Swordfish, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f106r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The swordfish uses it’s gladius like a “rostro”; the sharp point Roman warships used to ram enemy ships.
Transcription
Translation
The swordfish is a fish, who pierces ships with a mucous beak.
Electric Ray, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f107r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Transcription
Translation
hasta quoque tangatur; corpus tangentis tor-
pescere facit. ita ut pedes tangentis illigari pu-
tentur. Tantaque vis eius est; ut etiam auro corpo-
ris sui afficiat membra.
The electric ray makes the body numb to the touch. If the spear is also touched it makes the body twitch when touching it, in such a way that the touching feet are tied together[?]. His power is so great; that he may also touch the members of his body with gold[?].
Urchin, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff107r-107v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The Rochester Bestiary records that urchins can stick to the hull of a ship and sink them.
Transcription
Translation
si adheret navi; facit eam inmobiliter stare.
Plerumque index future tempestatis e terra nuntius
solet esse navigantibus. Denique cum procellam ventorum
senserit; calculum validum arripit. eumque velut
Echinus is a small fish and semi-pedal. If he adheres to the ship; makes her stand motionless. Generally, the forecast of future weather is usually a message from the land to the sailors. Finally, when he felt a storm of winds;
ciatur fluctibus. Itaque non suis se liberat virubus. sed
alieno stabilit et regit pondere. Quo inditio naute
velut signum future perturbationis tapescunt; et
sibi precavent. ne eos inperatos inprovisus turbo inveni-
at. Quis matematicus. quis astrologus. quis caldeus
poterit fiderum cursus. et sic celi motus et signa com-
prehendere; Quo ingenio ista colligit. quo doctore
percipit; Quis ei tanti fuit interpres augurii. Sepe
hominis aeris confusionem vident et sepe falluntur.
quia plerumque eam sine tempestate discuciunt. Echinus
non fallitur. nequaquam sua signa pretereunt. Unde tam
exiguo animali tanta scientia; ut futura prenuntiet;
He takes hold of a strong stone, and drives it like a ballast, and drags it like an anchor; not to be shaken by the waves. Therefore he does not free himself from his own forces, but he establishes and governs by the weight of another. Whereupon the sailors, as a sign of the future disturbance, tap out this indifference; and they pray for themselves, lest an unexpected storm find them unprepared.
Who is a mathematician, who is an astrologer, who is a heathen, will be able to comprehend the course of faith, and thus the movements and signs of the heavens. By what genius he gathers these things, by what teacher he perceives; Who was the interpreter of the augury worth to him? They see the confusion of the air man's fence, and they are mistaken for the fence, because they usually discuss it without a storm. Echinus is not mistaken, they do not exceed their standards. Whence so little knowledge of the animal; to foretell the future;
Trees, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Transcription
Translation
esui. quia corpus non nutrit. Malum persicum
dicitur a perseo. qui huius generis arborem primo
A bad punishment is better for medicine than for food, because it does not nourish the body. The evil peach is called by Perseus, who first
lo; dicimus pescam. cui brevis vita concessa est;
Dicuntur quoque pira; poma. Piri poma iuntentis inposi-
ta; et si pauca sint. vehementer sunt erased h onerosa.
Mespila que visitato vocabulo dicimus mesles; dicun-
tur etiam poma.
Nuces magnas medici vocant simpliciter nu-
ces. Nuces vero parvas; vocant avellanas. Nux
igitur est. fructus; et nux arbor. sic vocata; quod um-
bra vel stillicidium eius proximis arboribus et her-
bis noceat. Magne nuces minus nutriunt quam
avellane. Magne nuces si a ieiunis commedantur
cum ruta; valent contra venenum. Quod si ex
eis cathaplasina. cum cepis. sale. et melle. feceri-
mus; morsui rabidi canis proficiet. Similiter
avellane; a ieiunis sumpte; faciunt contra
venenum. Avellane assate. si cum exteriore
cortice pistentur; cum veteri adipe suis vel ur-
si; locis demidatis capillos revocant. Omnes
planted a tree of this kind in Egypt. This apple is commonly called; we say a fish, to which a short life is granted.
They are also called pears; apples The apples of the pears are put together; and if they are few, they are exceedingly burdensome.
Mespila, which we call by the term mesles, are also called apples.
Doctors call large nuts simply nuts. Small nuts indeed; they call it hazelnuts. A nut, therefore, is a fruit; and the nut tree, so called; that the shadow or the drop of it may harm the neighboring trees and grass. Nuts are much less nutritious than hazelnuts. Nuts are great if they are eaten with rue by those who are fasting; they are strong against poison. But if we made cathaplasina from them, with onions, salt, and honey; the bite of a rabid dog will succeed. Similarly with hazelnuts; by fasting; they act against poison. Roast the hazelnuts, if they are roasted with the outer skin; with their old fat or bears; they bring back the hair in places that have been cut. All
sumpte. quia stomaco nocent. et ventositatem
generant. et capud turbant;
Natura dicta; eoquod nasci aliquid faciat. Gig-
nendi enim et faciendi potens est. Hanc quidam deum
esse dixerunt a quo omnia creata sunt et ex istunt.
Genus a gignendo dicitur. Cui dirivatum nomen
a terra ex quo omnia gignuntur. Ge enim grece; ter-
ra dicitur. Vita dicta propter vigorem. vel quod
vim teneat nascendi atque crescendi. Unde et arbores vi-
tam habere dicuntur. quia gignunt et crescunt. Ho-
mo dictus quia ex humo est factus erasure Sicut et in ge-
nesi dicitur. Et creavit deus hominem de humo terre.
Abusive enim pronuntiatur ex utraque substantia; totus
homo. id est ex societate anime et corporis. Nam
proprie homo; ab humo. Greci enim hominem antro-
pum appellaverunt. eoquod sursum aspectet.
sublevatus ab humo ad contemplationem artificis
sui. Quod ovidius designat cum dicit. Pronaque cum
Nature said; to do something with that which is born. For to beget and fa it is powerful to kill. Some have said that this is the god from whom all things were created and from whom they are.
A genus is called by being born. A name derived from the earth from which all things are born. For in Greek; it is called earth. Life is said because of its vigor, or because it holds the power to be born and to grow. Whence also trees are said to have life, because they give birth and grow. So called man because he was made of the earth. As it is said in Genesis. And God created man from the dust of the earth.
For it is pronounced abusively from both substances; the whole man, that is, from the union of soul and body. For properly a man; from the ground For the Greeks called man anthropo, that which looks upward, raised from the ground to the contemplation of its maker. What Ovid indicates when he says And when
lime dedit celumque videre. Iussit et erectos ad
sidera tollere vultus. Qui ideo erectus; celum aspi-
cit; ut deum querat; non ut terram intendat.
Veluti pecora que natura prona et ventris obe-
dicia finxit. Duplex est. autem homo. Interior et exte-
rior. Interior homo anima. Exterior; corpus.
Anima autem a gentilibus nomen accepit. eoquod ven-
tus sit. Unde et grece ventus animos dicitur. quod
ore trahentes aerem; vivere videamur. Sed aper-
tissime falsum est. Quia multo prius gignitur
anima; quam concipi aer ore possit. que iam in ge-
nitricis utero erasure vivit. Non est igitur aer anima;
quod putaverunt quidam. qui non potuerunt
incorpoream eius cogitare naturam. Spiritum idem
esse quod animam; evangelista pronuntiat dicens.
the other animals look at the ground, He gave the mouth to man on high and to see the sky, He ordered them to lift up their faces to the stars. Who therefore was raised; he looks at the sky; to complain to God; not to aim at the ground.
Like the cattle which nature has fashioned for the obedience of its bowels. He is double, but man. Interior and exterior. The inner soul of man. Exterior; the body.
But the soul received the name from the Gentiles, because it is the wind. Whence also in Greek the wind is called souls, because they draw air with their mouths; let us be seen to live. But it is plainly false. Because the soul is born much earlier; how much air can be conceived by the mouth, which already lives in the womb of the mother. Therefore air is not a soul; which some thought, who could not conceive of his incorporeal nature. That the spirit is the same as the soul; the evangelist pronounces saying
flexum creditur. eoquod terris fixis radicibus
adhereant. Utraque ideo sibi pene sullimia sunt; quia
ex uno alterum gignitur. Nam dum sementem in terram
ieceris; herba prius oritur. dehinc confota surgit in
arborem. et infra parvum tempus quam herbam
videras; arbustam suspicis. Arbusta dicitur quasi ar-
boris hasta. Alii arbustum dicunt locum in quo
arbores sunt. Sicut salicta et virecta. ubi salices et
virgule novelle et virentes habenter; Frutex bre-
vis est. appellatus. quod terram frond tegat. cuius
It is believed that the names of the trees or herbs are bent from the fields, because they adhere to the fixed roots of the earth. Both are therefore almost superior to each other; because from one the other is born. For while you cast the seed into the ground; the grass first rises, after that it grows into a tree, and in a little while you saw the grass; you look at the bush. A bush is said to be like a spear of a tree. Others say a bush is a place where there are trees. Like willows and greens, where willows and twigs are young and green; A short bush s is called the leaf that covers the earth,
quia pagani ydola ibi consecrabant. Sunt enim nemora
arbores maiores. umbrose frondibus. Lucus est. densi-
tas arborum alta. vocata hoc nomine eoquod exiliat in
altum. et in sullime consurgat. Inscicio dicitur; cum insciso
trunco surculus arboris sterilis inseritur. Plante
sunt de arboribus plantaria. Vere ex semine nata sunt
cum radicibus et a terra propria transferuntur. Radix
appellatur quod quasi radiis quibusdam fixa in terris;
in profunda mergitur. Nam phisici dicunt parem esse
altitudinem radicum et arborum. Truncus est statura
arboris insistens radici. Corticem veteres corucem
vocabant. dictus cortex; quod corio lignum tegat
Liber est corticis pars interior. dictus a liberato cortice id est
ablato. Est enim medium quiddam inter lignum et cor-
ticem. Rami sunt; qui de trunco manant. Surculi a
prescidere sere nuncupati. Virgultum est quod de radice
pullulat. Ramus de ipso arboris robore. virgaque de
ramis. Proprie autem virgultum nuncupatur; quod ad ra-
dicem arboris nascitur. et quasi inutile ab agricolis ampu-
the plural of which; the name of the bush Nemus was named after the gods because the pagans consecrated idols there. For the groves are larger trees, with shady leaves. It is a forest, a dense thicket of trees, called by this name because it leaps high and rises in the highest. It is said in ignorance; with the cut trunk a shoot of a sterile tree is inserted. Plantations are about trees. They are really born from seed with roots and transplanted from their own soil. It is called a root because it is fixed in the earth as if by certain rays; He sinks into the deep. For scientists say that the height of the roots and the trees is equal. A trunk is the height of a tree standing on the root. The ancients called the bark a deer, called a bark; which covers the wood with leather. The free is the inner part of the bark, the word "freed from the bark" means removed. For it is something between wood and bark. They are branches; which flow from the trunk. The shoots are called sere from cutting off. It is a bush that sprouts from the root. The branch is from the strength of the tree itself, and the rod from the branches. But it is properly called a bush; which grows at the root of a tree, and is cut off by the farmers as if it were useless.
litur. Virga a virtute dicitur. quia vim in se habeat
multam. Vel a viriditate. vel quia paucis indicium est;
quod vireat. Unde hac utuntur magi ad placandos
inter se presentes. et iccirco in ea hos sustinent illigatos.
Hanc etiam philosophi et reges et magistri et nuntii ac lega-
ti gestant. Flagella dicuntur summe arborum partes.
ab eo quod sustinent crebros ventorum flatus. Cu-
nas; quasi comas vocant. Folia filia grece dicuntur.
Unde ad nos hoc nomen dirivative translatum. flores
nominati; quod cito solvuntur de arboribus. In hiis duplex
gratia. coloris et odoris. Austro enim flores solvuntur. zephi-
ro fruuntur. Germen dicimus surculum pregnantem.
a generando. Unde et generatio fructus nomen acce-
pit. a frumine id est eminente gutteris parte. qua ves-
cimur. et sapores discernimus. Unde et fruges. Fructus
autem proprie dicuntur agrorum et arborum quibus uti-
mur. In averillibus vero abusive et translative
fructum vocari. Poma dicta ab opimo id est copia
And hence the said bush; which is removed from the rod. The rod is called by virtue, because it has much power in it. Either from weediness, or because there is little information; that is green Hence the magicians use this to appease those who are present among themselves, and therefore they support them unbound in it. This is also worn by philosophers and kings and teachers and messengers and ambassadors. The highest parts of trees are called flagella, from the fact that they support the frequent blasts of the wind. Cradles; as if they call it hair. The leaves are called filia in Greek. Whence this name is derived to us, being called flowers; which are quickly released from the trees. In these two graces, color and smell. For in the south the flowers are opened, and the zephyr is enjoyed. We call a branch a pregnant shoot, from generating. Whence also the generation of fruit took its name, from the grain, that is, the protruding part of the throat, by which we eat and distinguish flavors. Hence the crops. But the fruits are properly called the fields and trees which we use. In fact, the branches are abusively and figuratively called fruit. The apple is said to be rich in abundance.
tuntur in lumen. Unde et lignum dicitur; quod lu-
men dat. Torris lignum est. lignum adustum. quod
vulgo ticionem vocant. foco semiustum et stractum.
Palma dicitur quia victricis manum ornat
vel quia in modum palme hominis;
oppansis est. Est enim arbor insignis proceroque ac
decoro virgulto diuturiusque vestita frondibus. folia
sua sine ulla succensione conservans. Hanc greci;
phenicem dicunt. quia phenix est avis que mul-
to tempore vivit in arabia. Quia palma dum(changed to cum)
in multis locis nascatur; non tamen in omnibus fructus
percipit maturitatem. Frequenter autem in egypto
et in siria. Fructus autem eius sunt dactili. a simili-
tudine digitorum quam habent nuncupati. quibus pasti
sunt olim heremite in egypto et siria et inheremis.
Dactili sunt grossi. sanguinis generativi. calidi et
humidi sunt; et difficiles digestioni. Et si sepe com-
The trees were called; because when they are kindled they are turned into light. Hence it is called wood; which gives light. Toris is wood, burnt wood, which is commonly called tition, half-burnt and spread over the hearth.
The palm is called because it adorns the hand of the victor, or because it resembles the palm of a man; it is oppanes. For it is a remarkable tree, a tall and beautiful bush clothed with long leaves, keeping its leaves without any succession. This the Greeks; they say phoenix, because the phoenix is a bird that lives for a long time in Arabia. Because the palm grows in many places; yet he perceives not in all fruits the ripeness. But frequently in Egypt and Syria. And its fruits are dactyls, so called from the likeness of their fingers, on which the hermits once fed in Egypt, Syria, and the Heremis. Dactyls are thick, generative of blood, warm and moist; and difficult to digest. And if they are fed by the fence;
nem. duriciem. grossitiem. et tumorem. Gingivis et
dentibus sunt nocivi. et dolorem faciunt in ore
stomachi. Quidam in frigida. quidam in calida. qui-
dam in mediocri regione nascuntur. Nomine palme
aliquando dicitur iusticia et victoria vitiorum et mundi
aliquando corona et retribution vite eterne que victoribus de-
betur. ut p3 in .viio. libro. quarte partis pantheologi. ca-
pitulo. lxxxi. ;
they cause constipation, hardness, coarseness, and swelling of the liver and spleen. They are harmful to the gums and teeth, and cause pain in the mouth of the stomach. Some are born in cold, some in hot, and some in moderate regions. By the name of the palm it is sometimes called justice and the victory of vices, and sometimes the crown and retribution of the eternal life which is due to the victors, as p3 in the eighth book, the fourth part of the Pantheology, chapter 631.
Hazel, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f122r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Its leaves are hairy, double toothed, and pointed at the tip. Hazel is "monoecious" which means that both male and female flowers are found on the same tree, and must be pollinated by pollen from other hazel trees.
Hazel leaves provide food for the caterpillars of moths, and hazel nuts are eaten by dormice to fatten up in preparation for hibernation, and in spring, they also feed on the caterpillars. Hazel nuts are also eaten by a variety of wild birds and small mammals. Hazel flowers provide early pollen as a food for bees, however, bees have difficulty in collecting the pollen, because the grains are not sticky and actually repel against each other, and therefore, the bees can only gather it in small quantities.
Hazel has long been considered a magical tree. A rod of hazel is reputed to protect against evil spirits, and it is frequently used as a wand, and for water divining. In certain areas of England, hazel nuts were carried as protective charms, or held to prevent rheumatism. In medieval times, the hazel was a symbol of fertility.
Transcription
Translation
latur; quod umbra vel stillicidium foliorum
eius proximis arboribus noceat. Hanc alio nomine
latini iuglandem vocant. quasi iovis glandem
Fuit enim hec arbor consecrata iovi. cuius pomum tantam
vim habet; ut missum inter suspectos herbarum vel
succorum cibos; quicquit eis virulentum est; exudet
rapiat et extinguat. Nuces autem generaliter
dicuntur omnia poma. corio duriori tecta. Ut
pinee nuces. avellane. glandes. castane. amig-
dale. Hinc et nuclei dicti; quod sub duro cortice
sunt tecti. Omnia poma mollis corticis; dicuntur
mala. sed cum adiectione terrarum; in quibus
antea nata fuerant. Ut persica. punica. matia-
na. citonia et cetera. Malus enim grece sic dicitur;
quod sit fructus eius pomorum omnium rotundis
simus. Unde hec sunt vera mala; que vehemen-
ter rotunda sunt. Mala maciana; sunt a lo-
co vocata. unde prius adnecta sunt. Hec sunt
Corilus is a tree, the fruit of which is called a nut, and so it is called; that the shade or the dripping of its leaves may harm the neighboring trees. By another name the Latins call this walnut, as it were Jupiter's acorn. For this tree was consecrated to Jove, whose apple has so much power; as sent among the suspected foods of herbs or juices; He says to them that he is violent; it sheds, seizes, and extinguishes. Nuts are generally said to be all apples covered with a harder skin. As pine nuts, hazelnuts, acorns. chestnut, almond Hence the said nucleus; that they are covered under a hard bark. All apples with soft skin; they are called evils, but with the addition of worlds; in which they had previously been born. As persica, punica, matiana, citonia and others. For evil is so called in Greek; that we are the fruit of his all round apples. Hence these are true evils; which are very round. Macian evils; they are called from the place from which they were first attached. These are what
ve soctanea mala sunt ucata sic; ab urbe ci-
doma. magistra umbium cretensium de qua
verunt. Ex quorum pomorum genere fit diace-
tonicum. Fit quoque ex eo vinum quo languentium
desideria falluntur. Nam specie et gustu. et
odore; cuiuslibet vini veteris imagynem represen-
tatj; Malum punicum dicitur; quodex punica
regione. sit allatum; Idem dicitur malum grana-
tum. eoquod intra rotunditatem corticus granorum
sit multitudo. Dicunt quidam malum punicum
dici; quod corticem habeat rubeum. Et verum
quidem est. quod malum illud punicum quod
radio solis illustratur; corticem habeat rubeum
et grana rubea. Quod autem soli non appropin-
quat; album habet corticem. et alba grana; sepe.
we commonly call apples. Citomas or soctanes are bad things like this; from the city of Cidoma, the teachers of the Cretan umbilical cords, from which they came. Diacetone is made from the type of apples. Wine is also made from it by which the desires of the languishing are deceived. For in appearance and taste and smell; represent the image of any old wine. It is called evil punishment; from the pink region, let it be brought. The same is called a pomegranate apple, because there is a multitude of grains within the roundness of the cortex. Some say that evil should be punished; which has a red bark. And it is indeed true that that punitive evil which is illuminated by the rays of the sun; it should have a red rind and red grains. But that does not approach the sun; It has a white bark, and white grains.
Lambruscam, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The first wines were produced with wild grapes, those that nowadays we define as “no trained” vines. Romans drank the ancestor of Lambrusco even in the sparkling version, through a re-fermentation in amphora: after they filled it and well corked, they put the amphora underground or immersed in cold water, so in this way they could keep the lower temperature of the wine. In order to make it sparkling, they put it in a thermic condition with the higher temperature and after some days it was ready to be drunk.
The vine of Lambrusco found an excellent fitness especially in the area of Modena, as it is confirmed by findings of seeds, showing these wild grapes were known also to the Etruscans and to ligures Gauls.
Transcription
Translation
Lambrusca is a vine, so called; which is born in the ends and lips of roads and lands. Or the fruit of the uncultivated vineyard. And it mystically signifies the bitterness of vices;
Ivy, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff121r-121v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Folio
There is a popular belief that ivy strangles trees, but this is a misconception, ivy causes no harm to trees whatsoever, and in fact, it supports at least fifty species of wildlife. There are two sub species of ivy in Britain, Hedera helix ssp. helix, which climbs, and Hedera helix ssp. hibernica, which is ground spreading.
Only mature plants produce flowers, and these are a yellowish green, which grow in dome shaped clusters. It also produces fruits, which are like black berries, growing in clusters. The nectar, pollen and berries, provide an important food source for insects and birds during autumn and winter. The berries have a high fat content, which ids nutritious for birds, and ivy provides shelter for insects, birds, bats and other small mammals.
Wearing a wreath of ivy leaves around the head, was reputed to prevent people from getting drunk. Bacchus, the Roman god of intoxication, is often depicted wearing a wreath of ivy and grapevines. Ivy was also a symbol of fidelity, and it was customary to present newly wed couples with a wreath of ivy, today ivy is still included in bridal bouquets. In ancient Rome, ivy symbolised intellectual achievement.
Transcription
Translation
claviculis et quibusdam anulis se muris vel ar-
boribus stringens et tenens; ut crescat in immen-
sum. Ramis infinitus dilatatur. Semper foliis;
viret. Medicaminibus; tum foliis tum fructibus
apta. Arbor amara. sed aspectur iocunda;
Unea ex multis vitibus constat. Singule enim
arbores singule sunt vites. Vitus dicta; quod se
muicem vites vitis innectant. viscinisque arboribus
reptando religentur. Est enim earum natura;
The ivy is a tree that creeps up in height or in width, fastening and holding itself to walls or trees with pegs and certain rings; that it may grow into an immeasurable one. The branches spread endlessly. Always leaves; green Medicines; suitable both for leaves and fruits. A bitter tree, but a pleasant sight. A union consists of many vines. For every tree is every vine. The vine called; that the vines of the vine entwine themselves with the vines, and the vines are tied by creeping to the trees. For it is their nature;
derint; stringitur. Caprioli enim dicuntur quidam cincin-
ni. qui capiunt arbores. quibus vites se innectunt.
et suspendere solent; arboribus. Quo ammi viculo
freti palmites ventos ac turbines sustinere que-
ant. et sine lapsus periculo fructus suos sustineant.
ac sese vaga proceritate defendant. Hunc quoque
vites coralos id est anulos. qui proxima ligant et
comprehendunt. ne longius laxati palmites; ventorum
flatibus dissipentur. Hunc quoque vites pampinos.
id est lata folia de vite pendentia. quorum subsidio
fructus a frigore vel ardore defenditur. atque adver-
sus omnem iniuriam munitur. Quid pampinus ali-
cubi interscisus est; ut solem ad maturitatem fruc-
tus admittat;
flexible, as if they grasped anything with some arms; is tied For certain locks are called roes, which take hold of trees. with which the vines bind themselves, and are wont to suspend them; trees That the palm-trees, supported by the village, may withstand the winds and the storms, and may support their fruits without the danger of falling, and may they defend themselves with a wandering prostrate. This also the coral vines, that is, the rings, which bind and hold close together, lest the palms should be loosened farther; they are scattered by the blasts of the wind. This also has the vines, that is, broad leaves hanging from the vine, by means of which the fruit is protected from cold or heat, and is fortified against all injury. What a fringe is cut off somewhere; to allow the sun to ripen the fruit.
Pear, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f121r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The pear tree has oval pointed leaves with toothed edges and long stalks, and are light green in spring, turning yellow and then black in autumn. The bark is grey-brown and broken into small square shapes. The fruits grow on long stalks, ripening to a golden yellow colour, with sweet grainy textured flesh.
The fruit is a valuable food source for birds such as the thrush and blackbird, and the foliage provides a perfect habitat for caterpillars, providing food and shelter as they transition into moths and butterflies.
Pear wood, is popular in the construction of woodwind instruments and is also used for wood carving. It does not retain colour, smell or flavour and is resistant to warping and splintering, making it a valuable material for kitchen utensils, spoons and stirrers.
Pear trees have been used for medicinal purposes. pear tree bark is believed to have analgesic properties when boiled, and has been used to relieve the pain caused by sprains, twists and bruises. Infusions made from dry leaves are believed to have diuretic and anti-inflammatory properties, and help to alleviate urinary pain and disorders of the bladder and prostate. The fruit and especially the skin contains multiple beneficial compounds and vitamin C, which stimulate the immune system and contributes towards healthy bones.
Pear trees can live for up to two hundred and fifty years, to the ancient Chinese, the pear symbolised immortality. the pear appears in the song the Twelve Days of Christmas, in which a 'partridge in a pear tree' was sent by the subject's true love on the first day of Christmas. Pear trees only feature in the English version of this song. In ancient Greece, the pear was dedicated to the Goddess Hera, who represented women, and in particular wives and fidelity in marriage. It has been suggested that because of the feminine shape of the fruit and its sweet flavour, the pear may have been associated with early fertility cults. While "fruits" are mentioned in the bible, there are no specific references to pears.
Transcription
Translation
et arbor et fructus. Poma pirus iumentis inposita;
et etiam pauca; vehementer dicuntur honerosa.
Pirorum frondes et rami; et ipsa pira stiptica sunt. Pi-
raque pontica et inmatura; sunt dura et grossa.
nec prosunt. nec saporis sunt boni. Matura sunt fri-
gida. et sicca. Pira ieiunis nociva sunt. precipue
si pontica sunt et multum sumantur et crebro. Sa-
turis prosunt et soluunt et cibaria inferius premunt;
Pirus is called from pir, which is that which tends to a cone; and the tree and the fruit. The apple of the pear is placed on the cattle; and also a few; They are said to be very honorable.
Pear leaves and branches; and the pears themselves are sticky. Piraque pontica and unripe; they are hard and coarse, neither useful nor of good taste. They are cold and dry when ripe. Fasting pears are harmful, especially if they are pontic and taken a lot and often. They are useful for satiety and loosening and press the food down.
Acknowledgements
With thanks for the researches of library volunteers Alan and Jean Minnerthey.
Ebony, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff120r-120v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Ebony is very dark brown to black in colour, the best quality is very heavy and nearly black. It is very hard and can be polished to a mirror finish; it is frequently used for cabinet work, inlaying, piano keys and knife handles. It was believed to react against poison, and for this reason was often used to make drinking cups.
Transcription
Translation
durescit inlapidem. Cuius lignum nigrum est. et cor-
tex lenis; ut lauri. Sed indicum; maculosum est;
in parvulus distinctionibus albis ac fulvis; Ethiopi-
Ebenus is born in India and Ethiopia, which was cut off; the stone hardens. Its wood is black, and its bark smooth; as a laurel But the indicator; it is spotted; in small distinctions of white and yellow; The
tum. sed est. nigrum. lene. corneum. Est autem mareoti-
cum; palus in india; unde venit ebenus. Unde lucanus. Ebe-
nus mareotica inquit. Ebenus autem in crepundiis illigatur;
ut infantem visu nigra non terreant;
Bdellium ut dicit plinius; est arbor aromatica;
magnitudine oleagina. cuius lacrima lucida. gustu
amara. boni odoris. sed odoratior infusione vini.
Dicit ysidorus quod bidella; indie et arabie arbor est.
cuius lacrima; melior arabica est. Est enim lucida. sub-
albida. lenis pinguis. et equaliter cerea. et que
facile molliatur. neque ligno vel terre commixta;
odoris boni. set amara. Nam ex indie; sordida est
et nigra. et maiori gleba. Adulteratur autem admix-
ta gummi que non ita amara est gustu. Bdellium
calidum est. et humidum. dissenterie repugnat
de acuta farmadna facte. Apostemata intrinsecus
sanat. lapides frangit. tussim mitigat. morsus
reptilium curat. Aceto remperatum. crepituram
ex eo unctam; solidat;
Acknowledgements
With thanks for the researches of library volunteers Alan and Jean Minnerthey.
Elm, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f120r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees that are widely found across the northern hemisphere. They can grow to a height of thirty metres, and live for one hundred years.
In mythology, the elm was associated with the underworld, melancholy and death, elm was traditionally used to make coffins. Elm was also used in a medicinal context; The inner bark of the elm was chewed or boiled to produce a liquid for treating colds and sore throats, and boiled bark was used to treat burns.
Transcription
Translation
midis; melius proficit. Nam in montanis et asperis
minus leta est. Solet esse. ulmus alta. et ramis patula. et
quasi vitis in latum protendi pt. Et significat sanctos et
doctores eu ecclesie. Unde ysaias. Ponam in deser-
tum abietem. ulmum et buxum simul;
Buxus a latinis corruptum nomen est. Pixos enim
appellatur a grecis. Arbor semper virens. et levita-
te materie elementorum apicibus apta. Unde
et scriptura. Scribe in buxo. Buxus quoque est. arbor
fortis. dura. et diuturna. mancis et arcubus ap-
ta. et semper foliis virens. Nomine buxi aliquando
dicuntur fortes doctores. aliquando fortes in seculo elati et
divites et florentes in mundo;
He received the name Elm; that in wet and humid places; better progress. For in the mountains and rough places it is less fortunate. It is usually an elm tree, tall and spreading branches, and spreading out like a vine. And it signifies the saints and teachers of the church. Whence Isaiah I will put it in the wilderness. elm and box together. Boxwood is a corrupted name from the Latins. For the Greeks call it Pixos. An ever-green tree, and the lightness of the material adapted to the tips of the elements. Hence the writing. Write in the box. There is also the boxwood, a strong, hard, and durable tree, suitable for bows and arrows, and always green with leaves. By the name of Buxi, they are sometimes called strong teachers, sometimes strong in the century, rich and flourishing in the world.
Pine, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff119v-120r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Pines are generally long lived, typically from one hundred years up to one thousand years, although some are known to have lived in excess of four thousand years. The wood of the pine is a softwood, commonly used in construction and for making furniture.
Pine seeds are an important food source for birds, squirrels and other small animals. They are also harvested and sold as "pine nuts" for human consumption.
Pine trees have also yielded other useful products; distilled pine resin produces turpentine, a well known solvent, and when mixed with tar water has been used by vets to rid animals of worms and parasites, to treat mange, and as an antiseptic, and stimulant for rheumatic swelling.
The resin has also been used externally by people to treat skin infections and joint inflammation. Pine needles have also been used traditionally by boiling in water to make an infusion for treating fever and coughs and urinary infections.
Around the world, the pine tree has existed as a cultural symbol over many centuries, representing longevity and wisdom, or fertility and life; it also a symbol of peace.
Transcription
Translation
etiam tece spius fructus sic vocata. Pinum enim acu-
tum antiqui acutum dicebant. Pinus dicitur picea;
quia picem desudat. In germanie autem insulis hu-
ius arboris lacrima electrum gignit. Gutta enim
defluens; rigore vel tepore; in soliditatem dures-
cit. et gemmam facit. de qualitate sua nomen acci-
piens id est succinum. eo quod suctus(changed to succus) sit arboris. Pinus
creditur prodesse que sub ea servantur. sicut ficus
nocere omnibus. Nomine pini dicuntur superbi et elati. et
divites seculi. Unde ysaias. Gloria libani ad te veniet
The pine tree is so called from the point of its leaves, and also from the fruit of the spies. For the ancients called the sharp pine sharp. A pine is called a spruce; because it sweats the pitch. And in the islands of Germany the tear of this tree produces amber. For a drop falling down; with stiffness or warmth; it hardens into solidity, and forms a gem, taking its name from its quality, that is, amber. because it is the sap of the tree. The pine is believed to be beneficial to those who are kept under it, just as figs are harmful to all. By the name of the pine they are called the proud and proud, and the rich of the ages. Whence Isaiah The glory of Lebanon will come to you together with the
fir and the boxwood and the pine.
Acknowledgements
With thanks for the researches of library volunteers Alan and Jean Minnerthey.
Holly, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff118v-119v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Holly trees can grow up to fifteen metres in height with a lifespan of up three hundred years. The wood of the holly is white, hard and fine grained, and can be stained and polished. It is used to make furniture, and more commonly, walking sticks.
Holly is a valuable resource for wildlife, providing nesting for birds, and dry leaves can be used by hedgehogs and other small mammals for hibernation. The flowers are a source of pollen and nectar for bees and other pollinating insects, and the berries are a vital food source for birds and small mammals in winter.
In western herbalism, the soothing medicinal qualities of holly have been used to reduce fever, swelling and arthritis. The berries, however are poisonous to humans, and although rarely fatal, may cause vomiting and diarrhea.
The holly tree is sacred in Celtic mythology, symbolising peace and goodwill. It is known to be resistant to lightning strikes, and so was planted near dwellings to protect people. In Christian symbology, the spiky holly leaves represent the crown of thorns worn by Christ , and the red berries drops of His blood. The evergreen of the leaves symbolise eternal life.
Transcription
Translation
illius fructum primum homines sibi in victum elege-
runt. Unde et poeta. Mortales primi ructabuant
gutture glandem. Quercus sive querinum dicitur
quod sub ea soliti erant dii gentium querentibus res-
The holly, as Ysidorus says, is called by the chosen one, because men first chose its fruit for their food. Hence the poet. The first mortals belched the bullet in their throats. It is called the oak or the plain because under it the gods of the nations used to give answers to their complainers.
legitur de quercu in ambre. sub qua habitav(dot under v)
abraham. que fertur usque ad constantini re-
gis imperium per multa secula perdurasse. Fructus
huius; galla dicitur. sicut dicit ysidorus. Ex quibus
unus agrestis. parva forma. sed pirmo corpore atque
nodoso. que medicaminibus et incaustis adhi-
betur. Altera levis ac lenis. et nimium perforata.
Lucernarum tantum usibus necessaria. Glandes
modo sunt cibus porcorum. et galle medicina
hominum. Glandes quoque in medicinam sumuntur
et sunt frigide et sicce. et ideo difficiles ad dige-
rendum. et constipant et urinam provocant.
et corporis sunt nutritive. quasi quedam grana
tarde de stomaco descendunt. propter fumum
spissum; dolorem capiti faciunt. Superficies earum
multum est. stiptica. Valent autem ad multas
infirmitates mulierum. Valent et ad sangui-
nis fluxum. Galla quoque est frigida et sicca. Alia
nondum matura et miper forata; pusilla est. alia
to judge A very old tree; as we read of the oak in amber, under which Abraham dwelt, which is said to have lasted for many centuries until the reign of King Constantine. The fruit of this; It is called galla, as Ysidorus says. One of them was a peasant, small in form, but with a smooth and gnarled body. which is used in cosmetics and incaustics. The other light and smooth, and too many holes. The lamps are only necessary for the uses. Bullets are but food for pigs, and cockles are medicine for men. Glands also are taken in medicine, and are cold and dry, and therefore difficult to digest, and constipate and provoke urination, and are nutritious for the body, like certain grains pertaining to redness and swelling; it is ripe.
fluxum sanguinis valet galla. et mulierum
multas infirmitates curat. Pulverizata et in
naribus insufflata; sanguinem inde fluentem sistit;
Terebintus est. arbor brevis; ut quidam dicunt.
Hec arbor generat resinam omnium refinarum
prestantiorem. Afferunt autem ex arabia. parthia.
Gall is effective against the flow of blood, and cures many infirmities of women. Powdered and blown into the nostrils; it stops the blood flowing from it. It is a gnarled, short tree; as some say. This tree produces a resin superior to all the refined ones. But they bring from Arabia, the Parthians.
Willow, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff118v-119v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Willows are shade tolerant and short lived. Weeping Willows are native to China and East Asia. Willow wood has a variety of uses including basket making, wicker furniture, boxes, brooms, and perhaps most famously, cricket bats.
Willow bark has medicinal properties, and has been used throughout history to treat pain, in particular, low back pain, osteoarthritis, headache, and some inflammatory conditions. The active medicinal ingredient in the willow bark is called "salicin", and is sometimes used as an alternative to asprin.
In folklore, willow branches were believed to ward off evil spirits, and were fastened over doorways to keep the occupants safe. Another piece of folklore said that if you knock your knuckles on a willow tree, this will banish bad luck. This is the origin of the saying "touch wood". Willow wood is often used to make water divining rods, and wands.
Willows are also mentioned in the bible; Psalm 137 begins: "By the rivers of Babylon—there we sat down, and there we wept when we remembered Zion. On the willows there we hung up our harps."
In this verse the willow symbolises loss, however in the verse from Ezekiel 17 below, the willow represents revival: "Then he took a seedling from the land, placed it in fertile soil; a plant by abundant waters, he set it like a willow twig."
Transcription
Translation
vigoris. Cuius natura est. ut etiam arefactum si
abluatur; virescat. Deinde excisum atque in
humo fixum; radicibus sese ipsum demergat.
Quercum et Ilicem ysidorus dicit diversas ar-
bores. et quercum ferre glandes gallas; et ilicem
ferre glandes. Set nos usum sequentes; eas pro
eisdem accipimus. discentes quod multi dicunt quod
galle et glandes in eadem arbore crescunt. Sed
galle sunt poma; glandes alii fructus eiusdem
arboris. Ilex ut dicit ysidorus dicitur ab electo. quia
illius fructum primum homines sibi in victum elege-
runt. Unde et poeta. Mortales primi ructabuant
gutture glandem. Quercus sive querinum dicitur
quod sub ea soliti erant dii gentium querentibus res-
legitur de quercu in ambre. sub qua habitav
abraham. que fertur usque ad constantini re-
gis imperium per multa secula perdurasse. Fructus
huius; galla dicitur. sicut dicit ysidorus. Ex quibus
unus agrestis. parva forma. sed pirmo corpore atque
nodoso. que medicaminibus et incaustis adhi-
betur. Altera levis ac lenis. et nimium perforata.
Lucernarum tantum usibus necessaria. Glandes
modo sunt cibus porcorum. et galle medicina
hominum. Glandes quoque in medicinam sumuntur
et sunt frigide et sicce. et ideo difficiles ad dige-
rendum. et constipant et urinam provocant.
et corporis sunt nutritive. quasi quedam grana
tarde de stomaco descendunt. propter fumum
spissum; dolorem capiti faciunt. Superficies earum
multum est. stiptica. Valent autem ad multas
infirmitates mulierum. Valent et ad sangui-
nis fluxum. Galla quoque est frigida et sicca. Alia
nondum matura et miper forata; pusilla est. alia
fluxum sanguinis valet galla. et mulierum
multas infirmitates curat. Pulverizata et in
naribus insufflata; sanguinem inde fluentem sistit;
Terebintus est. arbor brevis; ut quidam dicunt.
Hec arbor generat resinam omnium refinarum
prestantiorem. Afferunt autem ex arabia. parthia.
Said willow; that it leaps quickly, that is, it grows, a tough tree, apt to be conquered by vines. Of whose seed they say this is nature, as if one had drawn it into a cup; be deprived of children. set and makes women barren. It is soft, material and blank suitable for sculpture. And the wine of the willow is said to have much of this vigor. The nature of which is that even if it is washed it is dried; grow green Then it was cut down and fixed in the ground; he drowns himself in the roots. Ysidorus says that the oak and the holly are different trees, and that the oak bears galls. and at once to bear the bullets. Let us follow the custom; we take them for the same, learning that many say that galls and bullets grow on the same tree. But there are apples; acorns, other fruits of the same tree.
Acknowledgements
With thanks for the researches of library volunteers Alan and Jean Minnerthey.
Olive, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f117v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
They are generally short and squat, rarely exceeding fifteen metres in height. The trunks of olive trees are generally twisted and gnarled . The fruit of the olive tree are also called "olives", and are green or black depending on when they are harvested. 80% of olives are used for the production of olive oil. Olives grown for consumption are known as "table olives".
The olive tree is a symbol of friendship and reconciliation, healing and light; an olive branch is a symbol of peace. In the bible there are several references to olive oil being used for annointing, cleansing and healing. Mark 6.13 says:
They cast out many demons, and anointed with oil many who were sick and cured them.
In the story of Noah's ark, the dove returning with an olive branch is seen as a symbol of new hope for mankind.
Olive oil is also mentioned in the bible as a fuel for lamps, soaking the wicks and giving light. The word "olive" in Greek means "to shine". The Hebrew word for olive tree is "es shemen" which means "tree of oil".
Transcription
Translation
The olive tree, or olive tree, is a symbol of peace. And although the
proprie dicitur arbor olea; ab oleon greco nomine.
Oliva dicitur fructus. Succus; oleum. Cuius fructus diver-
sis nominibus appellatur. Oleum autem quod fit ex
albus olivis; vocatur spanum. Quod ex fulvis et non-
dum maturis (dicitur commune dots underneath) exprimitur; appellatur
viride. Quod vero ex nimium maturis; dicitur 9e.
Ex hiis ad usum vite; primum est. spanum. Secundum viride
Tercium commune. Lucinie vocantur quedam
olive; eoquod optimam dent lucem; Unde et lignum;
lichinus dicitur. idest lumen. quia aptum est flam-
mis et luminibus.
Oeaster est foliis olive similibus. sed latioribus;
arbor inculta atque silvestris. amara et infructuosa.
Cui insertus ramus olive; mutat vim radicis. et ver-
tit eam in propriam qualitatem. Lacrima oleastri
arboris; duplex. Alia enim gummi similat sine ullo
qualitatis morsu. alia ammoniaci guttam ex distitia-
tionem(m has dot under) collectam ac remordentem;
Salix dicta; quod celeriter saliat id est crescat. arbor
dicunt esse. naturam. ut si quis illud in poculo hau-
serit; liberis careat. set et feminas infecundas
efficit. Mollis est. materies et blank(ad added above) sculturam apta.
name olive is taken in a mixed way in the scriptures, yet it is properly called the olive tree; from the Greek name oleon.
The olive is called a fruit. Juice, oil. The fruit of which is called by different names. And the oil which is made from white olives; it is called spanum. That which is said to be yellow and not yet ripe is commonly expressed; it is called green. But it is said that they are too ripe.
Avoid using these; the first is the spanum. According to the third common green. Lucinia is called a certain olive; for that they give the best light. Hence the wood; it is called lichinus, that is, light, because it is suitable for flames and lights.
Oester has olive-like leaves. but with wider ones; an uncultivated and wild tree, bitter and fruitless.
To which an olive branch was inserted; it changes the power of the root, and turns it into its proper quality. The tears of the olive tree; double. For some resemble gum without any bite of quality, others a drop of ammonia collected from distition and repulsive.
Acknowledgements
With thanks for the researches of library volunteers Alan and Jean Minnerthey.
Conifer, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, ff117r-117v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Conifers are evergreen trees with seed-bearing cones. Conifers are primarily cultivated for their timber, which is a softwood, and used in various ways including construction, and the production of paper.
The name "conifer" is a Latin word, being a compound of "conus" (cone) and "ferre" (to bear). Conifers can be found all over the world but most often in the cooler Northern Hemisphere. Conifers can range in height from one metre to over one hundred metres.
In Celtic mythology, fir trees represent truth, honesty, strength, hope and wisdom.
Transcription
Translation
ge et in excelsum promineat. Cuius natura expers est
terreni humoris. Atque ideo habilis et levis habetur
De qua virgilius. Et casus abies insura marmos. Quia
ex ea naves fiunt. Et est candida et sine nodo.
Cipressus grece. dicitur; quod capud eius a rotun-
ditate in cacumen erigitur. Unde et conus vocatur.
idest alta rotunditas. Hinc et fructus eius conum dicitur
quia rotunditas eius talis est; ut conum imitetur. Unde
et conifere cypressi dicuntur. Huiusmodi lignum cedro
bus aptum; inpenetrabili solitudine(dots underneath) soliditate;
numquam honeri cedit. sed ea quam inprincipio fuerat solidita-
te; perseverat; Antiqui ramos cipressi prope rogum in -
quo dampnati urebantur; ponere solebant. ut odorem
cadaverum dum urerentur; opprimerent iocunditatem
sui odoris. Est enim cypressus odorifera arbor. alta. inpu-
tribilis. viriditatem. et iocunditatem come sue; nullo ven-
torum inpulsu; umquam amittens. Apta quoque medici-
ne humane; ut ferunt medici. Habet mediocritatem
calidi et sicci. Huius poma cum sunt recencia; inscisionem
noviter factam; consolidant et crepituram. Et si emplastra
ex eis fiant. et super testiculos pnantur; intestino
ad texticulos descendendi; repugnant. Frondes eius eius
cum aceto trite; capillos tingunt. Et multis aliis est
utilis hec arbor. Nomine cipressi significantur sancti virtutum
culmine eminentes. Unde in canticis. Tigna domorum
nostrarum; cedrina. laquearia cipressina;
The fir tree is said to go far ahead of other trees and to stand out on high. The nature of which is expurgated by earthly humor. And therefore it is considered handy and light. Of which Virgilius And the fall of the fir insures the marbles. Because ships are made of it. And it is white and without a knot. In Greek, it is called cypress; because its head is raised from its roundness to the top. Whence it is called a cone, that is, a deep roundness. Hence also its fruit is called a cone, because its roundness is such; to imitate a cone. Hence the conifers are called cypresses. A wood of this kind has almost the same strength as cedar, and is suitable for the beams of temples; impenetrable solitude with solidity; he never yielded to honor, but to that which he had been unprincipled with firmness; he continues The ancient branches of the cypress near the pyre, on which the damned were burned; they were wont to put it in order to smell the corpses while they were burning; they would be overwhelmed by the pleasantness of their smell. For the cypress is a fragrant tree, tall, incorruptible, green, and pleasant to its fruit; by no impulse of the winds; ever losing Suitable also for human medicine; as the doctors report. It has a moderate temperature of hot and dry. When the fruits of this are fresh; a newly made incision; they consolidate and crack. And if plasters are made of them, and placed over the testicles; to descend to the bowels; they are incompatible Its leaves are ground with vinegar; they dye their hair. And this tree is useful to many others. By the name of the cypress are signified the saints standing at the height of virtue. Hence in the songs. The logs of our houses; cedar, ceiling cypress.
Acknowledgements
With thanks for the researches of library volunteers Alan and Jean Minnerthey.
Cedar, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f117r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
The Cedar is a large evergreen coniferous tree which can grow to a height of thirty five metres or more. It has a very distinctive shape, with clearly defined horizontal layers of grey-green foliage.
They are native to the Western Himalayas, and the Mediteranean, it also grows in Lebanon, where it is the national emblem, and appears at the centre of the Lebanese flag.
In ancient times, Cedar was used in the construction of temples and other major buildings, due to it's size and durability.Cedar wood is also the source of an essential oil which was used to make cough medicines, ointments and antiseptic, and it was also used in Egypt for embalming. In Lebanon, cedar wood is used as an insect repellent.
In several ancient cultures and traditions, cedar is spiritually associated with peace, protection and purification. Cedar also represents incorruptibility, and eternal life, and it was a Jewish custom to burn cedar wood to celebrate New Year. There are several references to cedar trees in the bible:
He would speak of trees, from the cedar that is in the Lebanon
1 Kings 4.33
The mountains were covered with its shade, the mighty cedars with its branches
Psalm 80.10
the scent of your garments is like the scent of Lebanon.
Song of Songs 4.11
Transcription
Translation
humor ardentis. Huius folia cipressi similitudinem cypressi habent.
Lignum est iocundi odoris. et diu durans. nec a tinea
unquam exterminatur. De qua persius. Et cigno digna lo-
cutus est. scilicet propter durabilitatem et perpetuitatem;
Et est arbor magna et alta. cuius resina cedria dicitur.
Que in conservandis libris adeo est utilis; ut perlini-
ti ex ea; nec tineas paciantur; nec tempore conse-
nescant. Nascitur in creta. affrica. et in siria.
It is called cedar. What the Greeks call cedars is the burning moisture of the tree. The leaves of this cypress resemble a cypress. It is a wood of pleasant odor, and lasting a long time, and is never exterminated by the moth. Of which more And he spoke worthy of a swan, namely, because of its durability and perpetuity. And there is a great and tall tree, the resin of which is called cedar. It is so useful in preserving books; as perlintine from it; nor do they make peace with moths; nor should they come to an end in time. It is born in chalk, Africa. and in Syria.
Acknowledgements
With thanks for the researches of library volunteers Alan and Jean Minnerthey.
Thyme, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
Rochester Bestiary, f116v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.
Thyme is indigenous to the Mediterranean region. Ancient Egyptians used thyme for embalming; the ancient Greeks used it in their baths, and burnt it as incense in their temples, believing it was a source of courage. The spread of thyme throughout Europe was thought to be due to the Romans, as they used it to purify their rooms. In the middle ages, women often gave knights and warriors gifts that included thyme leaves, as it was believed to bring courage to the bearer. Thyme was also used s incense, and placed on coffins during funerals as it was supposed to assure safe passage to the next life.
Thyme grew prolifically in the Holy Land. Because of its abundance, it was used as food for the animals, and is said to be one of several plants that would have filled the manger in which the infant Jesus was laid.
Transcription
Translation
sed multo candidiora. et fulgentia valde. et inputri-
bilia. et spinosa; in similitudinem albe spine. Dicitur
quidam quod aliud sit timus arbor. alius tinius sive
timum; herba vel frutex. cuius flosodorem refert. De
qua herba dicit virgilius. Redolentque timo. fragran-
tia mella. Epitimum grecum nomen est quod latine dicitur
flos timi. Nam flos grece; timum vocatur. Est autem
flos timbre similis. Tima ligna significant predicatores.
Sethui sive ligna sethin; sunt semper durabilia.
incorrupta. munda. perfecta. fortia. unde habent signi-
ficare perpetuitatem. durabilitatem. invincibilitatem;
We are afraid or we are afraid of wood; they are round, like pine trees, but much whiter, and very shining, and incorruptible, and thorny; in the likeness of a white thorn. It is said by some that a tree is one thing; a herb or bush, whose flowery smell it bears. Of which herb Virgilius says. They smell of thyme, the fragrance of honey. Epitimo is a Greek name which in Latin is called the flower of Thyme. For a flower in Greek; it is called fear. And the flower is like a stamp. Tima trees represent preachers.
Sethui or sethin wood; they are always durable, uncorrupted, clean, perfect, strong, whence they have to signify perpetuity, durability. invincibility.
Acknowledgements
With thanks for the researches of library volunteers Alan and Jean Minnerthey.
