the waters of India and grazing on crops at night. The front of their body is horse-shaped whereas the back of the body is fish-shaped.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Fish, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast411.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Nătans comes from the verb nătāre, to swim.
[2] Reptans comes from the verb reptāre, to crawl.
[3] Psalm KJV 104:25: "So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts." This psalm is attributed to David and celebrates God's creation, including the sea and all its creatures.

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Rochester Bestiary KAS 15/10/2024 Rochester Bestiary KAS 15/10/2024

Dolphin, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff105v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

Dolphins are remarkable creatures, known for their ability to follow human voices or gather in groups at the sound of music. They are the fastest swimmers in the sea, often leaping gracefully past ships. When they frolic in the waves, their playful jumps are said to predict coming storms. Interestingly, a special type of dolphin, called simones, can be found in the Nile River. These dolphins have serrated backs and are known for their ability to hunt crocodiles and kill them by cutting through their soft underbellies. The Nile dolphin was allegorically associated with the battle between good and evil. The dolphin’s victory over the crocodile, a dangerous and sinister creature, symbolized Christ's triumph over sin, death, and the devil. Just as dolphins were thought to save shipwrecked sailors, Christ is seen as the saviour of humanity, guiding souls to salvation.

Delfines certum habent nomen. quod voces homi-
num sequantur vel quod ad simphoniam grega-
tim conveniunt. Nichil in mari velotius istis. nam ple-
rumque naves salientes transvolant. Quando autem
ludunt in fluctibus et undarum se mollibus saltu pre-
cipiti feriunt; tempestates significant. Hii proprie sal-
mones nominantur. Est et delphinum genus in nilo flu-
mine dorso serrato qui cocodrillos tenera ventrium
secantes interimunt;

Dolphins have a particular name, for they follow human voices or they gather in groups at the sound of music. Nothing in the sea is faster than dolphins, for they often go past ships as they leap. However, when they play in the waves and throw themselves with a swift leap into the water, they predict storms. They are properly called simones. There is also a species of dolphin in the Nile River with a serrated back, which kills crocodiles by cutting through their soft underbellies.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Dolphin, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast284.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

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Rochester Bestiary KAS 15/10/2024 Rochester Bestiary KAS 15/10/2024

Whale, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff103r-104r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The whale, bālena, while smaller than the monstrous Cetus, is still a creature of colossal size. Its name comes from its unique ability to draw in and spout out water, unlike any other sea creature, as it throws waves higher from its mouth. The root bāl derives from the Greek word βάλλειν (ballein), meaning to emit or to throw. The male whale is called muscŭlus and it is through their union that the female whale conceives. Despite its smaller stature than the Cetus, the whale remains a symbol of the ocean's immense and mysterious power.

Balena autem satis minor belua est quam cete. sed
inmense magnitudinis. Ab effundendo et imit-
tendo aquas vocata. Ceteris enim bestiis maris altius
iacit undas ab ore suo. Bal enim grece emittere di-
citur. Masculus dicitur balene musculus. Eius enim
coitu; concipit balena.

The whale, bālena, is a much smaller beast than the Cetus but still of immense size. It is named after its ability to draw in and spout out water[1]. Unlike other sea creatures, it throws waves higher from its mouth. In Greek, βάλλειν/ballein means to emit/throw. The male of the whale is called muscŭlus, for it is through mating with the male that the female whale conceives.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Whale, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast282.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] In reality, Whales do not take in water and expel it. The passage likely refers to the behaviour of whales using their blowholes. Whales are mammals and they breathe air through their blowholes, which are located on top of their heads. When a whale surfaces, it exhales air forcefully through the blowhole, often creating a visible spray of water vapour, which can look like they are "spouting out water."

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Torpedo/Electric Ray, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f107r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The torpedo, or electric ray, is a fascinating sea creature with the power to make anything it touches go numb. Its electric shock is so powerful that even if someone prods it with a spear, it will still render the body of that person numb. Remarkably, its electric charge is so strong that it can even affect its own limbs. This mysterious power makes the torpedo both a marvel and a cautionary tale of nature’s electrical wonders.

Torpedo; corpus tangentis torpescere facit. Si
hasta quoque tangatur; corpus tangentis tor-
pescere facit. ita ut pedes tangentis illigari pu-
tentur. Tantaque vis eius est; ut etiam auro corpo-
ris sui afficiat membra.

The torpedo[1] causes the body that it touches to go numb. If anyone touches it with a spear, it makes the body that touches it go numb as well to the extent that even the feet of the person holding the spear might become numb. Its power is so great that it can even affect the limbs of its own body with its electric charge.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Torpedo, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast285.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes
This fish is also called electric ray. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_torpedo

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Porpoise/Sea Pig and Swordfish, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f106r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The Rochester Bestiary describes the porpoise as a sea pig. Similarly to their terrestrial counterparts, sea pigs feed by using their snouts to dig up food in the underwater sand.

Porci marini qui vulgo vocantur suilli; qui-
dam dum escam querunt; ore suo sub aquis
terram fodiunt. Circa guttur enim habent oris
officium. et nisi rostrum arenis inmergant;
pastum non colligunt.
[space left for illustration] Gladius est piscis. qui mucusnato rostro(added above) naves perforat;

Sea pigs[1], which are commonly called sŭilli: when searching for food, they dig into the ground underwater with their mouths. They have their mouth located near the throat and unless they immerse their snout in the sand, they do not pick up their food.
[space left for illustration]
The swordfish is a fish that pierces ships with its sharp snout.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Sea-pig, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast417.htm
Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant
Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London
Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)
Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)
Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)
Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)
White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)
Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The Sea Swine/Pig was the name given to a variety of sea-dwelling or mythological creatures throughout history. The earliest mention of a sea swine/pig can be traced to ancient Greece. In this context, the name has been interpreted to mean 'porpoise', as a porpoise and pig have similar round body shapes. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Swine

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